LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



THE 



DOMESTIC CYCLOPEDIA 



OP^ 



PRACTICAL INFORMATION 



FOR 



POPULAR USE. 



TODD S.GOODHOLME, 

ASSISTED BY A LARGE CORPS OF EMINENT CONTRIBUTORS. 



IXiXjTJST:EaA.TJE3ID. 



COMPLETE IN ONE VOLUME 




HARTFORD : 

S. S. SCRANTON & CO 
1880. 



7T 






Copyright, 1880, 
By S. S. SCRANTON & CO. 



CONTRIBUTORS. 

Among the Contributors to this invaluable work, are the following, who 
are acknowledged authorities upon the subjects they treat : 

CALVERT VAUX, Architect of the Central Park, 

Locating, Building, and Repairing. 

THOMAS WISEDELL, Architect, 

Locating, Building, and Repairing. 

LEWIS LEEDS, Sanitary Engineer, 

Wanning and Ventilation. 

COL. GEORGE E. WARING, of Ogden Farm, 

Drainage, The Garden, The Dairy. 

GEORGE FLETCHER BABB, Architect, 

Decoration, as applied to Walls, Floors and Furniture 

MRS. ELIZABETH S. MILLER, Author of '' In the Kitchen," 

Cooking and Domestic Management. 

GUISEPPI RUDMANI, Teacher in the Cooking School, St. Mark's Place, 
New York, 

Cooking and Domestic Management. 

AUSTIN FLINT, Jr., M. D., Professor in Bellevue Medical College, 

Dietetics and Alcoholic Beverages. 

ABRAHAM JACOB!, M. D., Professor in the College of Physicians and 
Surgeons, 

Diseases and Hygiene of Children. 

WILLIAM T. LUSK, M. D., Professor in Bellevue Medical College, 

General Medicine. 
S. G. PERRY, D. D. S., 

The Teeth. 

ELWYN WALLER, Ph. D., Superintendent of Laboratory in the Columbia 
College of Mines, 

Domestic Chemistry, Disinfecting, Cleaning, Dyeing &c. 

LESLIE PELL CLARKE, Veterinary Surgeon of Ogden Farm, 

The Horse. 

JOHNSON T. PLATT, Professor in the Yale Law School, 

Business Forms and Legal Rules. 



DOMESTIC CYCLOPEDIA. 



• hi searching for a Recipe, or any other topic, you will be more apt to find it under 
the general term {or noun) than under the qualify ijig term. If you do not find it ttfider 
one head, look for it utider the other. For example : iji looking for Quince Preserves, turn 
first to PRESER VES, not to Quince; or for Oyster Sauce, to SA UCE, not to Oyster. 

If in glancing through an article, you do not find what you want, see if there is not, 
at the end, a cross-reference to sottie kindred article. 



ABRASION.— A rubbing off of the outer 
surface of the skin. Wash gently to remove 
foreign matter, grease with a little sweet oil 
or pure lard, and cover for a day with a cloth. 
Do not apply salt water, camphor, or any irri- 
tating remedy. 

ABSCESS. — An accumulation of pus or 
purulent matter following inflammation of any 
tissue of the body. A superficial abscess is 
preceded by redness and swelling. Taken 
early it can often be dispersed. Rest the 
part, bathe it with warm lotions, and, if the 
skin be very tense, moisten it with a mixture of 
three parts of sweet oil and one of vinegar, 
or a wash of two drams of sugar of lead, one 
dram of powdered opium, and a pint of water, 
and cover with a piece of wax plaster. In 
great pain apply a soft poultice, renewed 
several times a day. When the abscess is ripe, 
open with a lancet. For so-called abscesses 
in the head, see Ear. 

ABSINTHE.— An alcoholic tincture of the 
leaves of the Absinthe, or wormwood, the 
roots of lingwood and aromatic cane, aniseed, 
leaves of dittany, origan, fennel, mint and 
balm mint, and a little essence of cumin. It 
is used largely by the French. Taken habi- 
tually in excess, it is apt to lead to softening 
of the brain and general paralysis. 

ACACIA. — The Flowering Acacia. A 
small tree very pretty in foliage, growing any- 
where and always flowering well. When in 
bloom, in June, it is covered with a profusion of 
pea-shaped pinkish white flowers clustered on 
short stems. 

Rose Acacia, smaller than the flowering, 
but more beautiful. It has clustered branches 
of pink pea-shaped flowers ; is easily grown, 
and requires no attention. It should be trained 
to a single stem, but its tendency to throw up 
suckers renders it troublesome in a small garden. 

ACCIDENTS.— Professor Wilder, of Cor- 
nell University, gives these short rules for 
action in case of accident : — 

For dust in the eyes, avoid rubbing ; dash 
cold water in them ; remove cinders, etc., with 
the round point of a lead pencil. 

Remove insects from the ear by tepid water; 
never put a hard instrument into the ear. 



If an artery is cut, compress it above the 
wound ; if a vein is cut, compress it below. 

If choked, go upon all fours and cough. 

For slight burns, dip the part in cold water ; 
if the skin is destroyed, cover with varnish. 

For apoplexy, raise the head and body ; for 
fainting lay the person flat. 

For more detailed remedies in special cases 
see articles on each of the above and on 
Abrasion, Bandages, Bleeding, Bruises, 
Burns, Cuts, Dislocations, Drowning, 
Fractures, Frost-bite, Poisons, Scalds, 
and Sprains. 

ACCOUNT. {See Bill.) 

ACIDS — Vegetable Acids exist in many 
substances used as food. They are sour to the 
taste, but may be so diluted with water that the 
sourness is not perceptible ; but if a piece of 
hlue li/mr/s paper {to he had at the druggists,) 
be dropped in, its color will be changed to red. 
The principal domestic acids are the follow- 
ing: 

Acetic Acid, represented by Vinegar. 

Citric Acid, giving their sourness to the 
lemon, orange, citron and cranberry, and, mixed 
with malic acid, existing also in the gooseberry, 
red-currant, strawberry, raspberry, and cherry. 
It is extracted from lemon juice, and sold in 
the form of crystals, which can be re-dissolved 
in water, flavored with a little essence of lemon 
and so used as an artificial lemon juice. 

Malic Acid, the peculiar acid of apples, but 
found in most American fruits, and in tomatoes. 

Oxalic Acid. Poison. {See Oxalic Acid.) 

Tannic Acid combines with iron and forms 
the basis of most writing inks. It is found in^ 
the bark of many trees, and in gall nuts, has ai 
weak acid taste, and is astringent and bitter. 

Tartaric Acid, found in a pure state in 
grapes, and some other fruits. It is a cheap 
substitute for citric acid, but inferior. It is one 
of the two ingredients composing the Soda or 
Seidlitz Powders. 

AERATED BREAD.— Not made in the 
household but at some bakeries. After the 
dough is mixed, tubes are introduced into it 
and are connected with a reservoir containing 
carbonic acid gas, and this is mechanically 
injected throughout the bread to lighten it. 



AGAVE 



AIR 



The so-called aerated bread is deficient in fla- 
vor, and is less agreeable and digestible than 
home-made bread, or any other which has been 
raised with yeast in the ordinary way. {See 
Bread.) 

AGAVE. — A plant known popularly as the 
American aloe or "Century-plant," the latter 
name being given it on account of a mistaken 
idea that it blooms only once in a century. In 
this latitude it reaches maturity at a period 
varying from lo to 70 years, and then blooms 
once ; as soon as the flowers fall the plant 
withers and dies. The aloe is applied to many 
uses. Pulque, the well known Mexican liquor 
is made by fermenting the sap drawn from in- 
cisions in its stem, and from pulque is distilled 
a singularly fiery spirit known as Vino Mescal. 
A coarse sort of thread known as the pita flax, 
is made from the fibres of its leaves ; and from 
an extract of the leaves balls are made which 
lather in water Hke soap. It grows in moder- 
ately rich soil, and needs protection in winter. 

AGUE. — Ague, or Intermittent Fever, or 
" chills and fe'ver " as it is popularly called, is 
caused by a miasma believed to be due to de- 
caying organic matter. It is generated most 
abundantly in marshy ground, and is capable 
of being wafted along plains to a considerable 
distance from its source. There are three 
kinds : the Quotidian Ague, in which the parox- 
ysms come on every 24 hours ; the Tertian, in 
which they occur once in 48 hours ; and the 
Quartan, in which they occur once in every 72 
hours. Each paroxysm consists of a cold 
stage, generally beginning with pain in the 
head and loins, weariness of the limbs, a sen- 
sation of coldness in the extremities, stretch- 
ing and yawning, to which succeed shivering 
and violent shakings ; of a hot stage, in which 
there is intense fever, the skin becomes red, 
and very hot to the touch — the pulse being 
quick, full, and hard, accompanied with great 
thirst; and, finally, of the sweating stage, 
,in which perspiration comes on, first showing 
itself on the face and neck, and gradually ex- 
tending over the whole body. This latter 
always affords relief and marks the abatement 
'of the paroxysm. 

Treatment.— Quinine is the only remedy with- 
in reach of domestic medicine, in a dose of 10 
grains for an adult in the period immediately fol- 
lowing the sweating stage of the last paroxysm. 
It is desirable that sufficient quinine should be 
given to produce ringing of the ears. If this is not 
effected by the first dose it should be repeated 
in three or four hours. When the cold stage, 
or chill, appears, the patient should be put in 
bed, and covered sufficiently with bed-clothes. 
If the succeeding paroxysm is not prevented, 
the same course should be pursued. A third 
administration of quinine in large doses is 
rarely required. It is desirable to continue 
with the drug in doses of two grains three times 
a day for some weeks after the chills are 
broken. The bed-clothes should be removed 
as reaction sets in, and cooling drinks may be 
given if called for by the patient. Between the 



paroxysms the patient must be supported with 
food that is nourishing, but light and easy of 
digestion, such as veal or chicken broth, sago, 
rice, gruel with a little wine in it, light pud- 
dings, etc. A glass of light wine may also be 
taken now and then, and negus acidulated with 
lemon juice. As the chief object in treating 
ague is to brace and strengthen the system, the 
patient ought to take as much exercise between 
the paroxysms as he can bear, and not to give 
up to the indolence which is one of the accom- 
paniments of the disease. Change of air to a 
high and dry one is also excellent, and some- 
times it is the only method of cure. In severe 
cases of ague, other treatment is required, but 
they demand the skill of an experienced phy- 
sician. 

AIR. — The atmosphere in which we live is so 
thin and invisible, and so totally unlike other 
objects, that we are apt to forget that it is a 
real substance, possessed of weight and power 
of resistance, and that as one of the most es- 
sential of all foods, it plays an important part 
in the economy of life. We are immersed in this 
thin elastic fluid as a fish is in clear water, 
which to him is, no doubt, equally invisible, 
and it presses down upon the earth with a 
force proportionate to its weight. Upon every 
square inch of the earth's surface there rests 
about 15 lbs of air. Upon the body of a 
medium-sized man, having a surface of 2000 
sq. inches, the atmosphere presses with a force 
equal to 30,000 pounds ; a force which would 
crush him to atoms were it not that there is 
air also within the system which exerts an equal 
outward pressure, and thus prevents injury. 
Air consists of two elements, oxygen and nitro- 
gen, and a pair of co7;ipounds, Carbonic acid gas 
and vapor of water. Oxygen and nitrogen are 
by far the largest constituents, dry air contain- 
ing about "jj per cent, of nitrogen and nearly 
23 of oxygen ; but these gases are not com- 
bined as oxygen and hydrogen combine to 
form water, but are simply mixed together ; 
and although various influences tend to mix 
them so perfectly that the proportion in a given 
volume at different places is nearly the same, 
it is not absolutely so, and one of the gases 
may, with the greatest ease, be separated from 
the other. Such separation takes place, in 
fact, in breathing. We draw the air into our 
lungs, which divide it into its two component 
parts, retaining the oxygen, which then mixes 
with our blood and enters into our entire sys- 
tem,' while the nitrogen passes out of the 
body as it entered it without undergoing any 
change. Oxygen is one of the prime essen- 
tials of life, alike in animals and plants, and 
any material reduction of the proportion which 
it bears to the other atmospheric gases means 
death to every living creature. Nitrogen, 
on the other hand, is a negative or inert 
substance, its chief use being to dilute or 
temper the other active ingredients to a proper 
degree of strength. Here, then, is the princi- 
ple by which the relation of air to animal life 
is made plain. Pure air, in its normal condi- 



ALABASTER 



ALCOHOL 



tion, Contains about twenty parts of oxygen, 
seventy-nine of nitrogen, and one of aqueous 
vapor, and ^oiy '^^ carbonic acid gas ; and any 
causes which decrease the proportion of oxygen 
injure by so much its health-sustaining qualities. 
By breathing, and the burning of fuel and lights, 
large quantities of oxygen are removed from 
the air, while at the same time carbonic acid 
gas in nearly equal bulk takes its place. In 
the case of fuel, if the combustion is perfect, 
the air that has been changed is carried up the 
chimney ; but not so in respiration and illumina- 
tion, the air spoiled by these processes remains 
in the room unless removed by special ventila- 
ting arrangements. {See Ventilation and 
Warming.) Air is also contaminated in a con- 
siderable degree, as has already been hinted, 
by the exhalations of the human being. "Streams 
of subtle and almost intangible putrescent mat- 
ter," says Professor Youmans, " are, all through 
life, exhaling from each living animal body into 
the air. The fluid thrown from the lungs and 
skin is not pure water. It not only holds in 
solution carbonic acid, but it contains also 
animal jnatter the exact nature of which has not 
been determined." This source of contamina- 
tion becomes very obvious when in the morning, 
from the pure outer air, we enter an unventilated 
bedroom, where one or two people have slept 
the night before. Every one must have ex- 
perienced the sickening odor of such a room, 
and not only is the atmosphere vitiated, but 
two persons occupying a bed for eight hours 
impart to the sheets by insensible perspiration 
not less than a pound of watery vapor charged 
with latent animal poison. Gaseous exhala- 
tions of every sort also escape from the kitchen 
and from the cellar, if perishable substances 
be kept there, and are diffused through the 
house ; from the imperfect burning of gas-jets, 
also, there arise emanations most injurious to 
health. Stoves, furnaces, and steam pipes are 
fruitful sources of deterioration ; and the in- 
troduction of water closets into our houses, and 
the close connection of the sewers with our 
water pipes are new elements of danger. In- 
deed it is scarcely too strong an expression to 
say that every thought and act of man, every 
vital change in his body, and every process 
by which he regulates the condition of his daily 
life, is accompanied by the deterioration of 
the air upon which his health depends. The 
only remedy for all these evils lies in proper 
and adequate ventilation, in other words, in the 
providing of such artificial means as will insure 
the constant substitution of pure air for that 
whose oxygen has already been more or less 
consumed, and will prevent vitiated air from 
reaching the lungs. No subject in the entire 
range of hygiene and domestic economy is more 
important, and it is one which should engage 
the thoughtful attention of every head of a 
household. At this point we have only dealt 
with the principles of the subject ; their practi- 
cal application is indicated in the articles on 
Drainage, Ventilation, and Warming. 
ALABASTER. — A substance very similar 



to marble, but in its pure state more transpa- 
rent. There are two kinds. One is a carbonate 
of lime, and therefore of the same composition 
as marble, but has been formed in the manner 
of stalactites by water dripping in a cavern ; 
though very transparent, it is also hard, and 
consequently little used for sculpture. The other 
is a sulphate of lime, and the same substance as 
gypsum, from which plaster of Paris is made. 
Gypseous alabaster, being soft and easy to cut, 
and often very transparent and beautiful, is 
more employed in the manufacture of vases, 
clock-stands, statuary, and similar articles. 
Alabaster is apt to become yellow, especially 
if exposed to smoke, but may be restored by 
washing with soap and water (cold) and after- 
wards polishing with shave-grass. Grease spots 
may be removed by rubbing the places with 
powder of French chalk. As alabaster is very 
fragile, articles made of it, if valuable, should 
be kept under glass. Broken parts may be 
joined together again by quicklime mixed 
with white of egg to a paste. 

ALBUMEN. — A substance, familiarly rep- 
resented by the white of eggs, which exists 
abundantly in all animals, and in the juices, 
seeds, grain, and other parts of plants. It is 
by far the most important single element of 
food, since it contains nutritive matter in a com- 
pact and easily digestible form ; and being al- 
most without flavor may enter into the com- 
position of foods very diverse in other respects, 
whilst it is adapted to every variety of taste. 
Its composition is the same in all other forms 
as in the blood and tissues of man and other 
animals ; therefore it is incorporated into the 
system with the greatest ease, though it is ne- 
cessary that it first be decomposed, so as to form 
new combinations. White of eggs is almost 
pure albumen with four-fifths of water, and for 
this reason, an egg is in proportion to its weight 
the most nutritious article of food known to man. 
Though albumen exists naturally as an adhe- 
sive fluid, mixed with, and soluble in, water; 
yet when subjected to a temperature of 142°, 
it experiences a striking change in its properties ; 
as it is then converted into a solid no longer 
soluble in water, and if, after coagulation, it be 
gradually exposed to a higher temperature, it is 
reduced to a firm, transparent solid. Fluids, 
coffee in particular, are often clarified by means 
of albumen. When any kind of it, as white of 
eggs, is put into a muddy liquid, on boiling the 
liquid the albumen coagulates in a flaky man- 
ner, and, entangling with it the impurities, rises 
to the surface as scum, or sinks to the bottom, 
according to the weight of the fluid holding it. 

ALCOHOL. — The common and active prin- 
ciple in spirituous liquors, obtained from 
sugar by fermentation. When the produce of 
fermentation is distilled, the spirit, being ex- 
tremely volatile, rises in vapor, and in passing 
through a long cool tube is condensed into a 
liquid, which, however, is not pure alcohol, for 
a quantity of water and other impurities rise 
with it. It is necessary that it should be re- 
distilled and pass through other processes 



4 



ALE 



ALMONDS 



before it reaches that state in which it is 
called rectified spirit, or common spirii of 
wine, the purest form in which it is manufac- 
tured on a large scale, and the form in which it 
usually enters into alcoholic liquors. Few 
subjects have been more discussed and dis- 
puted about than whether alcohol and alcoholic 
beverages are entitled to rank as food or nutri- 
ment ; but the best opinion seems now to be 
that any such claim is inadmissible. They 
cannot, it is said, replace water in the system, 
because water is the appointed solvent within 
the living body, and the solvent powers of al- 
cohol are not the same as those of water ; what 
water dissolves, alcohol may not, and 7nce versa. 
Alcoholic liquids coagulate and precipitate the 
pepsin dissolved in the watery gastric juice, and 
if not quickly absorbed by the stomach into the 
blood, they would in this way put a stop to 
digestion. It is argued further that alcohol 
contains no nitrogen, and cannot, therefore, 
be transformed into tissvie or flesh. And the 
assumption that alcohol feeds respiration and 
supplies heat is met by the response that what 
heat it gives rise to, is immature and injurious, 
and that it acts in such a rapid way as to pro- 
duce excitement and irritation in the system. 
It causes temporary stimulation, but this is ex- 
tremely transient, and is followed by corre- 
sponding depression and retardation of the vital 
powers. This is a subject, however, which is 
dividing civilized nations into two hostile and 
opposing camps ; and since the various bever- 
ages into which alcohol enters — ardent spirits, 
wines, ale, beer, and the like — are in well-nigh 
universal use, it is enough to add that their 
only distinctive feature as compared to other 
foods lies in the possession of this element, 
and that their strength is estimated by the 
amount of it which they contain. Alcohol is also 
used as an illuminator, though not in its pure 
state {see Burning Fluid) ; its powerful 
solvent qualities make it extremely useful in 
medicine ; and it is much used by naturalists 
in preserving their "specimens," since it does 
not dissolve either albumen or muscular fibre. 
Its cleansing properties, especially where grease 
is to be removed, are well known to house- 
wives. 

ALE. — A liquor manufactured from malt, 
which is usually produced from the parched grain 
of germinating barley by a process explained 
in the article on Brewing. It can, however, be 
made from the dried germinating grain of 
wheat and other cereals ; any substance con- 
taining sugar being capable of yielding a wort 
or solution which may be fermented and con- 
verted into ale or beer. In several of the 
English pale ales the proportion of alcohol is 
as high as lo per cent., and the average is 
from 5 to 7 per cent. So that a pint of good 
ale contains the same amount of alcohol as a 
bottle of claret. These ales, with those of 
Scotland, are largely imported, and are general- 
ly much superior to the American product. 
Burton Ale, so called from the place where it 
is made, is one of the strongest and very pop- 



ular. It is of a somewhat thick, glutinous con- 
sistence, and sweetish to the taste ; and a small 
quantity of it produces intoxication in those 
who are not accustomed to it. The best. English 
ales are Bass and Allsopp's. Scotch Ale, espe- 
cially the Edinburgh brands, has a pale flavor ex- 
tremely vinous and very like some of the light 
French wines. It is mild in its effect, pale in 
color, and the taste of the hops does not pre- 
dominate as in the India Pale Ale (manufac- 
tured especially for the Indian market) and All- 
sopp's. Scotch ales are also said to be less 
liable to adulteration than the English. Amer- 
ican Ales are very light, rarely containing 
more than 3 per cent, of alcohol, and resemble 
what is known in England as "table beer." 
They are for the most part pure, however, and 
when fresh make a very mild and agreeable 
beverage. The best are made in the limestone 
districts of the Northwest. 

ALKALIES. — A class of substances com- 
mon to the mineral and vegetable kingdoms, 
and embracing some of our most familiar house- 
hold materials, such as soda, ammonia, and 
potash. They are distinguished by a very 
nauseous taste, called alkaline, which cannot 
be described but may be understood by tasting 
carbonate of soda ; they change vegetable blues 
to green, and yellow ones to brown, and they 
neutralize and reverse the action of acids, re- 
storing the blue color to such vegetable so- 
lutions as have been rendered red by them. 
Combined with acids, they produce the sub- 
stances known as Salts. Potash and soda are 
called fixed alkalies because they are not evap- 
orated by heat ; ammonia is the volatile alkali. 
With fats the fixed alkalies produce soaps. {See 
Ammonia, Potash, Soda, Soap.) 

ALLOPATHY.— A term invented by Hah- 
nemann to designate the ordinary practice, as op- 
posed to Homeopathy. {See Homeopathy.) 

ALLSPICE. — So called because it is 
thought to combine the flavor of cinnamon, nut- 
meg, and cloves. It is the berry of a handsome 
tree that grows to the height of twenty feet in 
the West Indies and South America. The 
fruit is not allowed to ripen, but is gath- 
ered while yet green ; when dried in the sun 
it becomes black. It is less expensive than the 
Oriental spices, is agreeably aromatic, and is con- 
sidered the most mild and harmless of the com- 
mon spices ; hence it is much used in cookery. 
The best comes from Jamaica. The essential 
oil of allspice is of a deep reddish-brown color, 
and extremely pungent ; and a few drops is suffi- 
cient to give a flavor to gravy or to mulled- 
wine 

ALMONDS. — There are two kinds of al- 
monds, the sweet and the bitter, but they are con- 
sidered to be only different varieties of the same 
species. The Sweet A hnond \?, much used in 
dessert and confectionery. The Valentia variety 
is sweet, large, flat-pointed at one extremity, 
and compressed in the middle. The Italian 
almonds are less sweet and smaller. The 
Syrian or Jordan come from Malaga and are 
the best. Hard-shell almonds are generally 



ALPACA 



AMERICAN WINES 



better than the soft-shell kinds, if for no other 
reason, because they are better preserved. The 
brown skin of the almond easily comes off by 
pressing with the fingers, when they are put 
into boiling water; they are then dried till they 
are brittle, and being white in the interior are 
said to be blanched. Their skin sometimes 
disagrees with the stomach, and for this reason 
almonds should be blanched when brought to 
the table as dessert. The bitter almond is used 
in flavoring many preparations. It should, how- 
ever, be very carefully used, as in process of 
distillation it produces a violent poison. 

Sauce (almond). — This is a Spanish dish. 
Blanch and pound sweet almonds ; then add 
enough Bechamel sauce to make it of the con- 
sistency of thickened gravy. When mutton 
chops are broiled pour this sauce over them and 
serve at once. 

Syrup (of almonds). — See Orgeat. 

ALPACA. — A description of cloth woven 
from the wool of the Alpaca, or South Ameri- 
can sheep, extensively manufactured in Eng- 
land and used chiefly for clothing. It is also 
much used as a covering for umbrellas, being 
more durable and finer than cotton and less 
expensive than silk. English alpaca is con- 
sidered the best, and comes in double and 
single widths. 

AMARANTH. — Globe Amaranth, one of 
the hardy garden annuals. It requires to be 
brought forward in a hot-bed, but when grown 
makes a fine plant which blooms all summer. 
The soil for it should be moderately rich and 
moist. The flowers are purplish-red, white, or 
orange ; and when dried form very pretty bou- 
quets for winter. They can generally be bought 
in pots at the florist's. 

ALTERATIVES. — This term is applied to 
medicines which are supposed to alter the nu- 
trition of the body without producing any phe- 
nomena. Thus, small doses of the mercurial 
preparations are regarded as alterative. 

AMBERGRIS. — A substance much used 
in the composition of perfumes. Its origin is 
not yet satisfactorily ascertained, but it is sup- 
posed to be a morbid secretion in the sperm- 
aceti whale, and is found usually on the sea- 
shore or floating on the sea. It is found occa- 
sionally in masses of fifty or one hundred ounces, 
but as a general thing the pieces are very much 
smaller. Ambergris is quite similar in appear- 
ance to amber ; but it is opaque, fatty, and in- 
flammable, remarkably light, melts readily when 
subjected to heat, and is scarcely soluble in 
alcohol. There are several varieties : gray, 
black, and dark-brown ; the gray is the best, 
easiest to break, and lightest, and has the 
strongest odor. This odor is so powerful that 
if the box.in which it is contained be left open 
for five minutes, it will perfume the whole cham- 
ber. 

AMERICAN "WINES. — Until a compara- 
tively recent period American wines were seldom 
found upon American tables, and even now 
Catawba is the only one that can be said to be 
in general use, yet there are several varieties 



of both white and red wines which compare 
favorably with those of similar grade from any 
part of the world, and at the Paris Exposition 
of 1867 it is said by Dr. Edward Smith that 
none of the less expensive vintages met with 
greater acceptance than the sparkling wines of 
our Atlantic coast. It is usual in treating of the 
native wines to class them as wines of the At- 
lantic coast and wines of the Pacific coast, — or, 
as the latter are commonly called, Cahfornia 
wines. The wines of the first division resemble 
those of Germany and France, containing more 
acid, more sprightliness, flavor, and bouquet ; 
while the California wines contain but little acid, 
a good deal of spirits, and little flavor or bou- 
quet, thus more nearly resembling the wines of 
Spain and Southern Europe. The cause of 
this difference is to be found partly in the soil, 
but chiefly in climatic influences : the heat of a 
southern or semi-tropical climate, like that of 
California, for instance, develops a large amount 
of sugar in the grape, and the acids are corre-* 
spondingly diminished. (See Wine.) 

Of the White IVt'nes, Catawba is far more ex- 
tensively used than any other. It varies greatly 
with the different locations in which the grape 
is grown, the wine of New York, northern Ohio, 
and northern Illinois containing less spirits, but 
a high flavor and a good deal of acid, while the 
wine of Missouri and further south is smoother, 
heavier, and less acid and astringent. It makes 
an excellent sparkling wine, equal to many im- 
ported, and in this form it is chiefly drunk. As 
a still wine it resembles the light Rhine and Mo- 
selle wines of Germany, though it has a peculiar 
and characteristic flavor. Next to the Catawba 
the most popular white wine is the Delaware. 
This wine is of a yellow color, fine flavor, and 
good body, closely resembhng some of the finer 
Rhine wines ; the still wine is best, the spark- 
ling being somewhat flat and acid. Other good 
white wines, which we can only mention, are 
the lona, Isabella., Massasoit, Maxatawney, 
Herbeinont, and Louisiana. The two latter are 
produced chiefly in the Southern and South- 
western States. 

Among the native Red Wines., Concord fills 
the same place as Catawba among the White. 
There is nearly as much of it made as of Catawba, 
and Mr. George Hussman says of it in the new 
edition of the American Cyclopedia : "it is ef- 
fectually and truly the poor man's wine, as it 
can be produced very cheaply, and has a pe- 
culiarly enlivening and invigorating effect upon 
the system. For a light summer wine it has 
not its equal as yet, and it ought to supplant 
all the cheap French clarets, as it is better, 
more wholesome, and can be made cheaper." 
The wine if fermented in the barrels, varies from 
light red to dark red, has a strong flavor resem- 
bling strawberries, is slightly astringent, spright- 
ly, and invigorating. If the grapes are pressed 
as soon as mashed, the juice makes a yellow 
wine, which is now coming into use as a sub- 
stitute for Catawba. Norton'' s Virginia (common- 
ly called Virginia Port)., is generally recognized 
as the best medicinal wine made in America. 



G 



AMERICAN WINES 



ANESTHETICS 



It is dark red, almost black, very heavy, astrin- 
gent, and of a strong aromatic flavor. It is un- 
surpassed as a tonic ; is a remedy for chronic 
diarrhcea, and summer complaints in children, 
and is said to act as a preventive of intermittent 
fevers and other malarious diseases. Its rep- 
utation extends to Europe, and it is generally 
regarded as one of the best red wines in the 
world. Other good red wines are those made 
of the Cynthia7ia, Cataivissa, Wilder, and 
Devereaiix grapes. The Catawissa is a claret 
wine of very fine flavor, "and the Devereaux is 
an excellent dark red wine of the Burgundy 
class. Sciippe7-nong is a wine made from a 
grape peculiar to the Southern States ; it is pale 
yellow in color, and has a strong flavor and 
heavy body. 

Of the California Wines, Hock is most con- 
sumed in the Atlantic States, where it is often 
sold as Rhine wine. It is a bright straw- 
color, of somewhat variable flavor, and though 
smoother, is far stronger and more apt to 
intoxicate than the Rhine wines, while at the 
same time it lacks their enlivening and ex- 
hilarating qualities. The California Porl, made 
principally in Los Angeles, is dark red, strong 
and sweet, very probably made so by the ad- 
dition of alcohol and sugar. Angelica is a 
sweet wine, a favorite among ladies ; it is not 
a pure wine, and is stronger than is generally 
supposed, since alcohol, distilled from the 
grapes, is added to it. Madeira, Sherry, Claret, 
and Muscatel are all made, though in com- 
paratively small quantity and of inferior quality. 
The sparkling wines of the Sonoma Valley are 
scarcely if at all inferior to the Catawba of the 
Atlantic States, or to the best imported French 
and German sparkling wines. 

" There is one fact about California wine," 
says Mr. Charles Nordhoff in his work on 
California, " which entitles it to the preference 
of wine-drinkers — it is pure grape-juice. The 
grape grows so freely, bears so abundantly, 
and ripens so well, in this State, that it does 
not pay to adulterate the grape-juice. The 
wine-producer can better afford to sell the 
juice of his grapes than he could to manufac- 
ture any artificial compound. What may be 
done with the wine when it gets to the East I 
do not know, but here the wine-maker tells you 
openly this (white or red wine) is the pure juice 
of the grape ; this (port wine) has such a quan- 
tity of brandy added to it, to make it keep, 
and to make it port wine ; this (Angelica) has 
also brandy. The brandy is made in the vine- 
yard, from the grapes which yield the wine, 
and is added by the vineyardist. It is no secret 
at all ; and I am persuaded that he who wants 
pure grape-juice can buy it in California with- 
out the danger of being cheated by adultera- 
tions." 

Of course, as in the case with foreign wines, 
so with American, a great deal depends upon the 
locality in which the grapes are grown and the 
attention bestowed upon the manufacture of 
the wine. The mere fact that a certain wine 
is labelled " Catawba," or " Delaware," or 



" Concord," is no guarantee that it will corre- 
spond with what we have said about those 
wine.s in the preceding paragraphs. It may 
prove serviceable, therefore, if we add that 
" Longworth's Catawba," the " Brotherhood 
Wines," and the '* Sonoma," are brands which 
have a high and deserved reputation. The 
Brotherhood Wines include Catawba, sweet, 
dry, and sparkling ; Delaware, sweet, and dry ; 
Concord, and several kinds of Port, including 
the Virginia. 

AMMONIA (Spirits of Hartshorn). — An 
alkali which is the result of decomposition in 
animal and vegetable substances. It exists 
almost universally in the air, and can be 
obtained in many ways ; but the article 
of commerce usually comes from the dis- 
tillation of coal in making gas. Ammonia 
has properties which are very injurious as 
food, but it is probably for household pur- 
poses the most useful of drugs. It is very 
powerful, and dissolves grease and dirt 
with the greatest ease. For washing paint, 
put a tablespoonful in a quart of moderately 
hot water, dip in a flannel cloth, and then wipe 
the woodwork ; no scrubbing will be neces- 
sary. For taking grease spots from any 
fabric, apply ammonia nearly pure, then lay 
white-blotting paper over them and iron 
lightly. In washing lace, put about twelve 
drops in a pint of warm suds. To clean silver, 
mix two teaspoonfuls of ammonia in a quart 
of hot suds ; put in the silverware and wash, 
using an old nail brush or tooth brush for the 
purpose. For cleaning hair brushes, etc., 
simply shake the brushes up and down in a 
mixture of one tablespoonful of ammonia to one 
pint of hot water ; when they are cleansed, rinse 
them in cold water and stand them in the wind 
or in a hot place to dry. For washing finger- 
marks from looking-glasses or windows put a few 
drops on a moist rag and make quick work of 
it. House plants will flourish surprisingly if 
a few drops of ammonia are added to each 
pint of water used in watering. A teaspoonful 
will add much to the refreshing effect of a 
bath. Nothing is better than ammonia water 
for cleaning the hair ; in every case rinse off 
the ammonia with clear water. For removing 
grease spots from clothing, a mixture of equal 
parts of ammonia and alcohol is better than 
alcohol alone ; and for taking out the red 
stain produced by acids in blue and black 
cloth, nothing is so effective as ammonia. 

AN-S!STHETICS. — Substances which pro- 
duce insensibility on the whole or part of the 
human body. They are much used in surgical 
operations, in midwifery, and in all cases where 
acute pain is to be mitigated or nervous excite- 
ment reduced. It is impossible to overrate the 
advantages of their judicious use in such cases ; 
countless lives have been saved by them, and 
their discovery has enormously diminished the 
sum of human suffering. The injurious effects 
attributed to them are so few and far between 
as to count as nothing in comparison with the 
benefits they have conferred ; but their promis- 



ANCHOVY 



APPLE 



cuous use, and the administering of them by 
unskilled persons, are to be censured in the 
strongest terms. Fatal results under such cir- 
cumstances are extremely likely to follow ; and, 
in case a mistake is made, certain. {See Chlo- 
ral, Chloroform, Ether, and Laughing 
Gas.) 

ANCHOVY.— A little fish, resembling the 
sardine, prepared for sale by salting and 
pickling, and used not so much for food 
as for a relish, and for sauces and season- 
ing. In choosing, select those which are 
small, fresh pickled, white outside and red 
within ; their back should be rounded, not 
flattened. To serve as a relis/i, wash, wipe 
dry, and remove the back bone ; serve with 
tarragon or parsley, chopped fine, vinegar and 
oil. They may also be served with hard-boiled 
eggs, chopped or quartered. 

Butter(anchovy). — Strain essence of ancho- 
vy through a fine sieve and knead it with fresh 
butter, or salt butter that has been previously 
kneaded in cold water, and it is ready for 
use. 

(Both of these prepa- 
rations can be pro- 
cured at the grocery 
stores. 
Sauce (anchovy). — Take six anchovies, a 
teacupful of drawn butter, and a wineglass of 
pale sherry. Soak the anchovies in cold water 
two hours ; pull them to pieces, and simmer for 
half an hour in just enough water to cover them ; 
strain the liquor into the drawn butter, boil a 
minute, add the wine ; heat gradually to a boil, 
and stew five minutes longer. Serve with boiled 
fish. 

Toast (anchovy). — Slice bread the day after 
baking, and toast it evenly and quickly ; remove 
the crust; spread with a little butter and then 
with anchovy paste ; cut in triangles, or in nar- 
row strips, and serve hot. 

ANEMONE. — One of the most beautiful of 
our spring flowers, the common varieties 
growing wild in cool wood-lands and pastures. 
The foliage is most ornamental, and the tintings 
of the blossoms exquisite. The colors vary ac- 
cording to the situation where it blooms ; in 
the shade, being deep, rosy or light pink-pur- 
ple in its many shades ; in the sun, pure white 
or delicately flushed with rose. The wild ane- 
mone bears a single flower, consisting of five 
petals ; but by cultivation the stamens have been 
converted into petals and a double variety pro- 
duced. This latter is the kind usually cultivated 
in gardens, and succeeds well if the exposure is 
not too sunny. The bulbs are tender in this 
latitude, and should be kept in the house until 
spring, in a cool, dry place, and set out as soon 
as the ground is well thawed. They bloom af- 
ter the earher bulbs are gone, and their flowers 
last a long time. 

ANIMAL FOOD. {See Food.) 
ANISE SEED. — A spice which comes from 
Egypt, and is much used for flavoring, espe- 
cially in confectionery ; also as a condiment. 
A mild decoction, made by steeping the seed 



in hot water, is often given to infants to relieve 
colic and flatulence. 

ANTHRACITE.— The densest and stoniest 
form of coal and much the purest. Next to the 
diamond it approaches nearer than any other 
substance to pure carbon, and it emits very 
little smoke or gas in burning. East of the 
Alleghanies, it is substantially the only coal 
used for domestic purposes. From its great 
density, it is difficult to kindle, the whole mass 
having to be raised together to the point of 
ignition ; but when once thoroughly fused, it 
burns with an intense heat for a long time, 
though less freely in a grate than in a furnace 
or close stove. Anthracite burns without flame 
or soot, although with sulphurous vapors which, 
when the draft is imperfect, are liable to accu- 
mulate in the room, to the serious detriment of 
the inmates. The Anthracite fire is objected 
to by some as producing headache and other 
bad symptoms ; but this is usually a matter of 
ventilation. 

ANTIDOTES. {See Poisons.) 

ANTS. — Ants may be driven away by scald- 
ing their haunts, and putting Scotch snuff 
wherever they are in the habit of going for food. 
Set the legs of cupboards and safes in pans 
of water, and they cannot get at them. 

APOPLEXY.— The bursting of a blood- 
vessel in the brain. It is accompanied with 
sudden loss of sense and motion, though the 
mechanical action of the heart and lungs still 
continues. A person attacked falls suddenly 
and lies without moving, breathing deeply, and 
sometimes in a peculiar manner, drawing in the 
cheeks and puffing them out again ; the eyes 
are set and staring, the pupil may be enlarged, 
contracted, or unaffected ; the face is often flush- 
ed and purplish ; the pulse is full, strong, and 
slow and hard. If such symptoms occur in a 
man of mature life, the probability of its being 
apoplexy is very strong. In such a case a 
physician must be sent for immediately ; and all 
that can prudently be done till he arrives is to 
loosen the collar, raise the head, and drop cold 
water on the face. Though the disease often 
proves fatal, orre;;ults in paralysis (usually upon 
one side of the body), yet it is not always so, 
and sometimes entire recovery takes place. 
After an attack, when paralysis has not resulted, 
the diet should be carefully regulated ; animal 
food, and especially fermented liquors, should 
be entirely dispensed with ; the bowels must 
be kept open by laxative medicines ; gentle 
exercise assiduously taken ; and all sudden ex- 
ertions or movements carefully avoided. — The 
premonitory symptoms of apoplexy are giddi- 
ness, pain in the head, drowsiness, noise in the 
ears, loss of memory and muscular power, 
nightmare, and the like. When any or all of 
these occur, especially if the patient has had a 
previous attack, medical aid should be at once 
summoned. The above symptoms, however, 
while they may excite suspicion, are often expe- 
rienced by persons suffering from a variety of 
disorders. 

APPLE. — None of our fruits can be 



8 



APPLE 



APRICOT 



brought to such perfection, or may be pre- 
served with such ease through the winter. The 
best eating apples are the Spitzenberg, Bald- 
win, Winter Pippin, Red Astrakhan, Greening, 
Vandevere, Pound Sweet, Roxbury Russets, 
and Grindstones. Good cooking apples can 
generally be bought without specifying the 
kind. The hard, acid kind, are unwholesome 
if eaten raw ; but by the process of cooking 
the greatest part of the acid is decomposed 
and converted into sugar, a process which 
takes place naturally in the sweet kinds, as the 
fruit ripens. As more than half of the sub- 
stance of apples consists of water, and as the 
rest of the ingredients are not of the most 
nutritive kind, this fruit, like most fruits, is 
less of a nutrient than a luxury. When cooked 
they are slightly laxative, and therefore a use- 
ful adjunct to other food. 

The best way to keep apples is to pluck 
them about a week before they are ripe, so 
that the ripening or maturation of the fruit 
shall take place after they are gathered. 
Some dry, moderately cool spot, where the frost 
never penetrates should be chosen, and the 
apples laid on shelves in such a position that 
they will not come in contact with each other. 
Choice ones may be wrapped singly in paper 
and put into glazed jars with covers ; or packed 
in baskets with dry straw. The harder kinds 
of winter apples can be kept several months 
packed away in barrels and out of the frost. 

Baked Apples. — Cut out blossom end of 
sweet apples ; wash, but do not pare ; pack 
them in a large pudding dish, pour a cupful of 
water in the bottom, and cover closely with 
another dish or pan ; set in a moderately hot 
oven, and steam until tender all through. Pour 
the liquor over them while hot, and repeat as 
they cool. Eat with powdered sugar and cream. 

Baked Sweet Apples. — The " Pound 
Sweeting " is best for this purpose. Sour 
apples may sometimes be pared and cored for 
baking, but sweet apples never. Put.them on 
pie plates with a little water and bake very 
slowly, until they are perfectly soft. 

Beurre (Apple.) (from Blot) — Peel and core 
the apples. Cut slices of stale bread about a 
quarter of an inch in thickness, and then cut 
them again of a round shape with a paste-cut- 
ter, and of the size of the apples. Spread some 
butter on each slice and place an apple upon it. 
Butter a bakepan, put in the apples and bread, 
fill the hole made in the middle of the apple by 
coring with sugar ; place on the top of the su- 
gar a piece of butter the size of a hazel-nut, and 
set in a warm, but not quick oven. When about 
half done fill the hole again with sugar and a 

Eiece of cinnamon, place butter on top as 
efore, and finish the cooking. Serve warm. 
Butter (Apple.) — Boil down a kettleful 
of cider to two-thirds the original quantity. 
Pare, cut and core juicy apples, and put as 
many into the cider as it will cover. Boil slowly, 
stirring often, and when the apples are tender 
to breaking, take them out with a perforated 
skimmer, draining well against the sides of 



the kettle. Put in another supply of apples, 
as many as the cider will hold, and stew them 
soft. Take from fire, pour entire contents of 
kettle into tub or large crock with first lot of 
apples ; cover and let stand twelve hours ; re- 
turn to the kettle and boil down, stirring all the 
time, until the mass is of the consistency of 
soft soap, and brown in color. Spice or flavor 
to taste. Keep in stone jars in a cool, dry place. 

Dried Apples. — Use winter apples ripe, but 
firm, pare, quarter and core them ; divide the 
quarters lengthwise in two or three pieces ; 
spread them on plates or racks and dry in a 
slightly heated oven. A piece of coarse muslin 
or net stretched over a frame and hung from 
the ceiling, may also be used for drying. 

When the fruit is to be stewed, wash it 
lightly, cover with cold water, soak over night, 
and stew it in the same water. 

Fried Apples. — Use Spitzenbergs or 
Greenings, quarter and core, but do not pare 
them ; have hot drippings ready in the frying 
pan, and lay the apples in, the skin side down ; 
sprinkle with brown sugar, and when nearly 
cooked turn and brown thoroughly. 

Ice (Apple). — Boil dark green, unripe, sour 
apples, without peeling or coring. When soft, 
drain ; press through a sieve, add an equal 
quantity of cream, make very sweet, freeze. 

Syrup, Apple. {See Syrup.) 

Stewed Apples. — (I) Pare, quarter and core 
sour apples and nearly cover with cold water ; 
cover the saucepan, and when the apples begin 
to boil, stir them ; re-cover and boil, stirring oc- 
casionally until perfectly soft. Sweeten to the 
taste, and pour in an earthen dish to cool. 

(II) Put a quart of hot water and three gills of 
crushed sugar in a milk pan ; when boiling, lay 
in as many Spitzenbergs or Greenings — pared, 
quartered and cored — as the syrup will half 
cover ; cover the pan and stew slowly until 
nearly done ; then uncover, and as the quar- 
ters soften, place them one by one, rounded 
side up in the dish in which they are 
to be served. Reduce the syrup one-third by 
boiling, and just before serving pour it over 
the apple. This is dehcious with roast turkey 
or fresh pork, hot or cold. 

Tea (Apple). — Take two or three good pip- 
pins, slice thin, pour on a pint of boihng water, 
and let stand till cold. Then pour off the 
water, and sweeten and flavor to taste. 

Water (Apple). — A pleasant and nutritious 
drink for the sick. Roast two or three apples 
thoroughly ; put them into a pitcher, turn on a 
pint of boiling water and add a little sugar. 

See Compote, Jam, Jelly, Pies, Pre- 
serves, and Puddings. 

APRICOT. — A fruit native to Asia and 
Africa, where it forms an important item of 
food. Its cultivation in this country is con- 
fined mostly to the Southern States, though 
the fruit is found in the Northern markets. 
The young fruit makes an excellent jam. 

Ice (Apricot). — Take very ripe apricots ; 
pulp them through a sieve, and proceed as 
with apple ice, described above. 



ARBUTUS 



ARRACK 



Jam (Apricot). — Wash the fruit thorough- 
ly, and then heat it slowly and moderately, 
after which stew it until it is perfectly tender ; 
then rub this stewed fruit through a colander. 
Allow to every pound of the fruit a pound of 
granulated sugar; stir the sugar in thoroughly 
and boil the whole gently until it is very clear. 
Put it up in tumblers, with the tops covered 
with white paper, and use as a preserve or 
jelly. 

Jelly (Apricot). — Take two quarts of apricots, 
take out stones, cut in small pieces, and lay 
them in a stew-pan with a clove, well pounded, 
and the juice of half a lemon ; cover with water, 
set on a moderate fire, and boil slowly till well 
cooked. Turn into a thick towel, under which 
place a vessel to receive the juice, and when it 
is all squeezed om, put it in a stew-pan with 
three-quarters of a pound of sugar to every 
pound of juice ; boil to a jelly. This can be 
kept a long time by putting in pots or jars, 
covered with a piece of white paper dipped in 
brandy, and set in a cool closet. 

ARBUTUS (Trailing).— A small trailing 
plant, sometimes called Mayflower from the 
season of its blossoming, and also known as 
the Ground-Laurel. The leaves and stems are 
covered with reddish, bristling hairs ; and it 
bears a cluster of very fragrant white or pink 
flowers. It grows wild throughout New Eng- 
land, and reaches special perfection in the val- 
ley of the Connecticut ; but is seldom success- 
ful in garden culture, for want probably of proper 
attention. In England it is found in all the 
nurserymen's catalogues ; a fine variety has 
been originated called E. rabuncula, the flow- 
ers of which are a rich pink and larger than the 
common species. 

ARGAND LAMP.— Called from M. Argand, 
a native of Geneva, who invented it in 1780. 
Reflecting on the cause of the smoke and disa- 
greeable smell arising from 
the burning of the common 
oil-lamp, Argand correctly 
supposed that this was the 
result of imperfect com- 
bustion, and that this in 
turn arose from want of 
the access of sufficient ox- 
ygen. He therefore con- 
ceived the idea of admit- 
ting air into the centre of 
the flame, and for this 
purpose contrived a wick 
in the form of a hollow 
cylinder, through which a 
current of air passes up 
to the inside of the flame. 
This was found to succeed 
perfectly; the combustion 
was more complete, the 
smoke was greatly dimin- 
ished, and the brilliancy 
of the light increased. 
But to improve the effect 
\.^^A T t Tj- still further, he added a 

Argand Lamp for Kero- , , . ' 

sene Oil. glass chimney, open at 





Structure of the Ar- 
gand Burner. 



bottom and surrounding the flame at a short 
distance, by which another current of air was 
made to pass up outside of the burning wick. 
Thus every part of the thin circular flame is 
between two currents of air, which supply 
enough oxygen to create a heat sufficient to 
consume the smoke and convert it into light. 
In the cut, the dark cir- 
cle in the centre of A, the 
place of the burner, repre- 
sents the interior of the 
hollow cylinder through 
which the air ascends ; 
the thin dark line outside 
being the wick, and the 
double external line being 
the glass. B represents a 
sectional view of tlie burner 
with the wick ; and the ar- 
rows show the direction of 
the current of air between 
the wick and the glass. The 
other great advantage of the 
Argand lamp is that while in 
the common lamp the wick 
is fed by capillary attraction 
(or suction), in it the reservoir of oil 'is placed 
above the level of the flame, thus insuring a 
steady and uniform light while the supply of oil 
lasts. A few improvements have since been made 
upon the original plan of construction ; but the 
principle remains the same, and has been in- 
troduced in some form into all the improved 
lamps. The Argand is so manifest an improve- 
ment upon the common style of lamps that it 
should supersede them entirely in household 
use. It not only gives a far better light, but it 
entirely does away with the disagreeable smell 
and impure air which result from the imper- 
fect combustion of the oil ; and it is also much 
easier to keep clean and in order. Never cut 
the wick, but simply scrape it with the edge 
of a piece of card-board or stiff paper. 

Argand Burner. — The principle of the Ar- 
gand lamp has been applied to the construction 
of a " burner " for gas. It has all the advan- 
tages over the ordinary gas-jets which the lamp 
has over the common lamp, and should be used 
whenever gaslight is made use of for work or 
study. 

ARNICA. — A perennial herbaceous plant, 
growing wild in the western States and 
throughout the cooler parts of Europe. The 
flowers, and in fact the whole plant, have a 
pungent, disagreeable odor, and an acrid, bitter 
taste. Tincture of arnica, is a preparation of the 
flowers in alcohol. It is much used as a lotion, 
made by macerating the leaves and steeping, 
for sprains and bruises, for which it is an ex- 
cellent remedy. Apply with a sponge or piece 
of old cloth. It is also given sometimes for low 
fevers and nervous diseases. Taken internally, 
it produces rapidity of the pulse, headache, 
dizziness, spasms of the muscles, and occasion- 
ally vomiting and diarrhoea. 

ARRACK. — An East Indian name for all 
kinds of ardent spirits, though it is usually ap- 



10 



ARROWROOT 



ARTICHOKE 



plied to a very strong drink fermented from rice. 
In the arrack made in Batavia, molasses and tod- 
dy are mixed with the rice before it is fermented ; 
after fermentation the liquor is distilled, and 
the spirit thus produced is the best arrack of 
commerce. Other varieties come from Madras, 
Ceylon, and Goa. Arrack is very powerful, and 
in this country is never drunk in its raw state, 
but is used in punch; also for medicine and 
cuHnary purposes. In the latter case it is 
flavored with anise seed and other aromatic 
herbs. 

ARROWROOT.— A well-known food, made 
from various tubers, but chiefly from the roots 
of the palm which grows plentifully in the Ber- 
mudas, West and East Indies, and other parts 
of the world. The roots are dug up when they 
are about a year old, and, after being washed, 
are beaten to a pulp, which is soaked in water 
till the starch has had time to settle, when the 
water is drained off. The white sediment of 
the starch is again washed with water, and, 
after being dried by the heat of the sun, forms 
the pure arrowroot. Much of the arrowroot 
sold in this country is made from potatoes ; and 
it may also be made from wheat, rice, or maize 
by the process described above. On many 
farms in which arrowroot is bought it might 
easily be made out of surplus grain. The best 
comes from Bermuda, but is liable to adulter- 
ation with less costly preparations of starch. 
In purchasing arrowroot it should be observed 
that when very smooth and floury it may be 
suspected of containing some portion of the 
starch of wheat or potatoes, of inferior nutri- 
tive value, though not necessarily injurious. A 
teaspoonful of genuine arrowroot will thicken 
a teacupful of hot water or milk ; while double 
the quantity of potato starch will be required 
to jelly the same quantity ot liquid ; and this is 
a good test. The nutritive value of arrowroot 
is small, since it consists almost exclusively of 
starch ; but it is very useful in the sick-room. 
The stomach will tolerate it which rejects 
nearly everything else. {See Puddings.) 

Custard (Arrowroot) — A grateful dish for m- 
valids. Take two tablespoonfuls of best Ber- 
muda arrow-root, one quart of milk, and a pinch 
of salt. Scald the milk, sweeten it to taste, and 
then stir in the arrowroot, which must first be 
moistened with some of the milk. Let it boil 
up once. Flavor with lemon-peel, orange water, 
or rose water. Pour it into cups to cool. . 

Gruel (Arrowroot.) — Make a thin paste of the 
arrowroot with warm water, and pour into 
boiling water, flavoring it with sugar,/ salt, and 
nutmeg. A little lemon juice may also be added. 

Infants (Arrowroot for). — Take a cupful 
of boiling water, one of fresh milk with two 
teaspoonfuls of white sugar dissolved in it, two 
teaspoonfuls of arrowroot wet with cold water, 
and a pinch of salt. Stir the arrowroot j)aste 
into the salted boiling water; stir and boil five 
minutes or until it is clear : add the sweetened 
milk, and boil slowly ten minutes, stirring all 
the time. If the child has fever or cannot 
digest the milk, substitute hot water for it. 



ARSENIC— Poison. — It is a white, slight- 
ly sweetish, insoluble powder. — Sympiofns. — 
Burning pain, tenderness, vomiting, and cramps 
in the stomach. 

Treatme7it. — Vomiting, if not present, to be 
induced by draughts of hot water, tickling the 
throat with a feather, or by giving ten grains 
of sulphate of zinc, dissolved in a little water. 
Demulcent drinks, such as milk, the white of 
eggs stirred in equal parts of water, or flour 
and water, may be given freely to envelop the 
poison, and encourage vomiting. 

Antidotes. — Hydrated oxide of iron, a table- 
spoonful for an adult^teaspoonful for a child 
— repeated every five minutes until symptoms 
are relieved. Iron rust may be used, but is 
inferior to the above. Good results have been 
obtained by swallowing abd'ut a pound of cas- 
tor oil and chalk, rubbed up to the consistence 
of cream. Should the patient survive, a long- 
continued bland diet will be necessary. 

ARTICHOKE.— A garden vegetable resem- 
bling the thistle, a delicious and nutritious 
food. Plant the tuber in a well-prepared, 
rocky soil, about five feet apart, or plant seve- 
ral together in hills, at least six feet apart. 
They come to maturity the second year, and 
yield very abundantly. The part eaten is the 
flower head in an immature state; what is called 
the artichoke bottom is the fleshy receptacle 
which is surrounded by the bristles and seed- 
down, vulgarly called the choke. To cook. 
Clean them and take off the outer leaves, drop 
them into boiling water, with parsley, salt and 
pepper. They are cooked in about an hour, or 
when the leaves come off easily ; then take 
them from the fire and drain, taking care to put 
them upside down. After being thus cooked, 
they may also be fried or stewed. 

Jerusalem Artichoke — This plant is in no 
way allied to the artichoke, but is of the same 
genus as the sunflower and greatly resembles 
it. The term Jerusalem is probably a corrup- 
tion oi i^irasole, the Italian name for sunflower ; 
and it is called artichoke from some imagined 
agreement of its taste with that of the arti- 
choke. The root, which is the part that is eaten, 
consists of a cluster of tubers, in shape some- 
what like the potato ; and there are often thirty 
or forty together. It is extremely prolific, grows 
in almost any soil, requires no attention, and 
produces, under favorable conditions, as much 
as 2000 bushels per acre. They are whole- 
some and of agreeable taste, nutritious when 
they do not disagree, and, though not often 
seen on the table now, were once greatly pre- 
ferred to the potato. In cooking, prepare and 
serve them exactly like the potato. The large 
amount of farinaceous matter which they con- 
tain renders them a good and cheap food for 
horses, hogs, and cattle. And, lastly, they make 
an excellent pickle. They are good too, raw, 
sliced with a plain dressing of vinegar, oil, salt 
and pepper. 

A la Reine. — Wash and wipe the artichokes, 
cut off one end of each quite flat, and trim the ' 
other into a point; boil them in milk and water, 



ASHES 



ASPHODEL 



11 



lift them the instant they are done, place them 
upright in the dish in which they are to be 
served, and cover them with nearly half a 
pint of cream thickened with a dessertspoonful 
of flour, mixed with an ounce and a half of 




Artichoke a la Reine. 

butter, and seasoned with a little mace and 
some salt. When cream cannot be procured, 
use new milk, and increase the proportion of 
flour and butter. 

ASHEiS — The solid refuse which remains 
after the burning of wood, coal, or other com- 
bustible materials. They are strongly alka- 
line, and those especially which come from 
wood can be put to many uses. Mixed with 
lime and sand (one part ashes, one of lime, and 
the other sand) they increase the strength of 
building -mortar, and prevent its cracking. 
Wood ashes also supply a valuable manure. 
The principal use to which they are put, 
however, is in the making of soaps. Water 
soaked through them gradually becomes a 
strong lye ; and this boiled down with oil, or 
grease of any kind, makes a good soap. It is 
from ashes, too, that the potash of commerce is 
derived. {See Lye.) 

ASPARAGUS — Though not very nutri- 
tious, asparagus is easily digested. In raising, 
the seed should be planted in dry and extremely 
rich soil, the quality of which must be kept up 
by powerful manures. Plant in the spring, in 
rows about a foot apart and six inches from 
each other in the row, and leave untouched 
except by thorough weeding during the first two 
years. Half the shoots may be cut in the 
third year, and should be cut an inch or two 
below the surface, and after that the full crop, 
as long as the bed lasts, which will be, under 
proper management, from ten to fifteen years. 
Every year in the autumn, the beds should be 
replenished with manure, dug in between the 
rows as deep as possible without injuring the 
roots ; and as a protection from frost, they 
should be covered in the winter with pulver- 
ized manure, straw, or barn-yard litter. 

The part of the plant which is eaten is the 
young shoot, when from four to six inches high. 
it makes excellent soup {see SouPS), but is 
generally eaten boiled. 

Ambushed Asparagus. — Cut off the ten- 
der tops of fifty heads of asparagus ; boil and 
drain them. Have ready as many stale biscuits 
or rolls as there are persons to be served, 
from which you have cut a neat top slice and 
scooped out the inside. Set them in the oven 
to crisp, laying the tops beside them, that all 
may dry together. Meanwhile put into a sauce- 
pan a sugarless custard made as follows — a 
pint, or less, of milk, and four well-whipped eggs; 
boil the milk first, then beat in the eggs ; set 
over the fire and stir until it thickens, when 



add a tablespoonful of butter, and season with 
salt and pepper. Into this custard put the 
asparagus, minced fine. Do not let it boil, but 
remove from the fire as soon as the asparao-us 
is fairly in. Fill the rolls with the mixture, put 
on the tops, fitting them carefully ; set in the 
oven three minutes, after which arrange on a 
dish. To be eaten hot. 

Boiled Asparagus. — Wash and tie evenly in 
small bundles : drop in boiling water slightly 
salted, and boil twenty minutes ; take up with 
a skimmer and place on buttered toast which 
has first been quickly dipped in the hot aspara- 
gus water. Pour over it a little melted butter, 
with pepper and salt, or some drawn butter. 
Boiled asparagus when cold makes a good 
salad, with a plain or mayonnaise dressing. 

Eggs and Asparagus.-Cut tender asparagus 
into pieces half an inch long, and boil twenty 
minutes, then drain till dry and put into a sauce- 
pan containing a cupful of rich drawn butter ; 
heat together to a boil, season with pepper and 
salt, and pour into a buttered dish. Break half 
a dozen eggs over the surface, put a bit of but- 
ter upon each, sprinkle with salt and pepper, 
and put in the oven until the eggs are set. 

Fried Asparagus.— Blanch the asparagus a 
couple of minutes, and then drain it ; dip each 
piece in batter and fry it in hot fat. When 
done, sprinkle with salt, and serve hot. This 
is nice and easy to prepare. 

Stewed Asparagus — Professor Blot recom- 
mends this : Select young and tender shoots, 
cut them in pieces about half an inch long, 
and blanch for three minutes. Take oft' and 
drain ; and then put them in a saucepan on 
the fire with two or three tablespoonfuls of 
broth ; stir now and then for a couple of min- 
utes, add a teaspoonful of flour; stir again, 
and as soon as the whole is thoroughly mixed, 
add an ounce of butter, salt, pepper, and chop- 
ped parsley. When the butter is melted, serve. 

ASPHALTUM. — A bituminous substance, 
of about the consistency of resin, and some- 
times called mineral pitch. It exists in a nat- 
ural state in many parts of the world, and in 
France in sufficient quantities to be used exten- 
sively in building. Artificial asphaltum, chiefly 
used in the United States, is made generally 
from the refuse tar of the gas-house mixed with 
slaked lime and gravel, in the proportions of 
25 parts of tar, 50 parts of slaked lime in fine 
powder, and 75 parts of gravel. These must 
be thoroughly incorporated by boiling. It 
makes excellent sidewalks, floors for stables, 
cattle-stalls, heneries, water-tight tanks, roofs, 
and the like, being not only cheap and easy 
of preparation but impervious to vermin ; and 
gas-pipes covered with it are protected from 
corrosion. 

ASPHODEL. — A hardy perennial garden 
plant, easy of culture, and of very rapid in- 
crease. It may be raised from seed or by pro- 
pagation, by planting in the spring in a rich 
damp soil ; it grows about three feet high, dies 
down every winter, and sprouts up again in the 
spring. The flowers of one species of asphodel. 



12 



ASTER 



AZALEA 



the King's spear, are yellow, and grow numer- 
ously on a long spike, reaching nearly to the 
ground. There is another variety called white 
or blanched asphodel, which is very pretty. 
The plant of this latter is smaller than that of 
the yellow, which is the common variety. 
Both bloom about midsummer, and last six 
weeks.— Asphodel was planted in the neigh- 
borhood of sepulchres by the ancients, who had 
a superstition that the manes of the dead drew 
nourishment from its roots. 

ASTER. — A perennial plant very popular for 
garden culture, and offering an extraordinary 
variety. Full two hundred species are known 
to florists, and these include every variety of 
colors and shades. In culture, the seed should 
be sown in a hot-bed about the middle of April, 
and transplanted to the garden about a month 
later. They require a dry, rich soil, and mod- 
erate exposure to the sun ; and a very, pretty 
effect is produced by planting in suitable beds, 
setting the plants one foot apart each way. 
The best varieties ^rtChinetisis, Dwarf, Chry- 
santhemutn, German, Hedgehog, Paluy, Flow- 
ered, Pyramidal, and Ranunculus; but choice 
is practically unlimited. The Chinese, who 
have given great attention to the culture of 
asters, raise them exclusively in pots. 

ASTHMA. — A spasmodic disease of the 
lungs characterized by quick, laborious breath- 
ing, which is generally performed with a pecu- 
liar kind of wheezing noise. Sometimes the 
difficulty of breathing is so great that the 
patient is obliged to keep in an erect posture, 
otherwise he is in danger of suffocation. A 
horizontal position is always aggravating to it, 
and for this reason more distress is usually felt 
at night by the asthmatic patient than at any 
other time. A paroxysm of asthma usually hap- 
pens after exposure to the damp, violent emo- 
tional excitement, unusual exercise of any kind, 
or the taking of some food which the stomach 
cannot digest. Persons in the decline of life are 
more liable to asthma than the young. It seldom 
admits of cure, and on the other hand it rarely 
shortens life, except when proper precautions 
are neglected in case of paroxysms. 

Treatment. — The treatment of paroxysms 
consists in administering narcotics and anti- 
spasmodics, if possible as soon as the first symp- 
toms are felt. Ether, chloral and laudanum in 
small doses are the best ; and strong coffee some- 
times does good. Stramonium leaves, smoked as 
tobacco when a paroxysm is threatened, has an 
excellent effect in some cases, but should be used 
with caution when there is disease of the heart. 
In chronic asthma, associated with Bronchitis 
such things as promote expectoration should 
be used : as the syrup of squills, or gum-ammo- 
niac. A teaspoonful of the squills may be 



taken three times a day, and a couple of pills 
made of 2 grains each of assafoetida and gum- 
ammoniac at bedtime. Regular exercise, easy 
habits, and a light and uniform' diet will be 
found very effective in ameliorating the acute- 
ness of the disease. 

ASTRAL OIL. — A refined and purified form 
of the kerosene oil. It is nearly odorless, 
burns more steadily, and has the great advan- 
tage over the common oil that it is entirely safe 
under all the usual conditions of domestic use. 
The frightful danger to which common kero- 
sene subjects all who use it, should banish it 
from the household ; and we know of no substi- 
tute which fulfils all the conditions of safety 
and economy so well as the " astral oil." 

ASTRINGENTS. — Those medicines which 
produce contractions of the fibres with which 
they come in contact. When given internally 
they contract the walls of the blood-vessels, 
and thus are useful in passive hemorrhages. 
When employed locally, the contraction they 
produce makes them useful in restraining dis- 
charges of blood and mucus. 

(a) Diluted sulphuric acid, 20 minims ; com- 
pound tincture of cardamom, 40 minims; 
infusion of roses, i ounce. Mix, and give 
twice a day for discharges of blood or 
mucus. 

(b) Decoction of logwood, i % ounces ; com- 
pound tincture of camphor, 30 to 60 drops. 
Mix, and give after each loose motion, in 
diarrhoea with copious watery discharges. 

(c) Tincture of matico, 30 to 40 minims ; 
chalk mixture, i ounce. Mix, and give as 
directed at (b). 

(d) Gallic acid, 40 grains ; tincture cinna- 
mon, I' ounce; syrup simple, 3 ounces. 
Tablespoonful every 3 hours for passive 
uterine hemorrhage. 

AVIARY. (See Bird Cage.) 

AZALEA. — One of the most beautiful of our 
native shrubs. It is hardy, and in some of its 
numerous species is found everywhere from 
Maine to the Gulf of Mexico. The bush grows 
from four to ten feet high, is beautifully pro- 
portioned and leaved, and bears profuse umbel- 
led clusters of white, orange, purple, or varie- 
gated flowers, some of which are unsurpassed 
by any other of our plants. In cultivation the 
azalea loves shady spots, and a sandy, loamy soil. 
The two best varieties are A^udi-Jlora and Vis- 
cosa, the former bearing pink flowers and bloom- 
ing in May ; the latter with white flowers and 
blooming in July. The best for in-door culture 
are, Charles (li'dnt, Fielden, Minerva, Puncta- 
ta, and Narcissijlora. Plant these latter in 
pots in the spring, in rich loamy soil, and water 
them plentifully but not too often. Florists 
always have them. 



BABY 



BAKING 



13 



B. 



BABY. {See Infant.) 

BACON. — That part of the hog which in- 
cludes the thin portions of the ribs and belly. 
This is preserved in several vi^ays, generally by 
rubbing in salt and saltpetre and drying, and also 
quite frequently by smoking. In curing, rub 
a mixture of four pounds of salt and half a 
pound of saltpetre into every part of the pork 
and repeat the process at regular intervals for 
about three weeks, during which time the flesh 
should be kept in a cool place. Afterwards 
remove and dry. In England, the preparation 
of bacon is different. There, instead of the 
hair being scalded off the hog as with us, it is 
singed or burned off with straw and then rub- 
bed smooth with cold water and dressed. When 
cooled through, the parts designed for bacon 
have the spare ribs and other bones taken out, 
and are then covered with fine salt mixed with 
saltpetre, four pounds to half a pound ; a pound 
of brown sugar is added to give flavor. The 
flitches, as the several parts are now called, 
are laid upon one another and resalted with 
the mixture daily for about three weeks, the 
top piece being transferred to the bottom each 
time. They are then hung up to dry or slightly 
smoked, after which they are ready for use. 
Bacon has been called " the poor man's food," 
and in those portions of the country where fresh 
meat cannot be procured regularly it forms one 
of the staple articles of diet ; but when it has 
been properly cured and properly prepared for 
the table, it forms a dish worthy of the daintiest 
taste. Good bacon has a peculiarly rich and 
appetizing flavor, and when eaten with a due 
proportion of fresh vegetables, is one of the 
most wholesome and digestible of foods. In 
choosing bacon select tliat which has a thin 
rind, with firm fat which should be tinged red 
by the curing ; the flesh should be of a clean 
red, without intermixture of yellow, and adher- 
ing firmly to the bone. 

To Cook. — Bacon is generally fried or boiled. 
There is a kind called breakfast bacon which, 
when cut into thin slices and fried, either by 
itself or with liver, is very palatable ; in the 
country it is generally boiled in " chunks " with 
some vegetable or vegetables. When bacon 
is found to be very salt, it should be soaked in 
cold water before cooking. 

BAIN-MARIE, or Water Bath.— A large 
vessel containing hot water, much used in 
English and French kitchens for warming 
food or for keeping it warm when cooked. It 
has the great advantage over the oven or open 
fire that its heat is nearly uniform and is not 
drying. The pot or kettle or sauce-pan con- 
taining the food should be set in the bain-marie, 
and as the fire is only in contact with the latter 



vessel, the inner one can never be heated to a 
temperature higher than 212° Fahr., and the 




amount of heat can be regulated very easily by 
pouring in cold water or increasing the fire. 
The water-bath can be bought at most house- 
furnishing shops, or in its absence a large 
sauce-pan may be made to serve the purpose. 

BAIZE. — A coarse, open, woollen cloth, 
woven like flannel, sometimes with a long nap 
on one side and sometimes without, according 
to the uses to which it is intended to be put. 
It is warm and soft, and is generally used for 
lining clothes and for table-covers and the like. 
It is usually dyed green. 

BAKING. — The process of cooking in a 
close heated oven. The difference between 
baking and roasting is simply that in the one 
case the air within the oven is confined and 
unchanged while in the other it is carried off 
by a current and constantly replaced by fresh; 
but this is a very important difference and 
affects both the quantity and flavor of the 
articles cooked. Baking, as applied to meats, is 
an economical method of cooking, but it parches 
and hardens the outside and leaves a flavor 
which a delicate palate can always detect. 
Nearly all so-called "roast" meats, however, 
are simply baked, and it is a process not likely to 
be given up in our kitchens. The reader is 
earnestly recommended to read the article on 
Roasting. Meats and fish are much improved 
in the baking when covered with a piece of 
buttered paper. In baking bread and pastry 
the foregoing objections 
do not apply of course ; 
but it is a process whose 
success demands close 
I attention. More food is 
" spoiled in the bake " 
probably than by all the 
other methods of cooking 
combined ; yet intelli- 
gence and careful atten- 
tion make it one of" the 
most certain processes of the kitchen. One of 
the best modes of baking with which we are ac- 
quainted, is by means of a jar, resembling in 
form that shown above, well pasted down, and 
covered with a fold of thick paper, and then 
placed in a gentle oven. It should be borne 




Nottingham Jar. 



14 



BAKING POWDERS 



BANDAGES 



in mind that each oven has a temperature 
of its own, and that some dishes require 
more heat than others. Watch the object in 
process of baking from time to time, especially 
at the beginning, so as to turn it round if 
one side is cooking faster than the other, and 
also to regulate the temperature if necessary. 
Special directions will be given in the case of 
each article of food. 

BAKING POWDERS These consist of 

carbonate of soda and tartaric acid, which 
evolve the necessary gas, when in contact 
with water, to make the bread light, leaving 
behind a residue of tartrate of soda. Many 
different kinds of baking powders are sold by 
grocers under various names, and the mcon- 
venience of keeping a supply of yeast always 
at hand has brought them into general use. 
Even when pure it is doubtful if they should 
be used for making all the bread of a family ; 
but unfortunately many of the manufactured 
powders contain alum in considerable quanti- 
ties. The safest plan, therefore, is to make 
them at home. 

Take tvi^enty teaspoonfuls of cream-tartar and 
ten of carbonate of soda; roll smooth and mix 
well together. Keep in a jar or bottle tightly 
corked, and use three teaspoonfuls to a quart 
of flour. 

BALM. — An herb, the leaves of which are 
usually brought in a dried state from the south 
of France and from Italy. In its matured state 
it has a mild aromatic smell, and an infusion 
of it makes a very useful drink in fevers. 

BALSAM. — One of the hardy annuals most 
often found in gardens, where it is popularly 
called " Lady's slipper." The seed should be 
sown in April in a hot-bed, or in the house, and 
transplanted to the garden in May. They will 
grow vigorously in any moderately rich soil, 
and when once started, will spring up fresh 
each year in great numbers. The plant is from 
one to two feet high, and the different varieties 
have white, red, pink, flesh-color, red and pur- 
ple, and variegated flowers, — blooming from 
June to October. There are also single and 
double varieties, the double being most effec- 
tive. Plant the slips at least two feet apart. 

BALSAMS. — A class of substances much 
used in medicine, but also entering into the 
composition of varnishes, etc. They are both 
solid and fluid ; and consist of resin of some 
kind, volatile oil, and cinnamic acid, without 
the last of which they are not balsams. 
The balsam of Peru, benzoin, and the bal- 
sam of Tolu are genuine balsams ; the once 
famous Copaiba balsain is not a balsam at all. 
Peruvian balsam is largely used as a stimulant 
application to sluggish ulcers. The compound 
tincture of benzoin is likewise used for the 
same purpose. The syrup of Tolu is an 
agreeable mixture much used in formulse for 
cough mixtures. The following preparation 
is strongly recommended for recent w'ounds 
and bruises : Take of powdered benzoin three 
ounces; balsam of Peru, two ounces; hepatic 
aloes, powdered, half an ounce; rectified spirits 



of wine, one quart. Digest them in a gentle 
heat for three days and then strain and bottle. 
This preparation is also administered internally 
to relieve coughs, asthma, and other complaints 
of the breast. The dose is from 20 to 60 drops, 
three times a day. 

BANANA — A variety of the plantain, found 
in the West Indies and South America, and 
throughout the tropical regions of both hemis- 
pheres. In the countries where it grows it is 
almost always the staple food, occupying the 
same place there as the cereals with us. No 
other product of the vegetable kingdom affords 
so much nutriment from a given space of ground 
as the banana, and no other food is so peculiarly 
adapted to support life in the tropics. It is 
estimated that a quarter of an acre planted in 
bananas will produce enough for a family of five 
the year round. It grows in thick clusters of 
1 50 to 200 to the cluster. It is eaten raw, either 
alofle or cut in slices with sugar and cream, or 
wine and orange juice. It is also roasted, fried 
or boiled, and is made into fritters, preserves, 
and marmalades. It is dried in the sun and 
preserved as figs ; meal is extracted from it by 
pounding and made into something resembling 
bread ; and the fermented juice affords an ex- 
cellent wine. With us it is brought to the table 
as dessert, and proves universally acceptable. 
The best kind, when they can be procured 
fresh, are the " lady-fingers " as they are called. 
They are found in our markets from March to 
October. 

BANDAGES. — Strips of linen, muslin, or 
flannel, of various widths and of any length, 
much used in medicine and surgery. The best 
material for bandages is stout, unbleached mus- 
lin ; but a strip of sheeting, or strip of an old 
petticoat or dress, will usually answer every 
purpose. As the manner in which the band- 
age is bound round the limb makes all the dif- 
ference in the comfort of the patient, the fol- 
lowing directions in relation to the use and 
application of bandages taken from Druitt's 
" System of Modern Surgery " a standard au- 
thority with physicians and surgeons, may be 
of service. 

''I. Bandages usually consist of strips of 
linen, calico or flannel, varying in breadth from 
one to three, five or more inches, and in length 
from one to six, eight or twelve yards. Some- 
times they are made of India-rubber web, or 
of a substance like stockings ; but for most 
purposes, stout unbleached ^alico, or thin fine 
calico, will answer. They are generally rolled 
up longitudinally for use, and hence have re- 
ceived the name of rollers. Bandages may often 
be made of handkerchiefs, or square joieces of 
linen. 

"II. The chief uses of bandages are, ist, 
lO keep on dressings, to protect a diseased part 
from injury, and put some little restraint upon 
its motions ; 2dly, to afford a support to relax- 
ed muscles, ligaments, and vessels. Deprive 
any part of its normal support, and varicose 
vems and dropsical effusions are sure to oc- 
cur ; and conversely many chronic swellings of 



BANDAGES 



15 



the limbs and joints may often be cured by 

the proper applications of bandages alone. 

"III. The Roller. — In applying this to 

any limb, it should be held as represented 



in Fig. 2, and should be passed from one 
hand to the other as the limb is encircled 
with it. Begining at the extremity of the 
limb, it should be applied most tightly there 




Fig. 3- 



and a very little more loosely as it ascends. 
Very little of it should be unfolded at a 
time and each fold should overlap about a 
third of the previous one. When the limb 




Fig. I. 

increases in size the bandage must turn on 
itself after the manner depicted in Figs. 3 and 

5- 

" IV. Bandage for the Finger. — This is 
a simple strip of linen that may be wound 
round the finger a few times with the requisite 
tightness. It must be fastened neatly without 



pins or stitches, as shown in Fig. I, by merely 
splitting up the end of the bandage into two tails 
which may be turned opposite ways round the 
finger and be tied in a bow. 




Fig. 2. 

" V. For the Hand. — A bandage about two 
inches wide may be passed like a figure of 
eight round the hand and wrist, excluding the 
thumb, Fig. 2, and may be finished by one or 
two circular turns around the wrist. 

" VI. For the Forearm. — After applying it 




about the hand and wrist as just described, 
carry it up the forearm, and in every turn fold 
the bandage sharply and smoothly back upon 
itself, in such a way that it may lie smoothly on 
the limb. (Fig. 3.) 



" VII. For the Foot. Let the roller be first 
passed round the flat of the foot — between the 
toe and heel — and then carried up round the 
ankle, and back again round the foot exactly as 
depicted in Fig. 4. 



16 



BANDAGES 



The bandage should always be brought up 
on the inner side of the 
instep as shown in Fig. 
4, in order to support 
the arch of the foot. 

"VIII. For the Leg: 
— After the foot and 
ankle have been well en- 
veloped, let the bandage 
be carried up the leg, and 
be turned sharp on itself 
on the calf, in order that 
it may lie closely and the 
folds not be separated. 

(Fig. 5-) 

"IX. For the Knee. — 

To support the knee, in 
ordinary cases, a bandage 
may be passed round it in 
a figure-of-eight form, ex- 
cluding the patella, or 
knee-pan. (Fig. 6.) 

If that bone is to be 
covered the bandage must 
be passed lightly over it 
afterwards, several times, 
makins: turns when nec- 




essary, to procure smoothness. When it is 
merely wished to keep on dressings or o-ive 
slight support, the four tailed bandage shown 
in Fig. 7 may be used. A piece of linen a 
yard and a half long and eight or nine inches 
wide is split up in the middle at each end to 
within a few inches of the centre. The centre 
being then placed on the patella, or knee-pan, 
the four tails are brought under the knee, 
crossed, and tied two and two. 




Fig. 6. 

" X. For the Groin. — Having passed a roller 
round the lower part of the abdomen and se- 
cured it with a stitch, bring it in front of the af- 




Fig. 7. 



fected groin, then round the back of the thigh, 
next round the abdomen and so on in a figure- 
of-eight form with the folds crossing each other 
over the groin. 




Fig. 8. 
"XI. For the A.-sa\\.^{Arm pit ox shoulder). 
In order to keep on dressings put the centre of 



a common handkerchief folded crosswise under 
the arm pit, cross it over the shoulder, and 
carry the ends one before and one behind the 
chest to tie under the opposite arm-pit. 

" XII. Forthe Head. — A roller having been 
carried horizontally round the forehead and back 
of the head and secured by a stitch, let it be car- 
ried from the side vertically over the head and 
under the chin. At the point of crossing On either 
side, let it be secured by a stitch. In bandaging 
the head care should always be taken to comb the 
hair so that it will lie smoothly and comfortably ; 
and likewise to arrange the bandages so that the 
pressure may tell exactly where it is required." 

Bandages should always be applied with an 
equable pressure throughout, and not too tight- 
ly. Any person possessed of the slightest in- 
genuity or neatness of hand, would, after a few 
hints from a good hospital nurse or a surgeon, 
learn the essentials of bandaging in a very short 
time. Bandages such as the above, may be 
rendered hard and strong by smearing their 



BANK 



BASIL 



17 



successive turns with gum, plaster of Paris, 
glue, paste, or white of egg, which speedily 
sets, serving the double purpose of bandage 
and splints. (See Fractures.) 

BANK. — It is well for the inexperienced to 
know that banks do not pay money to holders 
of checks and drafts unless some officer knows 
the holder to be the person he professes to be. 
They even often decline checks payable to 
bearer, unless they are satisfied that the holder 
came by them properly. Neither do banks 
take from unintroduced strangers deposits 
subject to check, though they will usually re- 
ceive cash from a stranger, giving him in turn 
for it a " Certificate of Deposit " payable to 
bearer or to the order of any person named. 
These certificates of deposit can be indorsed 
and passed from hand to hand or sent by mail, 
just as checks are. (See Check.) 

BANTINO-'S CURE.— The name given to 
a system of dietetics devised by William Bant- 
ing, a London merchant (though it is identical 
with that previously recommended by Brillat- 
Savarin),for the cure of corpulence. Its merits 
have been very energetically disputed, and it 
has lately as a whole fallen rather into disre- 
pute ; but Banting cured himself by it, and was 
evidently an enthusiastic beHever in its efficacy. 
The method consists in the use of a large pro- 
portion of nitrogenous animal food, and absti- 
nence from all farinaceous, saccharine, or oily 
matters, which conduce to the production of fat 
in the human system. He especially forbids 
the use of bread, pastry, potatoes, milk, butter, 
beer; sweet wines, such as port wine, cham- 
pagne, and the like ; pork, herrings, eels, sal- 
mon and other fat fish and meats ; and recom- 
mends lean meat, poultry, game, fruit, dry 
toast, claret, dry sherry, madeira, all green 
vegetables, except parsnips, beets, turnips, and 
carrots ; permitting the moderate use of soft- 
boiled eggs and cheese. He rightly considered 
diet the principal agent in reducing corpulence ; 
and, unlike those who profess to be his follow- 
ers, left the qjcantity of food to the natural 
appetite. 

BARBERRY. — A species of berry which 
grows wild in woods and shady places, and 
though not very abundant, can generally be 
found in market in September and October. 
The fruit is crimson in color, grows in clusters, 
and has small roundish seeds. It is extremely 
acid and sour, but makes a cooling and grateful 
drink ; and is used for pickles, sweetmeats, 
jellies, soups, and garnishing. The leaves of 
the plants are eaten as a salad and taste some- 
thing like sorrel. The jellies and sweetmeats 
made of barberries are considered very whole- 
some and strengthening to the stomach. [See 
Jam, Jelly, and Preserves.) 

BARLEY. — One of the cereals, next in im- 
portance to wheat, over which it has the advan- 
tage that it can be grown over a greater range 
of climate, at less cost of labor, and with the 
certainty of much larger returns. On fairly 
good soil it frequently yields as much as 40 to 
I, and in California three or four successive 



crops are reapedf rom one sowing. Barley was 
one of the chief articles of food among the 
ancients, is still used largely on the continent 
of Europe, and to a considerable extent in 
Scotland and Northern England ; but with us 
it is rarely used except for feeding cattle and 
barn-yard stock, and for the manufacture of 
beer. Barley hulled and ground makes a coarse, 
heavy kind of bread, wholesome to eat, and not 
disagreeable in taste. Its nutritive value is not 
equal, however, to wheaten bread ; and de- 
spite its cheapness it is not very likely to be- 
come soon a staple article of our diet. The 
only forms in which it is used in cooking are 
the preparations described below. 

Pearl Barley, the kind kept in the stores, is 
the small round kernel which remains after the 
skin and outer portions of the kernel have been 
ground off. For this purpose, the Spring bar- 
ley is chosen ; it is steamed to soften the skin, 
dried, and passed through a mill of a peculiar 
kind to take off the husk, all except what lies 
in the deep furrow of the seed. It makes ex- 
cellent broth, is much approved as the farin- 
aceous ingredient in puddings, and when boiled 
with new milk and flavored with sugar, and oc- 
casionally spices, makes a delicate and deli- 
cious food more nutritious than rice. 

Patent Barley is the pearl barley ground to 
flour. 

Infants (Barley for). — Barley will often agree 
with infants when their stomachs reject milk. 
To prepare, take two tablespoonfuls of pearl 
barley, carefully washed, soak it half an hour in 
a little lukewarm water, then stir it without 
straining into two cupfuls of boiling water. Add 
a pinch of salt ; simmer an hour, stirring often ; 
then strain, and sweeten with two teaspoonfuls 
of white sugar. This is an excellent substitute 
for milk during infantile diarrhoea. 

Sugar (Barley). — Properly speaking, barley 
sugar is sugar boiled in barley water till it is 
of such consistence that it will solidify when 
cold. When done flavor with lemon peel, pour 
into a greased dish, and as it cools cut into 
such shapes as may be desired. Ordinary 
sugar candy is also sometimes called barley 
sugar. (See Candy.) 

"Water (Barley), is a very soothing and nu- 
tritious drink for the sick. To make, take two 
ounces of pearl barley, put it in half a pint of 
boiling water, and let it simmer five minutes ; 
then pour off the water, add two quarts of boil- 
ing water, two ounces of sliced figs, and two of 
stoned raisins, and boil till it is reduced to a 
quart. Strain, and it is ready to drink. A simpler 
way is to take two and a half ounces of pearl 
barley and boil ten minutes in half a pint of 
water ; strain off this water, add two quarts of 
boiling water, and boil down to one quart. Then 
strain, and flavor it with sugar and slices of 
lemon or nutmeg. 

BASIL. — A highly aromatic herb, often used 
in cooking, with a flavor resembhng cloves. It 
grows wild nearly everywhere, and there are 
two or three varieties. The common kind is sel- 
dom made use of, but there is a large species, 



18 



BASS 



BATH 



the leaves of which are used very generally in 
flavoring salads and soups, especially mock- 
turtle soup. 

BASS. — A family of fish, of which there 
are about a dozen varieties caught in American 
waters. The best salt-water bass are the Sea- 
bass, or blue-bass, the Striped-bass, or rock-fish, 
and the Bar-fish. Of the fresh-water species, 
the best are the Black-bass, the White-bass of 
Lake Erie, and the Rock-bass. In the seacoast 
markets those who ask simply for bass will get 
the striped or streaked bass, and it is one of 
the most delicious of fish. They are to be 
had at all times of the year. For frying, 




those from one-half to one pound weight are 
best; for broiling, select those weighing about 
three pounds and split them in half; for boil- 
ing, take those weighing from four to eight 
pounds. The very large fish are generally 
coarse and rather dry eating. 

Baked Bass. — Take a fish weighing six or 
eight pounds ; it should be cooked whole to 
look well. After cleaning, fill the body with a 
dressing made of bread-crumbs, pepper, salt, 
onion, and parsley, and a little salt pork chop- 
ped fine, the whole mixed with one egg ; sew it 
up and lay it in a large pan. Put one pint of 
water and a little salt into the pan, and bake an 
hour and a half, basting often with butter and 
flour, — then dish, being careful to take the fish 
up whole. Shake into the gravy a little flour, a 
teaspoonful of butter, and two spoonfuls of to- 
mato or walnut catsup; boil a moment, and 
pour it over the fish. Worcestershire is also a 
nice sauce for baked bass. 

Boiled Bass. — Take a fish weighing seven or 
eight pounds ; clean and scrape off the scales ; 
wash it in salt and water, — then place in fish- 
kettle, with enough boiling water to cover it. 
Boil it half an hour, and serve hot with an- 
chovy, caper, matelote or tomato sauce. 

Frying and Broiling. — Proceed as in general 
directions given under Frying and Broiling. 

BASTING-. — This is the most important of 
all the requisites for roasting, and it is for want 
of its being properly done that roast meats are 
so constantly spoiled. In fat meats, such as 
beef, mutton, or pork, their own dripping, after 
it has run into the well of the pan, is the best 
thing for the purpose ; but in poultry, veal, and 
game, there is nothing coming out which will 
serve, and they must be basted either with plain 
hitter, mutton, or beef dripping, water atid 
salt, milk, melted butter, or sometimes with 
cider, ale, or wine. The process consists sim- 
ply in pouring the liquid, or spreading the fat, 
over the entire surface of the roasting meat. 

BATH. — The skin of the human being is 
not merely an outward covering for the body, 



but an organ the proper performance of whose 
work is of vital importance to good health. Its 
seven million pores are not a useless part of 
the animal economy, but form the sluices 
through which the system throws off a portion 
of its waste and deleterious matter ; this matter 
is removed in the form of an imperceptible 
watery vapor, mixed with a few saline and 
gaseous substances, and the quantity capable 
of being gotten rid of in this way, in the space 
of twenty-four hours, amounts in round num- 
bers to twenty ounces. The retention of this, 
by reason of the inability of the skin to per- 
form its functions, is of course productive of 
great injury to the system, throwing more than 
their due share of work on the other secretive 
organs. The only method of keeping the skin 
clear and in proper working order is bathing 
with sufficient frequency. Bathing not only 
removes the matter which the skin has already 
discharged, but stimulates its activity and in- 
creases its efficiency. The temperature of the 
water is a highly important circumstance, and 
medical writers usually classify baths as cold, 
warm, and hot. 

Cold Bath. — The cold bath is taken in water 
which is cold as compared with the normal heat 
of the body, or at a temperature of 33° to 65°. 
The effect of such a bath on a person in good 
health is, on first plunging in, a sensation of ex- 
treme cold (the duration of which depends on 
the temperature of the water and the condition 
of the bather), and is followed by a reaction 
which brings on a sensation of warmth and a 
feeling of lightness and vigor. By degrees, if 
the body continue to be immersed, the bather 
again begins to feel cold, chilliness, accompanied 
by shivering, comes on, the pulse grows feebler 
and slower, and the whole body becomes lan- 
guid and powerless. The time to leave the 
bath is during the period of warmth, before the 
second chilliness begins ; and immediately on 
stepping out the bather should rub himself dry 
with a coarse towel, and continue rubbing till 
the skin is in a glow. The ultimate effect of 
the cold bath has been differently described by 
different physicians, and some are strongly op- 
posed to its use at all ; but, where it agrees, it 
is tonic and bracing, it improves the digestion, 
stimulates the .skin, and renders the circulation 
rhore active and vigorous. It also hardens the 
system and causes it to be much less sensitive 
to changes of temperature, being on this ac- 
count an excellent protection against taking 
cold on exposure. Its beneficial effect depends 
much on the strength of the reaction ; if, there- 
fore, on coming out of the cold bath, the person 
feels dull and chilly, or complains of headache, 
or a sensation of tightness across the chest, 
the cold bath disagrees, and should be discon- 
tinued or modified. 

But many persons experiencing these symp- 
toms seem to need just the sort of stimulus the 
cold bath gives. This they can get by applying 
cold water with a wash- rag to a square foot or 
two of the skin at a time, rubbing the space 
into a glow with a towel, and repeating the 



BATH 



19 



process until the whole body has been bathed. 
The writer knows instances where this 
method has cured people too sejisitive to cold. 

The diseases for which cold baths are valu- 
able as a remedy are morbid irritability and 
sensibility, accompanied by general debility ; 
also for asthma, in the intervals between the 
paroxysms, when the system is in other respects 
in a proper condition for it. When there is a 
tendency to colds and rheumatism, the cold bath 
is an excellent preventive ; for this purpose 
it should be used continuously throughout the 
year. It is improper in the case of those who 
have a tendency to consumption, or who are 
constitutionally liable to bowel complaints ; and 
it should never be ventured on by any one 
suffering from chronic inflammation of the mu- 
cuous membranes of the bronchia and intestinal 
canal. The best time for taking a cold bath is in 
,the early morning just after rising. But per- 
sons of feeble circulation in whom reaction 
does nqt readily follow, had better not take a 
cold bath before their breakfast is digested. 
{See Douche Bath.) 

■Warm Bath. — This includes all baths rang- 
ing in temperature from 66° to 95°. Its effect 
is very different from that of the cold bath. 
There is no shock, but the temperature is grate- 
ful to the bather ; the blood circulates more 
rapidly, and a gentle glow pervades the body ; 
the skin absorbs water, is softened, and throws 
off the scales of decomposed matter which may 
have accumulated on it ; pain is allayed, and 
nervous irritation is soothed. The warm bath 
is especially grateful and beneficial after exces- 
sive muscular exertion, or after the fatigue and 
excitement of travelling. It refreshes and tran- 
quillizes the system ; but on the other hand it 
has none of the tonic influence of the cold bath, 
and its frequent use tends to relax and debili- 
tate, while rendering the system more sensible 
to changes of temperature. The best tempera- 
ture for the bath of a healthy person is what is 
called tepid, and it is also the most agreeable. 
A distinctly warm bath taken just before going 
to bed will probably cure any tendency to wake- 
fulness, especially if the wakefulness come from 
over use of the brain. No bath whatever 
should be taken while digestion is going on — 
say in less than two hours after a meal. 

Hot Bath. — This has a temperature ranging 
from 98° (blood-heat) to 1 1 2°. 1 1 is a very power- 
ful stimulant, and should never be used by per- 
sons in a good state of health. Even in cases 
of disease, it should only be taken under a physi- 
cian's advice. As the object is to stimulate the 
vital actions, the bather should never remain 
long enough in the bath to produce exhaustion,— 
the average time is from ten to fifteen minutes. 
The best way to obtain the full beneficial effect 
of the hot bath is to commence with tepid water 
and gradually increase the temperature. The 
hot bath is chiefly used where it is desirable to 
produce abundant perspiration, when it should 
be followed by rolling the patient in blankets. 

Sho'wer Bath. — When cold water is used, the 
effect of this bath is similar to that of the ordi- 



nary cold bath, but the shock from the shower 
bath is greater than that from simple immersion, 
especially if the quantity of water be large, the 
temperature low, and the fall considerable. Its 
effects are also more speedy, and extend more 
to the internal organs than those of the com- 
mon bath. When the result is beneficial the 
glow is felt almost immediately, consequently 
when recourse is had to it, the bather should 
withdraw immediately after the shock; if its 
use is prolonged it quickly lowers, and at last 
destroys the sensibility, and is then highly in- 
jurious. For delicate persons, the tepid shower 
bath is preferable ; and salt added to the water 
is an improvement. When used for hygienic 
purposes the best time to take the shower bath 
is immediately after rising in the morning. 

Sponge Bath. — Sponging the body off with 
water and a sponge or cloth is as effectual, 
though perhaps not as pleasant, as any other 
form of bathing, and may be resorted to when 
bathing conveniences are not at hand. It is 
frequently adopted in cases of fever, to cool 
the surface of the body ; but as its action is 
powerful it is rather venturesome to employ it 
except as directed by the physician. Sponging 
is also used successfully as a tonic to ward off 
disease. It is found especially serviceable 
when a person is disposed to asthma or is suf- 
fering from a cough. For this purpose the 
chest may be sponged daily, and afterwards 
well rubbed and dried, so as to produce a glow 
on the surface. In some cases vinegar and 
water, or salt and water are preferable, and 
then much rubbing is not necessary. This is 
an excellent method for bathing very young 
children. In the country or in the city houses 




Sponging Bath. 

on high ground, in both of which places econo- 
my of water is apt to be an object, or in all 
cases where expedition is desirable, the follow- 
ing arrangement is recommended : Have a tin 
pan made six inches deep, half an inch shorter 
than the width of the bath tub at the top, and 
wide enough to extend a good distance be- 
yond the faucets. On the two short sides and 
on one of the long sides, let it have a rim an 
inch wide with the edge of the rim rolled over 
a substantial wire to give strength. Slide this 
pan under the faucets. It will be supported by 
the edges of three sides of the bath-tub coming 
under its rim. Supply it from the faucets and 
pour the water over the body from a large 
sponge. Thus very little water need be used 



20 



BATH BRICK 



BEAR-MEAT 



and its temperature can be easily regulated. 
With most people it will be best to begin with 
it pretty warm and to let the cool-water faucet 
run so as to cool it gradually while it is being ap- 
plied. If the outlet of the tub is stopped be- 
fore the bath is begun, the water thus poured 
over the body and collected in the tub, will be 
all that is needed for the feet. It is well to 
wash the face in cool water before beginning 
on the rest of the body. 

Sea Bathing. — Although the most important 
effects of bathing are produced by the tempera- 
ture of the water, there can be no doubt that 
the effect of simple fresh water is very differ- 
ent from that of the sea. Where the object is 
to bring on a reaction, and to stimulate and 
brace the system, sea bathing is greatly to be 
preferred. The manner of going into the bath, 
and the time of remaining in it, depend chiefly 
on the condition of the bather. Some plunge 
in at once in order to obtain the full advantage 
of the shock ; others are recommended to take 
at first one or two dips, to test the power of re- 
action, and gradually to immerse the entire 
body in water. In any case the head should be 
wet thoroughly before the feet become chilled. 
Moving about as much as possible while in the 
water is highly advantageous, and if the bather 
can swim, all the better. On coming out, the 
body should be quickly and well dried with a 
coarse towel, and the clothes put on without 
delay ; though this precaution is not so neces- 
sary as when bathing in fresh water, as the par- 
ticles of salt remaining on the skin after the 
water has dried, stimulate it even more than 
rubbing. The most common error in .the prac- 
tice of sea bathing, and one which should be 
carefully avoided, is remaining so long in the 
water that the heat of the body is lowered be- 
low the proper degree, and the consequence is 
a feeling of chilliness that is both disagreeable 
and injurious. The only time of the year adapt- 
ed for sea bathing on our coasts, north of 
Florida, is the summer and autumn months ; 
the best time of day depends on the locality 
and on the state of the tide, which should be 
taken at the full. Under no circumstances, 
however, should a bath be taken in less than 
three hours after a hearty meal. {See Russian, 
SiTZ, Turkish, and Vapor Baths.) 

BATH BRICK.— A preparation of calcare-' 
pus earth, sold in the shape of a brick. It is 
much better than sand for scouring knives and 
forks, brass and tin ware, and the like : the 
particles are not so hard, but are readily crushed 
into smaller pieces in the process of rubbing, 
and do not leave scratches, while they have 
sufficient hardness to remove a portion of the 
surface. In using, scrape off a portion with a 
knife, and apply with a damp cloth or cork; 
when it can be had, a corn cob makes the best 
of all scrubbers. 

BEANS. — The only beans used to any ex- 
tent in cooking are the string or " snap," the 
Lima, and the kidney. All these are easily raised; 
they will grow abundantly in the open fields 
along with corn. But to obtain them at their 



best they should be planted as soon as the 
frost is out of the ground, in a rich deep soil 
which they do not exhaust and in which they 
grow rapidly. Plant three at a time, in holes 
three inches deep : three feet apart for the 
dwarf, and four feet for the running vine. 
When the leaves above the seed leaves are 
fully out, hoe between the plants to loose the 
soil and remove the weeds ; after they get a 
foot high the weeds cannot hurt them. Snap 
or string beans, grown either as " pole beans " 
or as " bush beans," are plucked young and 
eaten in the pods. They are ready for the mar- 
ket in the South about the first of April and con- 
tinue with a succession of crops until Novem- 
ber. The Lima and kidney beans come in 
about the ist of May, and continue throughout 
the year, although during the winter months 
they are apt to be hard and dry. 

To Dry. — Lima beans pulled while young and 
tender and dried in the sun, may be put away 
and kept for use at any time. They should be 
thoroughly soaked before using. 

Kidney Beans. — Shell into cold water; boil 
until tender with a piece of fat bacon. Serve 
bacon and beans together. 

Lima or Butter Beans. — Shell into cold 
water ; let them lie awhile, and then put into 
a pot with plenty of boiling water, and a little 
salt, and boil fast, until tender. Drain, and 
butter well when dished, peppering to taste. 

Pork and Beans. — Put a quart of dried 
white beans over the fire with two quarts of 
cold water; after boiling a few minutes drain 
and add the same quantity of boiling water. 
When the skins begin to crack, drain the beans 
and put them in a "bean pot "or in a deep 
baking dish ; place in the centre a pound of 
sweet pork, the rind carefully scored in small 
squares ; pour a quart of hot water over the 
whole and bake slowly, for three hours. 

Some persons think this dish improved by a 
spoonful or two of molasses added while baking. 

Salad of Snap Beans. — Boil as above till 
tender; put them in a crockery dish, a few at a 
time, and sprinkle with salt and pepper; then 
cover over and leave to stand three or four 
hours. Drain out the water; put the beans in 
a salad-dish with sweet oil, vinegar, and parsley 
chopped fine ; and serve cold. 

String Beans. — Prepare by breaking off 
both ends, and after "stringing" pare both 
edges with a sharp knife. Then, cut the beans 
into pieces an inch long, soak in cold water with 
a little salt for twenty minutes ; drain them and 
put into a sauce-pan of boiling water, boil 
quickly about forty minutes, or until tender. 
Drain in cullender until water ceases to drip 
from them ; and dish with a large spoonful of 
butter. The taste of beans is greatly improved 
by boiling a bit of bacon with them ; though it 
is not necessary. 

BEAR-MEAT.— The flesh of the black 
bear is the only kind ever offered for sale in 
our markets, and this can generally be had in 
the late fall or winter months, some years in 
great plenty. It is very nutritious and heating 



BEAR-SKIN 



BEDS AND BEDDING 



21 



to the blood, digests easily, and has a decided 
but very savory taste. The flesh of a young 
bear, nearly grown and rather fat, is considered 
the best. It" can be had cut into steaks, but is 
best roasted. Cook like beef or venison, and 
serve with some highly-spiced sauce. 

Bear-Hams. — These can be had at any 
time, preserved like pork, and make a very 
popular and excellent dish for exceptional 
occasions. Cook and serve like ordinary hams. 

BEAR-SKIN. — A very thick woollen cloth, 
with a long nap or pile, dyed various colors, 
and used for making overcoats, cloaks, and 
other heavy clothing. It should be shrunk 
thoroughly before cutting. 

BED-BUGS. {See BuGS.) 

BEDROOMS. — Rooms devoted to sleeping 
purposes should above all things be light, 
cheerful, and thoroughly ventilated. A third 
of our lives is necessarily spent in these rooms, 
and where the current practice of reserving the 
parlor for "company" obtains, a great deal more. 
An ample supply of fresh air should be secured 
at all times and everywhere, but its necessity 
is peculiarly urgent in the case of bedrooms. 
We are much more susceptible to injurious 
influences when asleep than when awake, and 
.these accumulate with startling rapidity in an 
unventilated chamber in which two or more 
persons spend the night. An excellent plan is 
to open the window above and below ; lowering 
the upper sash, with an opening over the door, 
is also very effective. But if the bedroom, 
have no fireplace, it should be connected by 
tubes with the chimney-flue. At the same 
time the prevalent notion that a bedroom to 
be healthful must be cold is altogether mistaken. 
No room should be slept in in winter that has 
not had afire in it at least three times a week, 
and it is all the more wholesome if it have one 
every day. Warmth is in itself necessary to 
any thorough ventilation ; and the temperature 
of a bedroom should not be suffered to fall 
below 40". {See Furniture.) 

BEDS AND BEDDING.— For beds an 
elastic material is required, with a variation in 
its heat-conducting powers according to the 
season of the year and the age of the individual. 
Thus, the infant and the aged, in both of whom 
vitality is low, require the slowest conductor 
that can be procured, especially in the winter 
season. For the middle-aged on the other 
hand, the same material which is desirable for 
the first and last periods of life, would be much 
too warm and relaxing. In the order of their 
conducting powers the various materials for 
beds stand as follows, beginning with the 
warmest or slowest conductor : i st, dowUj 2d, 
feathers; 3d, ivool ; 4th, wool-flock; 5th, 
hair ; 6th, cottonflock ; 7th, "excelsior ;'''' 8th, 
sea-moss; 9th, paper-shavings ; and loth, 
straw. Hence it follows that the first two are 
peculiary fitted for the very young and the old ; 
while wool and hair, holding an intermediate 
position, are best adapted for healthy persons 
of middle age. Where a particularly cool mat- 
tress is required, as for those who perspire 



freely, or for warm weather, the sea-moss and 
paper-shavings are the best materials ; and as 
the latter can be obtained everywhere, a mat- 
tress made of it is often a very grateful addition 
to the furniture of a bed. Feathers and down 
were formerly almost universally employed for 
beds in this country, but their place is now 
largely supplied by wool and hair, which are 
sufficiently soft for comfort and not hot enough 
to promote perspiration. Wool mattresses are 
very healthy and pleasant to lie upon, though 
at first they feel rather hard and unyielding 
to those accustomed to feathers ; by placing a 
spring mattress under them they are rendered 
yielding enough for any one. The best of all 
materials for beds, however, is hair. It is 
more healthy than feathers, more comfortable 
than any of the cheaper materials, and is 
equally serviceable in summer and winter. 
Mattresses of it can be made thick or otherwise 
according as springs or other mattresses are 
used ; and though expensive, the same hair 
can be made over several times and so made 
to do many years' service. Straw mattresses 
are seldom used except for putting under hair 
or feather-beds ; where used for a top mattress 
the straw is generally mixed with moss or 
cotton. For the cheaper kinds of beds the mate- 
rial called " excelsior " is superior to any other. 

Springs add greatly to the comfort of a bed, 
and they can be had now in any style and at 
almost any price. Their cost is but little more 
than that of an under mattress, which can then 
be dispensed with. But the " spring mattress " 
should never be used ; it almost mevitably 
i becomes the harbor of bed-bugs and other 
vermin which cannot be got at without destroy- 
ing the mattress. The " woven-wire mattress," 
a recent invention, is probably the most perfect 
apparatus of the kind ever devised, and though 
expensive, will stand many years of ordinary 
use. The only objection to it we have heard 
is that when used long by heavy people it is 
liable to " sag." 

Pillows are seldom made of any other 
material than feathers, though hair, sponge, or 
chipped cork, is occasionally used. Feather 
pillows should never be stuffed very full, as 
this gives them a hardness and inelasticity 
which is pecuharly disagreeable and also in- 
jurious. In buying them it is best to choose 
the feathers first and have them made up to 
suit ; select goose or chicken feathers of the 
softest and most downy kind. Hair pillows 
are cooler than feather, though not so soft 
and yielding. They are recommended for 
persons with a tendency to fulness in the head, 
and for all young children. It is necessary to 
make them lower than those made of feathers. 
An excellent pillow for invalids or feeble 
persons is sold at the drug stores in the shape 
of an india-rubber sack, which can be inflated 
with air to any desired degree of flexibility. 

Sheets were formerly almost universally 
made of linen, but experience has proved that 
cotton is much better. Linen in any shape, 
when brought into contact with the skin, con- 



22 



BEDSTEAD 



BEEF 



ducts away the heat of the body very rapidly. 
In winter in our climate linen sheets are 
scarcely endurable on account of their cold- 
ness ; and, being comparatively impervious to 
air, and therefore confining perspiration, are 
inferior at all times to cotton. 

The best material for sheets is " Russian 
sheeting ; " it will last twice as long as any 
other, and though yellow at first will soon 
bleach. It is a mistake to make sheets exactly 




Figure of a Choice Animal for Beef. 

to fit the bed. They should be about a yard 
larger each way than the bed. 

Pillow-Cases of linen are very pleasant to 
the head, and may be appropriately used with 
cotton sheets. They are a luxury at best, how- 
ever, rumpling easily and requiring more fre- 
quent change than cleanliness alone would call 
for. A popular method of arrangement is to 
make the pillow-cases of cotton and cover the 
pillows during the day, while they are not in 
use, with linen "shams" — simple squares of 
linen which may be very tastefully ornamented. 



Blankets are treated of in a separate article. 
{See Blankets.) 

The materials of which beds and bedding 
are composed are peculiarly liable to attract 
moisture and become damp, and this is an- 
other reason why bedrooms should be thor- 
oughly ventilated. To sleep in a bed not 
perfectly dry is to invite disease ; therefore all 
bed-clothes should be carefully aired everyday. 
The bed itself should be turned over, and the 
sheets, blankets, and other cov- 
ering, spread out on chairs for 
at least an hour each morning. 

BEDSTEAD.— The different 
woods of which bedsteads are 
made, and various other styles, 
are treated of in the article on 
Furniture. We have only to 
add here that there is perhaps 
no single article on which a large 
amount of money makes so little 
show, and that a comparatively 
plain bedstead, constructed on 
proper principles, has a much 
better effect than some of the 
most elaborate and costly of cur- 
rent styles. 

Iron Bedsteads are made to 
fold together in small space, and 
are extremely durable and easy 
to keep clean. For these rea- 
sons, they serve admirably for 
servants' rooms, or any rooms 
where ornament is not sought 
after ; though wooden cots are 
preferable, as they do not rust. 

Bureau Bedstead. — A bedstead 
so constructed as to fold up into 
the exact resemblance of a bu- 
reau or bookcase. It is designed 
for sitting-rooms, or bed-cham- 
bers used as sitting-rooms ; and 
though rather clumsy to handle 
subserves the purpose admir- 
ably. It is patented and held at 
rather high prices. 

Sofa Bedstead is constructed 
on the same principle as the one 
above-named, and is a sofa by 
day which can be converted into 
a very comfortable bed at night. 
The sofa bed harbors bugs. 

BEEF. — In nearly all parts of 
the world beef is popularly re- 
garded as the most nutritious 
kind of flesh, and although this opinion was 
formed without the aid of science, it is so far 
true that in the carcass of the ox or cow there 
is a larger proportion of flesh-forming material 
than in that of any other animal. It is of closer 
texture than any other kind of meat, so that if 
bulk merely be taken as the measure, there is 
more nutriment in a given quantity of beef ; 
and it is also fullest of red blood juices. Be- 
sides this, the flavor of beef is richer and fuller 
than that of any other meat, so that its use not 
only affords greater enjoyment, but a sense of 



BEEF 



23 



satisfaction is obtained from a smaller quantity. 
It is also among the most digestible of meats, 
as it requires only about two hours and three 
quarters. 

The ox or cow which is designed for beef 
is usually divided by the butcher into parts 
as shown in the cut on the opposite page, 
and subdivided when retailed. The names 
which we have here given to the different 
pieces are those commonly 'in use in the city 
of New York and vicinity ; and although they 
differ somewhat in a few instances from those 
in use in various other cities, yet they will 
probably be sufficiently well understood by 
experienced butchers in all parts of the 
country. 

I. Porterhouse steak ; 2. Sirloin ; 3. Mid- 
dle ribs ; 4. Fore ribs ; 5. Lump ; 6. Mouse 
buttock ; 7. Chuck ribs ; 8. Round ; 9. Clod ; 
10. Shoulder; 11. Brisket; 12. Thin flank; 
13. Thick flank ; 14. Leg ; 15. Shin ; 16. Neck, 
or sticking-piece. 

In choosing beef select that which has a 
loose grain with bright red, lean, and yellowish 
fat ; this will be ox beef. Good cow-beef has 
a little firmer flesh, whitish fat, and meat 
not quite so red. Inferior beef, that which 
comes from ill-fed cattle or cattle too old 
for food, may be known by a dark red 
color, a hard, skinny fat, and in old animals a 
horny gristle running through the meat of the 
ribs. A very good test of beef and one easily 
applied, is to press the lean meat with the 
finger ; when the dent made by the pressure 
rises up quickly, the meat is from an animal 
in its prime, but when it rises slowly or not at 
all, the animal was old and the meat is of in- 
ferior quality. One rule which housekeepers 
should bear in mind always is, that the best meat 
and the prime parts are cheapest in the end. 
There is a greater proportion of gristle, bone, 
and hard meat in the inferior joints ; they may 
serve as the basis of soups, stews, and the like, 
but it is false economy to buy them for roast- 
ing or boiling 

To Corn Beef. — Take the thick, lean parts 
and cut into pieces of five to ten pounds each ; 
those with a streak of lean and a streak of fat 
are the choicest. For each twenty pounds of 
beef take three pounds of common salt, an 
ounce of saltpetre, and two tablespoonfuls of 
brown sugar ; pour in enough water to cover 
the whole. Beef may also be corned by simply 
rubbing in salt that has been dried before a fire. 
For ten pounds of beef take a pound and a half 
of common salt, rub in thoroughly, and set the 
meat in a salting dish and keep in a cool place ; 
the brine that melts should be returned upon 
the meat every day, and if it is desired to have 
it red, add a little saltpetre. The length of 
time it is to remain in the salt depends upon 
how long it is to be kept, usually from three to 
ten weeks. 

To Smoke Beef. — In cool weather hang up 
the beef for three or four days, till it is tender, 
but take care that it does not begin to spoil; 
then cure m pickle as in corned beef, adding a 



little pepper and allspice ; afterwards roll it 
tightly in a cloth and hang for a fortnight or 
three weeks in the chimney-place or over a 
smouldering wood fire. The lower part of the 
thigh is the best piece for this purpose ; and 
it will keep for a long time. 

A la Mode Beef. — I. Take a round of 
beef; remove the bone, and trim away all 
the gristle you can reach, and the rough 
outer edges. The meat should then be 
tied up round with a strong string or strip 
of muslin. Have ready a pound of fat salt 
pork, cut into strips about the size of the 
middle finger and long enough to reach through 
the round of beef. Put half a pint of vinegar 
into a sauce-pan over the fire ; season with 
three or four minced shallots or button onions, 
two teaspoonfuls of mustard, one of nutmeg, 
one of cloves, half a teaspoonful of allspice, 
half a teaspoonful of black pepper, a bunch of 
sweet herbs cut fine, and a tablespoonful of 
brown sugar. Let all simmer five minutes then 
boil up once, and pour while scaldmg hot upon 
the strips of pork, which should be laid in a 
deep dish. Let all stand together until cold. 
Remove the pork to a plate, and with the 
liquor remaining in the dish mix enough bread- 
crumbs to make a tolerably stiff force-meat. 
With a long thin-bladed knife, make numerous 
incisions in the beef, and into these, thrust in 
the strips of pork so far down that the upper 
ends are just level with the surface, also work 
into each cavity a little of the force-meat. 
Proceed thus until the beef is fairly riddled 
and plugged with the pork. Fill the hole from 
which the bone was taken with the dressing 
and bits of pork, and rub the upper side of the 
meat with the force-meat. Put into a baking 
pan, with a little water to prevent burning ; 
turn a large pan over it to keep in the steam, 
and roast slowly for five or six hours — allowing 
half an hour to each pound of meat. Do not 
remove the cover except to baste (which must 
be done often) until fifteen minutes before you 
draw it from the oven. Set away, with the 
string or band still about it, and pour the gravy 
over the meat. When cold, lift from the gravy, 
cut and remove the string, and send the meat 
to the table cold, garnished with parsley or 
nasturtium blossoms. Carve in extremely thin 
slices. This dish will keep for a week in 
winter, and in summer too, if kept in the 
refrigerator. 

IL A simpler way of making a la mode beef 
is this : Take a round of beef and cut numer- 
ous holes entirely through it ; roll strips of raw 
salt pork in a seasoning made of half a tea- 
spoonful each of thyme, cloves, salt and pep- 
per ; then draw these strips through the holes 
in the beef. Put half a dozen small onions 
into a sauce-pan with a quarter of a pound of 
butter and two tablespoonfuls of milk, and 
stew until soft (or the onions can be cooked 
separately); then put these onions with the beef 
into a pot, pour on just enough hot water to 
cover them, and let it boil slowly four or five 
hours. Just before taking up add a pint of 



24 



BEEF 



claret or port wine. This dish may be served 
either warm or cold. 

Baked Beef. — Our so-called roast meats are 
almost invariably baked. To bake beef, 
select as for roasting. Have about a quarter 
of an inch of cold water in the bake-pan, and 
da-sh a httle boiling water over the meat just 
before putting into the oven. If the meat is 
preferred rare, allow a quarter of an hour to 
each pound ; if well done, almost twenty min- 
utes. The thin portions of the meat should 
be covered with paper or it will be cooked to 
death ; Professor Blot also recommends that 
a sheet of buttered paper be placed over the 
top. This paper will keep the top of the meat 
moist, and prevents it burning or drying ; it 
should be basted often or it will scorch. 
Serve on a hot dish like roast beef. 

Boiled Beef. — If the meat be fresh put it 
into boiling water at the start ; if salt, put in 
cold water. Let it boil gently but steadily, and 
if there be occasion to add more water be 
careful that it is boiling water ; remove the 
scum as it rises, especially at the start. A 
tablespoonful of salt added brings the scum to 
the surface. The time allowed for boiling is a 
quarter of an hour to each pound of meat, and 
vvhen once thoroughly done do not let it boil a 
moment longer. 

Bouilli (Beef). — Put six pounds of brisket 
or round (whole) into a pot, with three carrots, 
one turnip, an onion, and some celery, all cut 
small ; cover with cold water and set on to 
boil; as the scum rises remove it carefully. 
Keep it simmering for three or four hours, 
adding hot water as the water boils away ; 
then draw off most of the soup and set it aside 
to cool. To the soup more vegetables, pre- 
viously cut small and boiled by themselves, 
may be added ; or it may be served in a tureen 
with vermicelli. The meat, from which the 
bones should be removed, may then be served, 
garnished with the vegetables boiled with it. 
A sauce, made of the soup thickened with 
flour and butter and flavored with mustard and 
the vinegar of pickled walnuts, is sometimes 
served with the meat. 

Corned Beef, Boiled. — The brisket is the 
most economical piece for a family dinner, but 
the round is excellent. Wash the meat in 
three or four waters (cold) and scrape all the 
salt from the outside ; put into a pot and cover 
with cold water ; allow twenty minutes to each 
pound, and turn the meat three times while 
cooking. When done, drain very dry, and 
serve with drawn butter. Turnips or cabbage 
should be served with corn-beef ; they may be 
boiled with it, or separately. 

Corued Beef, Boiled with Peas. — Take 
six or eight pounds of corned beef, wash in cold 
water; put it in a large pot filled with cold 
water, and add two quarts of dried peas. Let 
them boil till soft, and then season with sweet 
herbs ; or it may be served with no other 
seasoning than a little pepper and the salt of 
the meat. 

Dried Beef (with Cream). — Chip the beef 



thin and fine, with a knife, or on the potato 
slicer; measure a pint, without pressing; cover 
with cold water ; heat slowly and if very salt 
let it simmer a moment; drain off the water, 
add a gill of rich cream and season with pepper. 
Lacking cream, use milk with one ounce of 
butter and a teaspoonful of flour. Served on 
split crackers or toast it requires more dressing. 

Hash (Beef). — Chop cold roast beef or steak 
or boiled corned beef fine ; add half as much 
mashed potatoes (or potatoes cut into bits), a 
little melted butter, pepper, salt, and milk. 
Turn all into a frying-pan and stir together 
until it is heated through and smoking hot, but 
not until it browns ; put into a deep dish and 
if stiff enough shape as you would mashed 
potatoes into a hillock. Or, cease stirring for a 
few minutes, and let a brown crust form on the 
under side ; then turn out whole into a flat 
dish, the brown side uppermost. Or, mould 
the mixture into flat cakes ; dip these in beaten 
eggs, and fry in hot drippings. 

Heart (of Beef). — Wash the heart well, and 
cut into half-inch squares ; stew them ten min- 
utes in enough water to cover them ; throw in 
a httle salt to draw out the blood, and skim it 
off as it rises to the surface. Take out the 
meat and strain the liquor ; then return the 
meat to it with a sliced onion, a tablespoonful 
of catsup, some parsley, a pinch of cayenne 
pepper, a head of celery chopped fine, and a 
large lump of butter. Stew until the meat is 
tender, and then stir in a tablespoonful of 
browned flour. Boil up once, and serve hot. 

Kidneys (of Beef). — Cut the kidney in four 
pieces, trim off as carefully as possible the 
cartilage and fat that are inside. Trim and 
cut into thin slices ; place on the fire with 
enough cold water to cover ; as soon as they 
boil, remove them and carefully wash in plenty 
of cold water ; drain them free of water, put 
them in a sautoir with 2 oz butter, and 2 
oz onion, cut fine ; brown well over a sharp 
fire, then add i oz of flour, shaking it well 
together, a gill and a half of gravy or broth, 
a glass of Madeira, and two tablespoonfuls 
chopped and blanched parsley. Boil a minute 
or two. Dish up on an oval cronstade, ar- 
range six or eight heart-shaped croutons. 

Liver (of Beef). — Cut in slices half an inch 
thick, pour boiling water over it, and boil 
it with half as much salt pork cut in thin 
slices, and dipped in flour ; then cut up the liver 
and pork into small bits, put them into a 
frying-pan, with a little butter, pepper and salt, 
and stew three or four minutes. Serve hot. 

Pie (Beef). — Take cold roast beef or steak, 
cut into thin slices and put a layer into a pie- 
dish ; shake over it a little flour, pepper and 
salt, and add a tomato or an onion cut very fine ; 
then another layer of beef and seasoning; and 
so on until the dish is filled. If you have any 
beef gravy, put it in ; if not, a little beef drip- 
pings, and water enough to make sufficient 
gravy. Have ready a dozen potatoes, boiled 
and mashed, half a cup of milk or cream, and a 
little butter and salt ; mix. Spread it over the pie 



BEEF 



25 



as a crust, an inch thick; then brush it over 
with egg, and bake half an hour. 

Pie (Beef steak with Oysters). — Cut three 

pounds of tender beef into little steaks ; brown 
quickly in a frying pan ; place them in layers in 
a baking dish, leaving the centre open ; fill this 
with parboiled oysters, seasoned with salt and 
pepper ; pour nearly all the fat from the frying 
pan ; stir in a heaped tablespoonful of flour ; 
add gradually a pint of thin gravy or broth and 
some of the oyster liquor ; season with mush- 
room catsup and Harvey sauce ; simmer until 
thickened, pour it over the beef ; in half an hour 
cover with puff paste and bake an hour and a 
half. 

Pie (Beef, ■with Potato Crust). — Take cold 
roast or corned beef, cut in bits, season with 
pepper and salt, and spread a layer in the bot- 
tom of a pie-dish ; over this put a layer of 
mashed potato, and stick bits of butter thickly 
all over it ; then another layer of meat ; and so 
on till near the top of the dish. For the crust 
take a large cupful of mashed potato, two 
teaspoonfuls of melted butter, a well-beaten 
egg, two cups of milk, and beat all together 
until very light ; work in just enough flour to 
enable you to roll it out in a sheet, and, hav- 
ing added to the meat and potato in the dish a 
gravy made of w^arm water, butter, milk, and 
catsup, mixed with cold gravy or drippings, 
cover the pie with a thick crust, cutting a slit 
in the top. Bake half an hour. The pie looks 
better brushed over with beaten egg before it 
goes to the oven. 

Pie (Beef Steak) Take a sirloin steak, beat 

until very tender, take off all the fat, cut 
strips, three inches long and one broad. Stew 
in enough water to cover, adding one medium- 
sized onion, grated, with salt and pepper to 
taste. Boil until half done, thickening the gra- 
vy with browned flour. Put in a deep dish, 
the sides of which have been lined with rich 
paste ; cover with the same, slit the top, and 
bake until a light brown. It may, if desired, be 
seasoned with tomato catsup, or Chili sauce, 
and slices of hard-boiled egg added to the beef. 

Roast Beef. — The best pieces to roast are 
the sirloin and thick ribs. Rub a little salt on 
it and first turn the bony side to the fire till it 
gets heated : then present the other side. The 
meat should be placed as close to the fire as 
possible without burning it, especially till the 
outer crusf is formed ; the sooner this crust 
is achieved the better and more juicy will be 
the meat. Baste frequently, at first with salt 
and water, afterwards with the drippings. If 
the roasting-piece be thick, allow about twenty 
minutes to the pound — if thin, a little less ; in 
frosty weather the total time will have to be 
increased by half an hour. Roast beef may be 
served simply in its own drippings, with the 
fat skimmed off, and this is the best way ; but 
if " made gravy " is desired, pour off the drip- 
pings half an hour before the meat is done, 
and thicken with a little brown flour, seasoning 
with salt and pepper to taste. It may also be 
served with fried potatoes placed all around the 



meat on the same dish, or In a separate one, 
with horse-radish, grated and mixed with the 
drippings ; or with stuffed tomatoes, placed 
round the meat and covered with the drippings, 
with mustard used as a sauce, or with YorkshTre 
Pudding. 

Steak (Beef). — The tenderloin and fillet 
make the best steaks, but the sirloin of a very 
good animal will furnish them only a little 
inferior. Steaks almost equal to those from 
the sirloin may be obtained from the rump ; 
the next in favor are those cut from the hip. 
Generally speaking the best thickness for 
steaks is about three quarters of an inch. 
In preparing to cook do not pound or beat 
the steak with a steak-mallet, or stick it with 
a knife under the impression that you are 
making it tender ; for if by this, or any other 
means, you make it more tender than be- 
fore, you do so at the sacrifice of taste, juici- 
ness, and appearance. It i^ much to be 
preferred that when you buy your steak you 
obtain it tender in the first place by having 
it cut from a good animal. If the steak is 
not a tender cut, such as one taken from the 
round, for example, it is better to stew than to 
broil it. 

Steak (Beef) to Broil. — First be careful to see 
that the fire is quite clear, and at the same 
time not too great. Now open wide the 
draughts so the smoke will be well carried off. 
Have the gridiron very clean and smooth, 
make it warm and rub it over with a piece of 
suet ; now lay on the steak, sprinkle a little 
salt on the fire to make it lively, and put the 
gridiron over it, keeping it close down on the 
range a few minutes to carbonize the surface 
of the steak, then turn it to carbonize the other 
surface. Now it is necessary to expose the 
steak to less heat, which may be done by turn- 
ing on their edges two bricks and placing the 
gridiron on them. The steak should be turned 
often and carefully w'ithout sticking a fork 
into it on any account (tongs are best for 
this purpose). Do not use salt or pepper 
while cooking, as it liberates the juice, w hich 
is thus lost in the fire. When the steak 
feels rather firm to the touch it is rare, and 
if it is so to be served, remove from the 
fire to a hot dish upon which an ounce of 
butter has been melted (with a teaspoonful 
of lemon juice if desired), and salt and 
pepper to taste. Turn the steak on its dish, 
and send to the table at once. 

Steak (Beef) with Eggs. — Cut the steak 
into pieces of convenient size, dip them in 
beaten eggs, rolled in bread-crumbs, and then 
broil. Serve either with potatoes or with to- 
mato catsup. 

Steak (Beef) with Onions. — Broil the 
steak, as above. Cut up six onions quite fine ; 
put them into a sauce-pan with a cup of hot 
water, a tablespoonful of flour, enough salt 
and pepper to season, and a tablespoonful of 
butter ; let it stew until the onions are quite 
soft, and then turn the whole over the steak 
quite hot. 



26 



BEEF 



Steak (Beef) with Oyster Sauce. — Broil 
the steak as above. Put the liquor of a 
quart of oysters into a sauce-pan, with two table- 
spoonfuls of butter mixed with a little flour, and 
let it come to a boil ; turn in the oysters ; let this 
boil up once, and then turn it over the steak, 
and serve hot. 

Stewed Beef. — Beef may be stewed either 
whole or cut into small pieces ; the cheaper joints 
will answer very well. There are many receipts 
for stewing ; this is excellent and economical. 
Take a leg or shin of beef, leaving all the 
meat on, and put into a pot with about a gallon 
of water, adding a tablespoonful of salt. Let it 
simmer very slowly for several hours, till the 
beef is soft and falls from the bone, and the wa- 
ter is reduced to about two quarts. Then pare 
some potatoes, quarter them, and throw in with 
two teaspoonfuls of black pepper, two of sweet 
marjoram, and two of thyme. Add some celery or 
celery sauce, ii it is to be had, and more salt if 
needed. Stew until the potatoes are thorough- 
ly done. Finally throw in some dry bread, 
broken into small pieces ; and when this is 
soaked dish the whole and serve. 

n. A more elaborate dish may be made from 
five or six pounds of rump or ribs. Take a 
half-pound piece of salt pork, cut it into bits, 
and place in a sauce-pan with four sprigs of 
parsley, two of thyme, a clove of garlic, a sprig 
of sweet basil, two cloves, three carrots cut in 
pieces, salt, and pepper; put the piece of beef on 
the whole, wet with a glass of broth and one 
of white wine ; season with six or eight small 
onions ; place in a moderately heated oven, 
and put paste around the cover to keep it air- 
tight. Simmer about six hours ; then dish the 
meat with the onions and carrots around it, 
strain the gravy on the whole, and serve. 
Almost any piece of beef maybe cooked in this 
way. 

Shin of Beef. — Put a shin of beef into a 
pot with eight quarts of cold water and a 
tablespoonful of salt ; just before it comes to a 
boil skim it carefully ; let it boil all day, and 
as the water boils away, add just enough (hot) 
from time to time to keep it from burning. 
When the meat is boiled to shreds, turn it out 
into a pan and pick out every piece of bone ; 
then put back into the pot, season well with 
pepper and salt, cloves, allspice, and a little 
sweet herbs, and let it simmer half an hour; 
empty into a deep dish and set it away. When 
cold it will be as hard as cheese, and will keep 
a week in summer (on ice), and a month in 
winter. Serve cold with baked potatoes. 

Tea (Beef). — Take half a pound of lean beef; 
cut into small pieces, add a pint of cold water 
and soak for two hours. Let the whole simmer 
for half an hour, then strain it. This prepara- 
tion is superior in nutritive properties to the 
various extracts of beef now sold. 

Tongue (Beef), Boiled. — A tongue, if salted 
or dried, must be soaked for some hours before 
cooking. Then put with cold water into a 
sauce-pan, and bring slowly to a boiling point ; 
clear off the scum from the surface,- and 



remove the sauce-pan from the fire so far as to 
reduce the boiling to a gentle simmering. If 
dried, a tongue will require about four hours 
boiling, if simply salted, only three hours. 
While hot, the outer skin of the tongue must 
be peeled off, and it is then ready for serving. 
Boiled turnips are a good accompanying dish. 
Boiled tongue is also excellent when cold. 

Tongue (Beef), Roasted. — Parboil a tongue 
that has only been salted a few days ; roast in 
the usual way before a hot fire, basting with 
red wine ; spread butter over it when placed 
on dish. Serve with a rich gravy or some 
sweet sauce. 

Tongue (Beef), Stewed. — Simmer it two 
hours in water just sufficient to cover it ; then 
peel it and put back into the water, adding to 
it a half spoonful each of pepper, mace and 
cloves, tied up together in a piece of muslin. 
Cut three or four turnips and capers very small, 
slice three carrots, and add them also to the 
meat, with half a pint of beef gravy or drip- 
pings, a wineglass of white wine, and a bunch 
of sweet herbs. Stew all together slowly for 
an hour and a half longer ; and then take out 
the spices and sweet herbs, and thicken the 
gravy with browned flour and a bit of butter. 

Tongue (Beef), to Pickle. — Mix, in four 
gallons of water, a pound and a half of brown 
sugar and two ounces of saltpetre or saleratus ; 
if it is to last a month add six pounds of salt, 
if all summer, nine pounds. Boil all together 
gently till done, skim, and then let it cool. Put 
the meat in the vessel in which it is to stand, 
pour in sufficient of the pickle to cover it, and 
set it away for use. Once in two months the 
pickle should be drained off, boiled and skim- 
med, and have half a pound of salt and two 
ounces of sugar added to it. This pickle is 
excellent for preserving either beef, pork, 
tongues, or dried beef. 

Tripe (Beef), to prepare. — Scrape and wash 
several times in boiling water; then soak it a 
week in salt and water, changing the water 
every day. Boil it eight or ten hours, till ten- 
der; and then pour spiced hot vinegar over it. 
Tripe can generally be had of the butchers al- 
ready prepared. 

Tripe (Beef), Broiled. — Cut in slices of con- 
venient size, dip them in lukewarm butter, roll 
in bread-crumbs, place on a gridiron, and set it 
on a moderate fire. Turn the tripe over as 
often as is necessary to broil it well, and serve 
with tomato sauce. 

Tripe (Beef), Fried. — The honeycomb is the 
best for this. Cut into convenient pieces, wash 
them in salt and water (cold), and wipe dry; 
dip them in eggs and bread-crumbs, or Indian 
meal batter, and fry in hot fat. This dish is 
greatly improved if served with oyster sauce 
poured over it. 

Tripe (Beef), Stewed. — Professor Blot 
recommends this : Put in a stew-pan two ounces 
of salt pork cut in bits, three carrots cut in 
slices, eight small onions, four cloves, two baj^- 
leaves, two cloves of garlic, a piece of nutmeg, 
four sprigs of parsley, two of thyme, a dozen 



BEE-KEEPING 



27 



stalks of chives, six pepper-corns, the fourth 
part of an ox-foot cut in four pieces, salt, pepper, 
about two ounces of ham cut in bits, then three 
pounds of double tripe on the whole ; spread 
two ounces of fat bacon cut in thin shces over 
the top ; wet slightly with half white wine and 
half water, or water only if you choose ; put 
the cover on, and if not air-tight, put some 
paste around ; set in a slow oven for six hours, 
then take the tripe out, strain the sauce, skim 
off the fat when cool ; then put the tripe and 
sauce again in the pan, warm well, and serve 
in crockery plates, or bowls placed in chafing- 
dishes, as it is necessary to keep it warm while 
eating. It is good with water only, but better 
with the wine. 

BEE-KEEPING. — The apiary or place for 
keeping the bee-hives should be well-sheltered 
and with a southern, eastern, or south-eastern 
exposure so as to get the sunshine during the 
day ; it should also be selected with reference 
to the natural food of bees and whether it is 
likely to be in sufficient abundance. Gardens, 
fruit-trees, or flowers, should be in the vicinity ; 
and there should be no large surfaces of water 
near, lest the bees, overcome by cold or fatigue, 
should be compelled to alight on them, or be 
driven down by the wind. Foul smells are 
annoying to bees', and therefore they should 
never be placed near barn-yards, stables, pig- 
styes or the like. The hives should be placed 
in a row on a raised platform elevated a few 
inches or a foot above the earth, and should 
be not less than two feet apart. It is considered 
best to have a separate platform for each hive, 
in order to prevent bees wandering into other 
hives than their own ; and each hive should be 
painted in a different color so as to help the 
bees in identifying them. When the hives have 
been once located they should not be removed 
more than a few feet ; for the bees when first 
flying forth mark all the surrounding objects as 
guides for their return, and if any serious 
change is made they lose their way and fly off. 
There are many kinds of bee-hives, some 
held under patents and very ingeniously con- 
trived, but those most commonly used are 
simply tall square boxes, placed on a platform 
so as to leave a small shelf in front. The 
chamber hive is made with two compart- 
ments, — the lower for 
the residence of the 
bees, the upper to hold 



the boxes in which the 
bees deposit their hon- 
ey after having filled 
the lower part. It is 
sometimes made larger 
at the top than at the 
bottom to keep the hon- 
eycomb from slipping 
down ; and it is also fur- 
nished with inclined bot- 
tom boards to roll out the worms that fall upon 
them. The dividing hives are made with 
several apartments so as to enable the bee-keep- 
er to multiply the number of colonies without 




Chamber Hive. 



the trouble of swarming and hiving. The 
partitions are designed so as to separate 
the brood combs ; a part of the bees are 
divided off and placed by themselves to go 




Dividing Hives. 

on making honey and multiplying in every 
respect like a natural swarm. In practice, 
however, this is not found always to work, 
as occasionally in one apartment there will 
be no brood from which to raise a queen. 
Swarming hives are sometimes used ; they 
are made in sections, so that by closing all 
or a part of them the space which the bees 
occupy is lessened, they are crowded out, 
and their swarming hastened. Now, swarmers 
are so arranged as to allow the bees to go on 
accumulating honey and increasing in number, 
and in theory not swarm at all. A hive of bees 
is put into a bee house and empty hives con- 
nected with it so that as one becomes filled the 
bees may pass on to the adjoining one. Ordinary 
straw hives are best of all, however, on account 




of the protection they afford against the 
heat of summer and the cold of winter. Bees 
reqidre a war^n iefnperature. They appear 
to have the faculty of perceiving the ap- 
proach of cold weather or rain, and are seldom 
caught in a shower unless at a great distance 
from home. Cold is their great enemy, and in 
this cHmate the hives must be kept well shel- 
tered and warm during the winter. In order 
to protect the ordinary hives, cover them with 
a thatch of straw or heavy cloth about the end 
of October, or earher if the season be inclement. 
This is very essential, and well-covered hives 
are always in a better condition the following 
spring than such as have not been covered. As 
the frost comes on, the aperture at which the 
bees enter should be narrowed so as to admit 
the passage of only one bee at a time. A very 
little air will suffice for them in winter, when 



28 



BEE-KEEPING 



BEER 



they are mostly in a semi-torpid state ; and it 
were better for them, during severe weather, 
if the hive were entirely under cover, as many 
are lost from being enticed to quit the hive 
by the sunshine of a clear day. The dead bees 
and other dirt, which the living at this season 
are not able to move for themselves, should be 
removed with a crooked wire. Great care 
must be taken not to let snow or ice close up 
entirely the apertures of the hives, as in that 
case the bees will inevitably be smothered. 

The feeding of bees in winter is an impor- 
tant branch of bee-keeping. To the hives 
whose stock of honey is sufficient for supply- 
ing it, no further attention need be given tUl 
the breeding season arrives ; this, in warm 
locations, will come about the end of May, and 
in those which are cold, a month later. The 
young bees, for a short time before they leave 
their cells and for sometime after, require to 
be fed regularly ; and if the honey in the hive be 
exhausted, and the weather such that the bees 
cannot go forth to collect food, they kill and 
throw out some of their la.rv3e. To prevent 
such accidents it is advisable if it should rain 
for two successive days to feed all the bees 
indiscriminately during the breeding season. 
The way to decide whether the bees will need 
feeding is to examine the hives about the 
beginning of October, and if a large hive does 
not weigh thirty pounds, it will be necessary 
to allow them half a pound of honey or the 
same quantity of sugar made into syrup, every 
day until the required amount is stored. Brown 
sugar dissolved in water, and boiled to evapor- 
ate the water, is a good food for bees. The 
syrup should be boiled until it begins to be 
brittle when cooled. This or common sugar 
candy may be fed to the bees, in the hives or 
under them; if fed to them in the liquid state 
it may be introduced into the hives in shallow 
dishes, a couple of small sticks being laid 
across the surface to enable the bees to eat 
without getting into it. 

The worst foe that the bee-keeper has to 
contend with is the bee moth, vv^hich remains 
in hiding during the day and may often be 
found around the hive, but hovers about during 
the evening trying to enter the hive and deposit 
its eggs. The best safeguard against this pest 
is to have the hive well-jointed and painted, 
the entrances not too large, the bees numerous 
and vigorous, and to examine the hive daily 
from the beginning of May until September or 
October. Many moths may be destroyed by 
catching them in shallow dishes containing 
sweetened water and a little vinegar. Hollow 
sticks, and similar things are often placed on 
the bottom board, where the worms hatched 
from the eggs may take refuge and be destroyed. 
These caterpillars at first are not thicker than 
a thread and are of a yellowish white color 
with a few brownish specks. They live in the 
wax, eating it, and fill the comb with webs, 
protecting themselves from the bees, meanwhile, 
by a silken sack which they spin and in which 
they lodge. It is necessary to look often under 



the bottom of the hive, and under the blocks 
or shells on which it rests. 

The honey may be taken from the " chamber " 
or " dividing " hives almost without molesting 
the bees ; but from the ordinary hives it is 
taken generally by suffocating the bees with 
sulphur, chloroform, or tobacco smoke. When 
sulphur is used, smear linen rags with melted 
sulphur, place a few pieces under the hive, and 
burn them slowly. In a few minutes the bees 
will fall to the floor of the hive, where they 
may be removed and buried to prevent resuscita- 
tion. The combs, being thus cleared of bees, 
may be cut out at leisure. When the preserva- 
tion of the bee is desired, the following method 
of obtaining the honey is a good one : Having 
ascertained the weight of the hive and deter- 
mined on the amount of honey to be taken out, 
begin the operation as soon as it is dark by 
inverting the full hive and placing over it one 
of exactly the same size. A sheet must be 
tied round the whole to prevent the bees from 
molesting the operator. The hives being thus 
arranged, beat the sides of the lower hive 
gently with a stick ; the bees will then ascend 
into the upper hive, which may be known by a 
loud humming noise inside. The bees may also 
be driven up by smoking slightly with burning 
paper. When all the bees have ascended, the 
upper hive may be placed upon the pedestal 
from which the full hive was removed, when 
the latter is taken into the house and the honey 
extracted. Particular care must be taken to 
cut only one comb at a time, and not to take 
too much. When a sufficient quantity has 
been obtained, the hive must be placed over 
the one containing the bees, which must be 
reversed, and both left in that position till morn- 
ing; it will then be found that the bees have taken 
possession of their former hive, and if the sea- 
son prove favorable they will be able to make a 
sufficient quantity of comb and honey to replace 
that which was lost. If the honey is taken 
early in the season, immediately after the first 
swarming, the whole of it may be cut out, and 
the bees will probably make enough honey for 
their winter store ; but in this case the hive 
cannot be expected to be full of honey, because 
the bees, in June and July, are chiefly occupied 
in breeding ; and thus one if not two swarms 
are lost. 

BEER. — Properly speaking beer includes 
all the liquors made from malted grain, and it 
is so applied in England ; but in this country 
the name " ale " is given to the heavier spiritu- 
ous kinds, and by beer is meant only the light 
fermented beverages, and decoctions from vari- 
ous roots. These are very numerous, and they 
are made differently in different parts of the 
country; but the following recipes may be 
recommended :— 

Dandelion Beer.— Take :-Wa.ter, 2 galls; 
dandelions, i peck; molasses, i quart; yeast, 
I pint. 

Put two gallons of water into a pot, and add 
a peck of dandelions ; boil them about 2 hours •, 
strain it into a jug or keg, and add i quart of 



BEER 



BEET 



29 



molasses and a pint of good yeast. Set it to 
ferment twelve hours ; then bottle it and tie 
down the cork, and it is ready for use. 

Ginger Beer (I.) Take .--Water, 9 galls ; 

sugar, 10 lbs; ginger-root, 11 oz ; lemon-juice, 
9 oz ; honey, \ lb ; yeast, 3 pints ; &<gg, white 
of, I ; essence of lemon, ^ oz. 

Take nine gallons of water, ten pounds of 
brown or white sugar, eleven ounces of bruised 
ginger-root, nine ounces of lemon-juice, half a 
pound of honey, and three pints of yeast ; boil 
the ginger half an hour in a gallon of the water, 
then add the rest of the water and the other 
ingredients, and set it aside. When cold, strain 
it and add the white of one egg beaten, and 
half an ounce of essence of lemon. Let it 
stand four days, then bottle, and it will keep 
many months. 

(11.) Take .--Water, i gall ; ginger, 2 oz ; mo- 
lasses, I pt ; yeast, I pt. 

(III.) (Simpler). — Take one gallon of warm 
water, two ounces of ginger, one pint of molas- 
ses, and half a pint of good yeast. Put this 
into a stone jug ; shake it up well ; set it to 
rise for twelve hours ; then cork it tight, or 
bottle, and it is ready for use. 

Lager. {See Lager Beer.) 

Quick Beer. 

Take fourteen pounds of molasses and six 
ounces of hops, and boil them two hours in 
eleven gallons of water ; when cooked suffi- 
ciently, add one pint of good yeast. Let it 
work in a tub covered up for sixteen hours ; 
when the working is over, put it into a cask, 
and let it work there three or four days ; then 
bung it down, or pour it from the cask and 
bottle it. The beer will be fit to drink in a 
week, and will be as strong as porter. If a 
weaker beer for table use is desired, use more 
water in proportion to the other ingredients. 

Sassafras Beer. — 7«>6t'.--Boiling water, 2 qts ; 
cream-tartar, 2 tablespoonfuls ; oil of sassafras 
10 drops; oil of wintergreen, 10 drops; oil 
of spruce, 10 drops ; cold water, 8 qts ; yeast, 
I pt ; sugar. 

Pour two quarts of boiling water upon two 
large spoonfuls of cream-tartar, and add ten 
drops of oil of sassafras, ten drops of oil of 
spruce, ten drops of oil of wintergreen ; then 
add eight quarts of cold water and a pint of 
good yeast, and sweeten to taste. Let it stand 
twenty-four hours and then bottle it. This 
makes a delicious summer beverage. 

Spruce Beer. — Take : -V>o\\\xig water, 18 
gals; molasses or sugar, 12 lbs; essence of 
spruce, 14 oz; yeast, i pt. 

A very wholesome effervescing beer made 
of molasses and the extract of the spruce fir. 

Brown Spnice beer is made thus : add 
to eighteen gallons of boiling water twelve 
pounds of molasses and fourteen ounces of 
spruce. Let the mixture cool, and when 
lukewarm, add one pint of yeast and set aside 
to ferment ; in warm weatlier less yeast will 
suffice. While the fermentation is going on 
remove the yeast by skimming, and when the 
fermentation becomes languid, which usually 



happens in two days, put the beer into stone 
bottles and tie the corks down with pack thread. 
White Spruce beer is made in the same 
way, except that white or brown sugar is used 
instead of molasses, and it has a very superior 
flavor. Spruce beer will counteract any ten- 
dency to the scurvy. 

Sugar Beer. — Take .--Hops, x]/, lbs ; boiling 
water, 11 galls ; sugar, 14 lbs; yeast, i pt. 

Procure a ten-gallon cask, fit its head in, put 
a cock into the side one inch above the bottom, 
then make a hole in the top and stop it with a 
cork. Put a pound and a half of hops into 
any convenient vessel and pour over them 
eleven gallons of boiling water (if you have a 
large enough pot it is best to boil the hops and 
water five minutes); strain off the liquor and 
add to it fourteen pounds of sugar; mix one 
pint of good yeast with this, and pour the 
whole into the cask through the hole in the 
top. It will soon ferment, and the yeast will 
appear through the hole in the head ; as this 
works out letit fall back again into the cask. 
In summer it will require about three weeks to 
complete the fermentation, and as this slackens 
towards the latter part, the cork should be 
kept in the hole most of the time to prevent 
the access of too much air; but the cork 
should be removed now and then to let the 
fixed air inside escape. When the fermenta- 
tion has stopped, and the sweet taste of the 
sugar is barely perceptible, drive the cork in 
tight, and in four days the beer will be fit for 
draught or for bottling. Care must be taken 
to ferment sufficiently, but not so long that the 
liquor becomes flat, as then it soon sours. 
White sugar makes beer of the purest flavor 
and palest color, but brown will answer. 

BEET. — The common beet is grown in 
several varieties for table use, differing from 
each other in size, shape, color, and sweetness. 
The large red kind is called the blood-beet, 
and is much cultivated, but the " small red " 
and the " long yellow " are the sweetest and 
most delicate and have the richest color when 
served. Beets must be grown in a rich, light, 
sandy soil which they can penetrate easily. 
Plant as soon as the frost is out of the ground 
in rows eighteen inches apart ; they can be 
obtained earlier in the season by raising the 
seeds in a hot bed till they are four or five 
inches high and then transplanting them to the 
garden. 

Mangel-Wurzel is a very large and coarse 
variety of the beet which is extremely prolific 
and easily cultivated, and makes excellent food 
for cattle and especially for milch cows. The 
sea beet is a perennial and one of the most 
valuable plants known for greens. It thrives 
in gardens without any care at all, and is grown 
from seeds which it produces in great abun- 
dance. The season for beets begins about June 
I St and continues throughout the year. 

Boiled Beets. — Set ni a pan, cover them 
with cold water, place over a good fire and boil 
till tender. They will require one hour in 
summer and three in winter. Beets must not 



30 



BEGONIA 



BEVERAGES 



be bruised or have the skin broken before 
being cooked, or they will lose their color and 
most of their good qualities. A little salt add- 
ed to the water improves them. When done, 
rub off the skin, and split them lengthwise if 
young, or slice them round if large ; butter well 
in tlie dish, and season to taste with salt 
and pepper. Hot beets are not very healthy 
if eaten in any considerable quantity; they 
may be sliced when cold, and served in vine- 
gar. 

Pickled (or Canned) Beets. — Boil as above ; 
when done put them in jars and cover them 
with very salt water. When cool, put the jars 
in a boiler full of cold water ; set on the fire 
and boil from twenty to thirty minutes, then 
seal them immediately; set the jars away in a 
dark, cool closet, and use as required. 

Salad (Beet). — Boil in the usual way; when 
cold, peel and slice them; serve in vinegar, 
salt and pepper, and a little oil. 

Stewed Beets. — Boil young sweet beets 
till nearly done ; skin and slice them. Serve 
in a gravy made as follows : Put into a sauce- ! 
pan two tablespoonfuls of butter, two of vinegar, 
some salt and pepper, and add one shalot 
minced and a little parsley ; set on the fire and 
let it simmer twenty minutes, shaking the sauce- 
pan occasionally. 

BEGONIA. — A very pretty plant for house 
gardening. The two best species are B. incar- 
nata and fuchsoidia. The former is an ever- 
green shrub, with thick stems, and large, droop- 
ing clusters of pink flowers in winter ; it shows 
to great advantage if well cared for, and is one 
of the best window plants. The latter is often 
called " coral drop," and resembles the former 
somewhat in appearance, but produces in all 
seasons its drooping coral flowers. Plant them 
in a compost made of equal quantities of loam 
and leaf m.ould, with a Httle sand mixed in. 
Put them in the warmest possible situation 
where they will get plenty of sun and light ; 
but water seldom and sparingly. 

BELLADONNA. — Poison — Symptoms : 
Delirium, drowsiness, feeble pulse, sometimes 
faintness and convulsions. Antidotes: Lime 
water, of which a half tumbler may be given at 
a time. An emetic is appropriate in cases in 
which the mistake is recognized soon after the 
poison has been swallowed. 

Belladonna, even when given in medical 
doses, may produce alarming symptoms in in- 
dividual cases, but these disappear spontane- 
ously on discontinuing the remedy. 

The name is given to the medicinal extract 
of the atropa belladonna, which is much used 
in practice, in moderate doses. It is prescribed 
in certain spasmodic nervous affections, such 
as epilepsy and chorea ; for the relief of pain, 
either of the cutaneous or visceral nerves ; for 
habitual constipation and incontinence of urine ; 
to check certain secretions, and to prevent sup- 
puration. As an anodyne it is inferior to 
opium ; and the claims made in its behalf as a 
preventative of scarlet fever are not proven. 
One of the most striking effects of a sufficient 



dose of belladonna is the dilation of the pupil 
of the eye ; it also produces a peculiar dryness 
of the tongue and throat and marked quickening 
of the pulse-beats. 

BENZINE.— A colorless liquid, lighter than 
petroleum, and obtained from that oil in process 
of refinement. It is sometimes used as a burn- 
ing fluid, but is extremely dangerous ; also as a 
substitute for turpentine in mixing paints, but 
its chief value in the household comes from its 
power of dissolving fats, wax and paraffine ; 
every kind of grease spot on clothes may be 
removed by it. In using, saturate a woolen rag 
and rub over the spot, renewing several times. 
Benzine must never be used near a fire or light 
of any kind ; for it is so inflammable as to take 
fire at a considerable distance. Keep it in a 
dark, cool place. 

BEVERAGES. — Besides wines and malt 
liquors, there are various beverages in more or 
less general use. Several of these are de- 
scribed under Beer, and others, such as lemon- 
ade, orangeade, orgeat, and sherbet, are given 
in their proper places ; but there are others still, 
which cannot be classified and which therefore it 
will be most appropriate to group together here. 

Eau Sucr6. — Sugar and water, a beverage 
made by dissolving enough sugar in water to 
sweeten ; it is much used in France, and is 
considered very wholesome and refreshing. It 
is customary to drink it just before bedtime. 

Lait Sucr^. — Take : — Milk, sugar, and lemon. 
Milk well boiled with sugar and flavored with 
lemon. It should be drunk cold. 

Summer Beverage. — Take : — Ale, or porter, 
I bottle; water, lo qts ; brown sugar, i lb; 
ground ginger, 2 oz. 

I. An agreeable and cooling beverage for hot 
weather may be made by mixing a bottle of ale 
or porter with ten quarts of water, adding a 
pound of coarse brown sugar and two ounces 
of ground ginger. Bottle and cork tightly and 
set away for a few days. This is not exactly 
ginger beer, but if set on ice it is a cooling and 
pleasantly acid drink. 

n. Another cooling beverage mdiyht made by 
mixing half an ounce of cream of tartar in a 
quart of boiling water, and adding sugar and 
a bit of lemon peel. Strain when cold, and set 
away till wanted. 

ni. Still another excellent summer drink may 
be made by bruising any fruit, such as cherries, 
currants, strawberries, raspberries, and the like, 
and adding water and sugar to taste ; strain it 
after standing half an hour, and keep it in a 
cool place. By dissolving fruit jelly in water 
and letting it cool, a delicious beverage may be 
secured. 

Whey (acidulous).— T^zy?-^ .--Milk, i cup- 
ful ; citric acid or lemon juice, a few drops. A 
pleasant and wholesome beverage is made by 
adding to a cupful of milk a little solution of 
citric acid, or lemon juice, which will curdle the 
milk. Care must be taken not to add too much 
of the juice : an experiment or two will show 
the necessary quantity. 

Beverages for the Sick.-i. Tamarinds soaked 



BILBERRIES 



BILL OF EXCHANGE 



31 



in hot water and sweetened to taste make an 
admirable beverage for invalids. To be drunk 
cold. 2. Nitre Whey. This is sometimes 
given to the sick to promote perspiration. To 
make : dilute half a pint of new milk with an 
equal quantity of hot water ; boil together, and 
while boiling, pour in a dessertspoonful of the 
sweet spirits of nitre. Sweeten it and let the 
patient take it as warm as it can be drunk. 

BILBERRIES. — A small purplish red fruit 
somewhat similar to whortleberries, but gener- 
ally smaller. They grow upon a good-sized tree, 
are very abundant in various parts of the coun- 
try, and usually ripen about the latter part of 
August or first of September. Whortleberries 
of the smaller kinds are sometimes sold as 
bilberries, but they differ in flavor, the latter 
being much more acid. 

BILIOUS FEVER.— A term applied to re- 
mittent fever, a disease due to malarial poison- 
ings. 

Symptoms — Resemble those of intermittent 
fever, except that there is no cessation of 
fever, but simply an abatement, or diminu- 
tion. Length of remission varies from 6 to I2 
hours. The remission usually occurs in the 
morning. Disease may last fourteen or fifteen 
days, and end in an attack of sweating, or it 
may merge into low fever. 

Treatment. — Diminish the fever by giving 
cold drinks, sponging the body with cool water, 
mildly acting upon the bowels with cream of 
tartar water. During the remission give ten 
grains of quinine, and let the patient have 
nourishing broths, raw eggs, and stimulants if 
much depressed. To complete the cure the 
directions given for patients convalescent from 
intermittent fever, will be found appropriate. 
After this fever, proper care should be taken 
to prevent a relapse. For this purpose the 
patient should continue to take the Peruvian 
bark for some time after he is well. He should 
also confine himself to a simple diet, avoiding 
confections, trashy fruits, and all kinds of flat- 
ulent food. The treatment of remittent fever 
should always be confided to a physician. 

BILL. — This term is usually applied to what 
is legally called an account. It is a statement 
in writing of the items of goods sold to, or 
work done for, another person. 

It may be in the following form : 

New York, May 9, 1876. 

Mr. John Doe, 

1876. To Richard Roe, Dr. 

April I, To binding 3 vols, in 

cloth, at 75c $2 25 

April 1 5, To 2 packages of let- 
ter paper, at $2 -^^^ 4 00 



An account like the foregoing, rendered to 
a debtor, is usually termed a bill. 

An open account is an account detailing the 
transactions between persons having mutual 
dealings, of which the balance has not been 
struck, or an account which has not been ac- 
cepted by both parties. 



A stated account is an account which has 
been accepted by both parties. Acceptance 
by the debtor need not be expressed in words. 
If an account is not objected to within a reas- 
onable time after it is received, it is presumed 
in many cases that it has been accepted. {See 
Receipt and Law.) 

BILL OF EXCHANGE.— A bill of ex- 
change, or draft, as it is often called, is defined 
to be a written order, or request, by one per- 
son to another, for the payment of money, at 
a specified time, absolutely, and at all events. 
The jjerson who draws the bill is called the 
drawer. The person to whom it is addressed 
is called the drawee, and, after he has accepted 
it, the acceptor. The person to whom, or to 
whose order the bill is made payable is called 
the payee. When payable to the order of the 
payee, it is transferred by endorsement and de- 
livery, in the same manner as a promissory 
note, payable to order (see Promissory Note,) 
and the payee thereupon becomes the endorser, 
and the person to whom it is transferred, the 
endorsee, or holder. 

The following is a common form : 
$iooo.^yj. New York, May i, 1876. 

" Thirty days after sight pay to the order of 
John Doe, the sum of one thousand dollars, 
for value received, and charge the same to the 
account of Richard Roe. 

To Messrs. Smith Brothers, 
" St. Louis, Missouri. 
Here Richard Roe is the drawer and 
Smith Brothers the drawees, and, after they 
have accepted it by writing the word "ac- 
cepted," and their signature across the face of 
the bill, with the date, the acceptors. John Doe 
is the payee, and, after endorsement, the endor- 
ser. So many days after sight means so many 
days after acceptance. 

When the bill is payable at sight, or a cer- 
tain number of days after sight, as in the form 
given, it must be presented to the drawer for 
his acceptance without unreasonable delay, 
otherwise, in case of non-acceptance, the rem- 
edy against the drawer and endorser may be 
lost. When payable at a certain period after 
date, it need not be presented by the holder 
for acceptance until then, although it is advisa- 
ble to present it without delay, as thereby, if 
accepted, the additional security of the ac- 
ceptor is obtained, and, if not accepted, the 
drawer and endorsers become liable immedi- 
ately. When the drawee refuses to accept the 
bill, it should be protested {see Protest, under 
Law) for non-acceptance, and notice thereof 
given to the drawer and endorsers, in the same 
manner as in case of non-payment 01 a promis- 
sory note. {Which see.) Bills payable at sight, 
or a certain time after date, or after sight, are 
entitled to days of grace, but in nearly all of 
the States, bills payable on demand are not. 
Bills of exchange are governed by the same 
rules, with regard to negotiability, transfer, 
endorsement, presentment, and notice of non- 
payment, as promissory notes. {See Promis- 
sory Note.) 



32 



BILL OF FARE 



BIRDS 



BILL OF FARE. {See Breakfast,Lunch, 
Dinner, Supper, and Tea.) 

%^ Bills of fare are annexed for each sea- 
son, showing articles in market in New York. 
The New York market represents a fair aver- 
age for the most thickly populated parts of the 
country. Readers elsewhere will, of course, 
have to allow for local differences. The arti- 
cles in each group are in alphabetical order. 

I. SPRING. 

March, April, May. 

Shell Fish. Game. 



Clams, hard crabs, lobster, 
mussels, oysters, prawns, scal- 
lops, shrimps, terrapins, tur- 
tle. 

Fish. 

Bass (black, striped and 
sea), blue fish, cod, eels, had- 
dock, halibut, herrings, mack- 
erel, muscalonge, pickerel, 
pompan, prawns, salmon, shad 
(North River), sheepshead, 
shrimps, skate, smelts, soles, 
turbot, trout (brook, lake and 
salmon. (May to Julyj. 

Meat. 
Beef, lamb, mutton sweet- 
breads, veal. 

Poultry. 

Capons, chickens, ducks, 
geese and turkeys. 



Ducks and geese until May 
ist, pigeons, plover, snipe, 
squabs, after April. 

Vegetables. 

Asparagus, Jerusalem arti- 
chokes, lettuce, potatoes 
(sweet and white), radishes, 
spinach, sprouts, watercress- 
es, and all the vegetables of 
the Winter list. 

Fruit. 

The Winter list, with the 
addition of pie plant, pine- 
apple, strawberries. 

Nuts. 

t 

The Winter list, with the 
addition of Brazil nuts. 



Fruits. 

Apples, bananas, blackber- 
ries, dates, figs, grapes, lem- 
ons, oranges, peaches, pears. 



plums, prunes, quinces, rai- 
sins. 

JVuts. 
Black walnuts, chestnuts, 
hazel nuts, shell barks. 



II. SUMMER. 



June, July, August. 



Shell Fishr 

Clams, soft crabs, lobster, 
turtle in August- 

Fish. 

Bass (black and sea), blue 
fish, eels, flounders, haddock, 
herring, mackerel, musca- 
longe, salmon, sheepshead, 
turbot, trout (brook, lake and 
salmon). 

Meat. 
Beef, lamb, mutton, veal. 

Poultry. 
Chickens, ducks. 



Gatne. 

Snipe, woodcock after July 
3- 

Vegetables. 

String beans, beets, cab- 
bage, cauliflower, carrots, 
com, cucumbers, egg plant, 
lettuce, macaroni, okra, on- 
ions, green peas, potatoes, 
rice, radishes, summer squash, 
tomatoes, turnips. 
Fruits. 

Apples, apricots, cherries, 
currants, gooseberries, grapes, 
lemons, oranges, peaches, 
pears, pineapples, raspber- 
ries, strawberries, imported 
dried fruits. 



III. AUTUMN, 



September, October, November. 



Shell Fish. 

Clams, soft crabs, lobster, 
mussels, ousters, scallops, tur- 
tle, terrapm. 

Fish. 
Black bass, blue fish, floun- 
ders, mackerel, muscalonge, 
perch, pickerel, pike, salmon, 
sheepshead, skates, smelts, 
soles, sturgeon, trout (brook, 
lake and salmon), white fish. 

Meat. 
Beef, lamb, mutton. 

Poultry. 
Capons, chickens, ducks, 
geese, turkeys. 



Game. 

Brant, duck, goose Sep. to 
May, prairie chicken, ruff 
grouse Sep. to Jan., venison 
until Feb., quail and rabbits 
Oct. I to Jan. I, snipe, wood- 
cock July 3 to Feb. i. 

Vegetables. 

Artichokes, beans, (Lima 
and other shell-beans) beets, 
broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, 
carrots, celery, corn, cucum- 
bers, egg-plant, lettuce, maca- 
roni, okra, onions, potatoes 
(white and sweet),rice, squash, 
tomatoes, turnips. 



IV. WINTER. 



December, Jannary, February. 



Shell Fish. 

Clams, mussels, oysters, 
scallops, tenapins, turtle. 

Fish, 

Bass (black and striped), blue 
fish, cod, eels, flounders, had- 
dock, muscalonge, perch, pick- 
erel, pike, salmon, skate, 
smelts, sturgeon, white fish. 

Meat. 

Beef, mutton, pork. 

Poultry. 

Capons, chickens, ducks, 
geese, turkey.«- 

Game. 

Brant until May, duck, wild, 
until May, and wood duck un- 
til Jan., geese until May, prai- 
rie chicken,ruff grouse, snipe, 
venison until Feb., quail, rab- 



bits until Dec, woodcock un- 
til Feb. 

Vegetables. 

Artichokes, beets, dried 
beans, broccoli, cabbage, car- 
rots, celery, macaroni, onions, 
parsnips, potatoes (sweet and 
white), rice, salsify, turnips, 
winter squash, all canned 
fruit. 

Fruit. 

Apples, bananas, cranber- 
ries, dates, figs, ginger, lem- 
ons, oranges, pears, prunes, 
raisins. All kinds of canned 
fruits, and compotes of dried 
fruits. 

Nuts, 

Almonds, black walnuts, 
butternuts, cocoanuts, Eng- 
lish walnuts, filberts, pecan 
nuts, shell barks. 



BIRD-CAGE. — The sma''!er bird-cages, such 
for instance as are used for canary birds, are 
usually made entirely of wire ; those of larger 
sizes, for mocking-birds, pa.'rots, and the like, 
are made partly of wire and partly of wood. 
They should be kept scrupulously clean, neg- 
lect on this point occasioning the loss of many 
pet birds and the injury of others ; and in 
order to ensure this, they should be washed 
every day, and dipped occasionally in lime- 
water. Whatever the bird that is kept in con- 
finement, the bottom of the cage should 
always be covered with clean gravel and sand, 
and they should be put in fresh every few 
days. Sand not only affords a more natural 
and pleasant footing for the birds, but they 
also obtain from it certain substances which 
they seem to use medicinally, and without 
which it is impossible for them to remain 
healthy in confinement for any length of time. 
Most cages are now made with removable 
bottoms, which greatly facilitates the clean- 
ing of them and the introduction of food. 
When the paint begins to wear off a wire cage, 
it should at once be repainted, or it will soon 
rust away. 

BIRDS. — The flesh of birds differs from 
that of most four-footed animals, chiefly in 
the relative quantity of fat and in the quality 
of the juices. The ' fat of birds is generally 
found by itself, just under the skin, and in 
various parts of the interior of the body ; and 
as it has a flavor which is not agreeable, it 
enters but little into the food of man. The 
juices are deficient in red blood, and have a 
more delicate flavor than that of adult animals, 
but do not differ greatly from those of young 
animals. The flesh of fowls differs little in 
structure from that of animals, and is quite as 



BISCUITS 



dc 



rich in nitrogenous or flesh-forming elements, 
but is relatively poorer in fat and salts. It is 
regarded as a light food, better fitted for invalids 
than strong men, or as an adjunct to other 
kinds of flesh ; but this is due rather to its 
delicacy or absence of flavor, which leads man 



to prefer beef or mutton as a permanent diet, 
than to any real deficiency of nutriment as a 
food. It is in reality one of the most nutritious 
of foods, and could enter with advantage more 
largely into the family diet. 
The flesh of all birds is sufifiiciently similar to en' 




able us to distinguish it readily from other kinds 
of meat ; but there are also very appreciable dif- 
ferences according to the nature of the bird, 
its breed and feeding. The flesh of the domestic 
fowl differs very greatly, both in fulness and deli- 
cacy of flavor, in different specimens ; and the 
flesh of a graminivorous is easily distinguished 
from that of a carnivorous bird. The flesh of the 
former is always wholesome and agreeable, while 
that of the latter is almost invariably rank and 
disagreeable. The flavor of wild birds is fuller 
and stronger than that of the domesticated bird, 
and the flesh is richer in nitrogenous and 
generally poorer in fat-producing matter. The 
structure is also closer and firmer, so that in 
the fresh state it is regarded as hard and tough ; 
and it is desirable, and sometimes necessary, to 
allow decomposition to commence, in order 
to cause a separation and softening of the fibres. 
While a domestic fowl, therefore, is usually 
eaten quite fresh, a wild fowl is kept for many 
days or even weeks, before it is cooked. The 
flesh of the male bird, whether domesticated or 
wild, generally has a fuller flavor than that of the 
female ; and the capon retains some of the 
strength of flavor of the male bird with much 
of the delicacy of the female. (See POULTRY. 
For Pet Birds see their names.) 

BIRTH. {See INFANT.) 

BISCUITS. — In making biscuit great care 
must be taken to get the exact proportions of 
the several ingredients, — too much or too 
little of soda or of lard inevitably spoils them. 
The flour used should be the best and at least 
^/iree moniks old ; it is almost impossible to 
make light biscuits with new flour. The flour 



should always be sifted. The oven too should 
be carefully looked after, for upon its being of 
the right temperature will depend much of the 
success of the baking. 

Flavored Biscuit. — Make biscuits as in di- 
rections for French, Hard, or Soda, and flavor 
with any kind of essence, or with orange or 
lemon peel grated. 

French Biscuit. — TaAe:-Flour, 6 lbs ; butter, 
6 oz ; milk, i ^ pts ; sugar, i }i teaspoonfuls ; 
eggs, 6 ; yeast, ^ gill of distillery or i pt. of 
home brewed. 

Take six pounds of flour ; six ounces of butter ; 
a pint and a half of new milk ; a cup and a half of 
sugar ; six eggs and }( gill of brewers or ^ 
pt. home brewed yeast. Melt the butter in the 
milk ; beat the eggs and add them. Then add 
all the other ingredients, mix thoroughly, set it 
to rise, and when very light mould into small 
biscuits, and bake till brown in a quick oven. 

Graham Biscuits. — Ta^e .--Graham flour, 3 
cupfuls ; white flour, i cupful ; milk, i j4 cupfuls ; 
lard, 2 tablespoonfuls ; sugar, i tablespoonful ; 
soda, I teaspoonful ; cream-tartar, 2 teaspoon- 
fuls ; salt, % teaspoonful. 

Take three cups of Graham flour ; one cup of 
white flour ; one and a half cupfuls of milk ; 
two tablespoonfuls lard ; one tablespoonful 
of white sugar ; one teaspoonful soda ; two 
teaspoonfuls cream-tartar ; half a teaspoonful 
of salt. Rub the soda and cream-tartar into 
the flour and sift all together before they are 
wet; then add the salt and sugar; next the 
lard, rubbed rapidly and lightly into the pre- 
pared flour; and lastly pour in the milk. Knead 
the dough rapidly and with as few strokes as 



34 



BISCUITS 



BLACKBERRIES 



possible, since handling injures the biscuits. 
The dough ■ should be very soft ; if the flour 
stiffens it too much add more milk. Roll out 
lightly, cut into cakes at least half an inch 
thick, and bake in a quick oven. These are 
good cold as well as hot. 

Hard or Plain Biscuits. — Take .--Flour, i qt ; 
butter, 4 tablespoonfuls ; salt, >^ teaspoonful. 

Take one quart of flour ; rub four tablespoon- 
fuls of butter into two-thirds of the flour ; add- 
ing half a teaspoonful of salt ; wet this latter 
with sweet milk till a dough is formed ; roll it 
out repeatedly, sprinkling on the reserved 
flour till all is used. Cut into round cakes, 
half an inch thick, and bake in a quick oven. 

Potato Biscuit. — Tiz/v .--Potatoes, lo; milk 
2 cupfuls ; white sugar, 2 tablespoonfuls ; ^ 
cupful home-made yeast ; melted butter, 4 table- 
spoonfuls ; flour ; salt. 

Take ten potatoes pared, boiled soft, and 
mashed fine : add two cupfuls of lukewarm milk ; 
two tablespoonfuls of white sugar ; half a cup 
of yeast ; and enough flour to make a thin 
batter. Stir together and set it to rise till light, 
— four or five hours ; then add four tablespoon- 
fuls of melted butter, a little salt, and enough 
flour to make a soft dough. Let this rise four 
hours longer, roll out in a sheet about an inch 
thick, and cut into cakes ; set to rise one hour 
and bake in a moderately quick oven. 

Risen Biscuit. — Take :-W\\k, 3 pts ; butter 
or lard, i teacupf ul ; home-made yeast, i teacup- 
ful ; white sugar, 2 tablespoonfuls ; salt, i tea- 
.spoonful. Flour. 

Take three pints of warm milk ; one level 
cupful of lard or butter melted ; one cupful of 
yeast ; two heaping tablespoonfuls of white 
sugar, one teaspoonful of salt. Flour. Mix 
over night, and set to rise ; in the morning roll 
it out into a sheet three quarters of an inch 
thick, cut into round cakes, set these closely 
together in a baking-pan, let them rise twenty 
minutes, and bake in a quick oven till brown. 

Short Biscuit. — Take:-Y\o\xx, i qt; butter, % 
lb ; milk ; water. 

Take one quart of flour ; a quarter of a pound 
of butter, melted in a Httle boiling water ; add 
cold milk enough to make a stiff dough ; work 
into small biscuits, and bake them in a quick 
oven. 

Soda Biscuit. — Take :-Y\owx, 3 pts ; milk, i 
pt ; lard, 2 tablespoonfuls ; soda, i teaspoonful ; 
cream-tartar, 2 teaspoonfuls ; salt, yi teaspoon- 
ful. 

Take three pints of flour ; one pint of sweet 
milk ; two tablespoonfuls of lard ; one tea- 
spoonful of soda ; two teaspoonfuls of cream- 
tartar ; half teaspoonful of salt. Mix and bake 
as directed for Graham biscuit. These are 
light and delicious. Serve hot. 

Sour-Milk Biscuit. — Take :-V\o\3iX, i qt ; 
sour milk, i pt ; soda, i teaspoonful. 

Take one quart of flour ; one pint of sour 
milk ; one teaspoonful of soda mixed with the 
milk until it froths. Stir it into the flour cold, 
mix it quickly, and bake twenty minutes in a 
hot oven. 



Yorkshire Risen Biscuits. — /"cz^^ .--Milk, I 
qt ; flour, enough to make batter ; home-made 
yeast, i teacupful ; salt, ^ teaspoonful ; soda, ^ 
teaspoonfuls ; eggs, 2 ; butter, i tablespoonful. 

Make a batter with flour and one quart of 
milk boiling hot ; when milk warm, add one 
teacupful of yeast, and half teaspoonful of salt. 
Set it in a moderately warm place and let it 
rise till very light ; then stir in a good half tea- 
spoonful of soda, two eggs, and a tablespoonful 
of melted butter. Add flour enough to make a 
dough stiff enough to mould ; make it into 
small round cakes, let it rise fifteen minutes, 
and bake in a slow oven. 

BISON. {See Buffalo.) 

BITTERS.— Formerly it was supposed that 
there was one peculiar principle common to all 
bitter plants ; but chemists are now of opinion 
that there are various bitter principles having 
different properties, and that the bitter taste 
proceeds from principles varying perhaps in 
each plant. The bitter is intense in quassia 
and Peruvian bark ; scarcely less so in hops, 
gentian, and broom ; and it is found in various 
degrees of strength in coffee, in squills, and in 
the bark of many of our trees. Many varieties 
of the bitter principle are deadly poisons, as 
strychnia, the bitter of Nux Vomica ; the 
Morphia of opium ; and the AUcotin of tobacco. 
Bitters are used in medicine as tonics chiefly, 
and sometimes as aperients. Various kinds of 
"Bitters" are used in this country to stimulate 
the appetite, being usually taken with sherry- 
wine. They are used in the preparation of the 
peculiar American drinks called " cock-tails." 
Bitters in the American market are generally 
patented and made from secret formulse. They 
are alcoholic liquids, flavored with Angostura 
bark, orange peel, Angelica roots and seeds, 
or similar articles. Those most in use are the 
" Stoughton " and " Angostura." 

BITUMINOUS COAL.— A kmd of coal 
containing bitumen or pitch, and burning with 
much flame and smoke. It is much used in 
manufacturing processes, and is the material 
from which illuminating gas is distilled. Good 
bituminous coal burns freely and pleasantly in 
an open fire, with a cheerful, bright flame, 
producing carbonic acid in large quantity, a 
small proportion of sulphurous vapor, and 
other ordinary constituents of smoke. It is 
more healthy for household use than anthracite, 
inasmuch as it promotes ventilation better by 
free burning, and does not throw off the deadly 
carbonic oxide gas with which anthracite poisons 
the air. The one great objection to bituminous 
coal is that it is dirty and smoky; but this can 
be obviated by a properly constructed heating 
apparatus. It is the kind of fuel that is in 
almost universal use in England and other 
European countries, and also in the Western 
States. It is less expensive than anthracite, 
but a good quality cannot always be procured 
where anthracite has the market. 

BLACKBERRIES.— This useful and deli- 
cious fruit grows wild in great abundance 
throughout the country, but of late several 



BLACKBERRIES 



BLACK FISH 



35 



varieties have begun to be regularly cultivated in 
the garden. The choicest of these are the 
Lawton, Kittatinny^ Wilson'' s early ^ and Dor- 
chester. The Wilson's Early ripens ten days to 
two weeks earlier than any other variety ; the 
Dorchester follows closely after it, and is a 
much sweeter and finer-flavored fruit ; but the 
Lawton is the largest and best that cultivation 
has yet produced. The wild varieties are 
much smaller than these, have more seeds, 
and not nearly so rich a flavor ; yet even they 
make excellent jam, jelly, puddings and the 
hke. Blackberries begin to ripen about the 
loth of July and last till the ist of September; 
they are at their best, however, from about the 
middle of July to the middle of August. 
Eaten at this time, cold, with sugar and cream, 
they are only inferior to strawberries in flavor, 
and quite as wholesome. (See Compotes, 
Jam, Jelly, Pies and Puddings.) 

To Dry. — Dry carefully in the sun, like ap- 
ples, and keep in a cool, dry place. This is a 
cheaper way than any other of preserving them, 
and they make excellent pies. 

Blackberry Cordial. — Put the berries in a 
kettle over the fire, with a very small quantity 
of water in the bottom of the kettle ; let them 
boil soft. Strain them through a bag, pressing 
them hard, until the juice is all separated from 
the seed. Put the juice on the fire again, 
and sweeten to the taste with white sugar; 
throw in a little bag of stick cinnamon. Let it 
boil half an hour ; take it off, and stir in 
enough brandy or whiskey to make it of the 
desired strength. Bottle when cold and seal 
with wax. 

Blackberry Jam. — To each pound of berries 
allow a pound of sugar. Mix them well togeth- 
er and let them stand half an hour ; then boil 
slowly, mashing them and stirring frequently. 
When they have boiled half an hour, take a 
little of the syrup up in a cup and set it in a 
dish of cold water ; if it shows the consistency 
of stiff jelly, take the whole from the fire, if 
not, boil till it does. 

Blackberry Jelly. — The following is strongly 
recommended by " Marion Harland : " Put the 
berries in a stone jar ; set this in a kettle of 
tepid water, and put it upon the fire. Cover 
up tightly, and let it boil until the fruit is 
broken to pieces ; strain, pressing the bag (a 
coarse, stout one) hard, putting in but a few 
handfuls at a time, and between each squeezing 
turning it inside out to scald off the pulp and 
skins. To each pint of juice allow a pint of 
sugar. Set the juice on alone to boil, and 
while it is warming divide the sugar into 
several different portions, and put into shallow 
pie-dishes or pans that will fit into your ovens ; 
heat in these, opening the ovens now and then 
to stir it and prevent burning. Boil the juice 
exactly twenty minutes from the moment it 
begins fairly to boil. By this time the sugar 
will be so hot you cannot bear your hand in it. 
Should it melt around the edges do not be alarm- 
ed ; the burned parts will only form into lumps 
in the liquid and can easily be taken out. Throw 



the sugar into the boiling juice, stirring rapidly 
all the while ; it will Jiiss as it falls in and melt 
very quickly. Withdraw the spoon when you 
are sure the sugar is dissolved. Let the jelly 
just come to a boil, and take the kettle from 
the fire instantly. Roll your glasses or cups 
in hot water, and fill with the scalding liquor. 
The jelly will " form " at once. Set the cups in 
the sun, and as the contents shrink, fill up one 
from another. When fully settled, put brandied 
tissue-paper over the top of each glass, paste 
a thick paper over it, and keep in a dry place. 
Blackberry (Ste-wed, Nantucket.) — Take 
good ripe blackberries and put them in a pre- 
serving kettle without water ; heat slowly and 
stew until cooked. Allow a heaped spoonful 
of flour to every quart of fruit ; mix a httle 
sugar with it ; stir it in and stew until it thick- 
ens. Pour into moulds and place on ice. This 
is a delicious dessert, with cream and sugar. 

Blackberry Syrup. — Take : — Blackberry 
juice, I qt ; loaf sugar, ^z lb ; nutmegs, cinna- 
mon, and allspice, X oz each ; cloves, i table- 
spoonful ; brandy, >^ pint. 

Take one quart of blackberry juice ; half a 
pound of loaf sugar ; quarter of an ounce each 
of nutmegs, cinnamon, and allspice ; a table- 
spoonful of cloves. Pulverize the spice, and 
boil all for fifteen or twenty minutes. When 
cold, add half a pint of brandy. This is excel- 
lent for summer complaint and cholera. 

Blackberry Vinegar. — Put the berries into 
a stone jar, and mash them thoroughly ; add 
enough cider-vinegar to cover it well ; stand in 
the sun all day and in the cellar all night, stir- 
ring well now and then ; strain, and put as many 
berries in the jar as were in it before, pour the 
strained vinegar over them, mash, and set in 
the sun all day ; strain a second time next day 
To each quart of this juice add o/ie pint of 
water and mix ; then to each three pints of this 
mixed juice, add five and a half pounds of 
white sugar. Place over the fire and stir until 
the sugar is dissolved. Let it come to a boil ; 
remove the scum ; and then take off and strain. 
Bottle while warm, and seal with wax. 

BLACK FISH.^The name popularly given 
to tauto^. It abounds all along the Atlantic 
coast from Long Island to Maine, and though 
somewhat dry in flavor, is a- favorite for cook- 
ing. Some do not like it boiled, but it is one 




of the best of fishes for baking. It is generally 
found alive in market, weighs from one to five 
pounds, and is in season from June to Decem- 
ber. Those weighing about a pound are best 
for frying ; and for baking those weighing three 
or four jjounds are the choicest. For cooking, 
See Bass and Blue Fish. 



36 



BLACKING 



BLANC-MANGE 



BLACKING. — Can generally be bought 
cheaper than it can be made at home. The 
following recipes, however, are excellent : 
Harness (Blacking for). — Take:-Mu\.ton suet, 
2 oz ; beeswa.x, 6 oz ; sugar candy, 6 oz ; soft 
soap, 2 oz ; indigo, i oz ; turpentine, i gill. 

An excellent blacking for harness is made by 
melting two ounces of mutton suet with six 
ounces of beeswax ; add six ounces of sugar 
candy, two ounces of soft soap dissolved in 
water, and one ounce of indigo finely powdered ; 
when melted and well mixed, add to the whole 
a gill of turpentine. Apply with a sponge and 
polish with a dry brush. 

Shoes (Blacking for). — TaAe .--Ivory black, 3 
oz : molasses, 2 oz ; sulphuric acid, i oz ; gum 
arable, i oz ; sweet oil, i teaspoonful ; vinegar, 
ipt. 

Mix three ounces of ivory black; two ounces 
of molasses ; one ounce of sulphuric acid ; one 
ounce of gum arable dissolved in a little water ; 
a tablespoonful of sweet oil ; and a pint of 
vinegar. Stir together thoroughly. This will be 
liquid blacking. It may be made into a paste by 
putting in only a little more than half a pint of 
vinegar. 

Stoves (Blacking for). — Taie .-Black lead, 
}i lb ; eggs, whites of 3 ; sour beer or porter. 

Mix half a pound of black lead with the whites 
of three eggs, well beaten ; then dilute to a thin 
paste by stirring in sour beer or porter. Apply 
with cloth or brush, and rub with dry brush. 

BLACK LEAD. — A familiar substance, 
much used for giving a black, shiny appearance 
to grates, fenders, stoves, and other articles of 
cast-iron furniture. Notwithstanding its name, 
it has no connection with metal lead ; it is sim- 
ply a mineral substance dug out of the earth in 
many parts of the world, in lumps, and reduced 
to powder for household use. There are sev- 
eral qualities of black lead, but the highest in 
price is the cheapest ; the poorer kinds are 
much adulterated, and there is no known sub- 
stance the addition of which does not impair 
the quality. The test is to observe the bright- 
ness of the polish it will give with least trouble. 

BLACK PUDDING. — A kind of sausage 
very popular in Scotland, made of hogs' blood 
with groats and various kinds of herbs such as 
onions, shallots, thyme, sage, garlic, marjoram, 
and parsley, to which lumps of fat are added. 
The whole is inclosed in a piece of the intestine 
of the pig and boiled, but it is usual before 
eating it, to cook it further by frying it, with or 
without previously warming it by immersion in 
hot water. When quite fresh, black puddings 
are savory and agreeable ; but as blood decom- 
poses rapidly, they are liable to become tainted 
before being cooked, and when still apparently 
fresh, and if kept long after being cooked, they 
lose their pleasant flavor and become sour and 
acid. The negroes of the Southern States make 
a preparation similar to this in " hog-killing " 
times. 

BLANCHING (French, Blanche).— To ren- 
der white ; also to remove hulls or skins from 
vegetables, etc., as almonds. It is accom- 



plished by putting them in cold water, bring- 
ing to a boil, and then plunging in cold water. 

BLANC-MANGE (Almond).— Ta^^. -Milk, 
I qt; gelatine, i oz ; almond, 3 oz; rose-water, i 
tablespoonful, white sugar, ^ of a cupful. 

Take one quart of milk ; one ounce of gela- 
tine ; three ounces of almond (with three or 
four bitter ones among them) blanched and 
pounded in a mortar, with a tablespoonful of 
rose-water ; three fourths of a cup of white 




Blanc-Mange Mould. 

sugar. Heat the milk to boiling; turn in the 
gelatine, which should have been previously 
soaked for an hour in a cup of the milk ; add 
the pounded almonds, and stir all together ten 
minutes before putting in the sugar. As soon 
as the gelatine has dissolved, remove from the 
fire; strain through a thin muslin bag, pressing 
hard to get the flavor of the almonds ; wet a 
mould with cold water, pour the blanc-mange 
into it, and set in a cold place till solid. 

Arrovvrroot Blanc-Mange. — Take .-Arrow- 
root, 4 tablespoonfuls ; milk, i pt; sugar, and 
some flavoring essence. 

Wet four tablespoonfuls of best Jamaica 
arrowroot with a little cold water ; pour over it 
one pint of boiling milk, stirring all the time ; 
sweeten and flavor (with any sort of essence) 
to taste. Turn it into the sauce-pan ; stir con- 
stantly while it just comes to a boil ; then 
remove from the fire, turn into a mould, and set 
where it will cool. Serve cold with sugar and 
cream. 

Chocolate Blanc-Mange — Take:-^lS\\!i, i qt; 
gelatine, i oz ; eggs, 3 ; grated chocolate, 4 
tablespoonfuls ; sugar, nearly a cupful ; vanilla, 
2 tablespoonfuls. 

Take a quart of sweet milk; one ounce of 
gelatine, soaked in a cup of the milk an 
hour ; three eggs, whites and yolks beaten 
separately ; four heaping tablespoonfuls of 
grated chocolate ; not quite a cupful of sugar ; 
and two teaspoonfuls of vanilla. Heat the 
milk to boiling ; pour in the gelatine and milk 
and stir until it is dissolved. Stir the sugar 
into the beaten yolks ; then beat the chocolate 
into this, and pour slowly upon the mixture the 
boiling milk, stirring steadily until all is in. 
Return the whole to the saucepan and heat 
gently, stirring carefully, till it almost boils. 
Then remove from the fire, turn into a bowl, 
and whip in lightly and briskly the beaten whites 
with the vanilb Pour off into moulds, and set 
away to cool. 

Cornstarch Blanc-Mange. — Take .--Corn- 



BLANKET 



BLEEDING 



37 



starch, 3 oz ; milk, one qt ; sugar, 2 tablespoon- 
fuls ; lemon peel. 

Put two tablespoonfuls of sugar, a few pieces 
of lemon peel and a quart of milk (having re- 
served one gill) over boiling water ; when 
a film covers it pour in the gill of milk in 
which the corn starch has been smoothly 
mixed ; stir until thick and leave it for five 
minutes to cook thoroughly. Pour into a 
mould wet with cold water. Serve cold with 
sugar and cream. 

Moss Blanc-Mange. — Take : Irish moss, 
I teacupful; milk, 3 qts; sugar; flavoring es- 
sence. 

Put a teacupful of Irish Moss into a dish 
and pour boiling water over it; leave it to 
stand about ten minutes. Then wash it out 
and throw it into cold water to rinse it. 
Put it into about three quarts of milk, and 
boil ten minutes or till it thickens. Add sugar, 
and flavor to taste. Strain through a very 
fine sieve or cloth into the moulds and set 
away to cool. 

Rice-Flour Blanc-Mange. — Take .--Ground 
rice, 4 tablespoonfuls ; milk, i qrt ; eggs, whites 
of three ; sugar ; lemon. 

Wet four tablespoonfuls of ground rice and 
a pinch of salt with a little milk, and stir into 
a quart of boiling milk. Sweeten to taste with 
refined sugar, and flavor to taste with lemon. 
Boil eight minutes, stirring all the time, then cool 
it, and add the whites of three eggs whipped to a 
froth. Replace it on the fire, and stir con- 
stantly till boiling hot ; then turn it into moulds 
and set away. This is an excellent dish for 
the sick. 

Wheat-Flour Blanc-Mange. — Make same 
as cornstarch or rice-flour blanc-mange. 

BLANKET. — Bed blankets are of various 
sizes and qualities. In buying get them amply 
large, as nothing is more uncomfortable than 
scant bed-clothes ; the large blankets are best 
also, because they are generally made of better 
kinds of wool than the smaller ones. To be 
durable, blankets must have weight, a closeness 
of fabric, and a sufficient quantity of wool in 
them; it is necessary therefore in choosing 
to look not merely at the nice appearance of 
the pile, but also to the weight and texture. 
Fine blankets are made stouter and heavier 
than coarse ones. Horse blankets are made 
of cheap wool and are woven very closely. 

BLEACHING. — The process by which 
colors or discolorations are removed from fabrics 
and raw materials and their natural whiteness 
restored. 

Linen and Cotton. — When cotton and linen 
are discolored by washing, age, or lying out of 
use, the best way of restoring their whiteness 
is to spread them out on the grass and expose 
to the dews and winds. If a quicker process 
is desired, soak the cloth twelve hours in a 
lye made by dissolving one pound of soda in a 
gallon of boiling hot water ; then boil for half 
an hour in the same liquid. A mixture must 
now be made of chloride of lime with eight 
times its quantity of water, which must be 



well shaken in a stone jar now and then for 
three days ; then allow it to settle and, when 
it is drawn off clear, steep the cloth in it for 
thirty-six hours, and then wash out in the 
ordinary manner. 

"Wool. — In bleaching wool it is necessary first 
to free it from its natural grease; this is done by 
scouring it with water mixed with stale wine. 
In using alkaline lyes for this purpose, great 
caution must be used ; for though wool is in- 
soluble in water it is capable of being dis- 
solved by a strong alkali. Sulphurous acid, 
or the vapor produced by burning sulphur, is 
likewise employed for whitening wool. 

BLEEDING. — The ordinary cases of bleeding 
which come from cuts and similar accidents are 
treated of elsewhere {see Cuts); but it is very 
desirable that every one, even children, should 
understand that in all cases of severe bleeding 
the only thing which can be safely depended on 




Finger Pressure. 

is pressure. Pressure of any kind properly 
applied will do ; but if nothing else is at hand 
and the bleeding is rapid, press your finger on 
or into the bleeding place (as shown in the cut) 
and keep it there till you can have assistance. 

A " vessel-compressor,'^ oV tourniquet," mz.y 
be applied with much good, if the bleeding be 
anywhere below the middle of the thigh. It is 
hardly likely that in sudden emergencies the 
instrument specially made for the purpose will 




Stick Tourniquet. 

be at hand, but a substitute may be readily con- 
trived thus : — Tie tightly, at some little distance 
above the wound, a pocket-handkerchief or 



38 



BLISTERS 



BLOODROOT 



cravat once or twice passed round the limb ; 
then, obtaining a piece of tough stick, push it 
under the handkerchief, and, by turning the 
stick, twist the handkerchief more and more 
tightly, until the bleeding ceases. As soon as 
this result has been attained, fasten the stick 
by another handkerchief tied round stick and 
limb together. This rude tourniquet may save 
life not unfrequently, by enabling the injured 
person to be transported even for some distance, 
without fear of further bleeding. 

Lungs (Bleeding at the) — The escape of 
blood from the mouth, from t!ie throat or lungs, 
is of little consequence when due to some acci- 
dental cause, but when of frequent occurrence 
it is an indication of lung or heart disease. 

Treatment. — Strict rest in bed with the head 
raised ; light diet and ice-cold drinks ; mustard 
to the chest ; alum, in doses of 20 grains for an 
adult, once in two hours. A teaspoonful of salt 
in water is a popular household remedy. 

Nose (Bleeding at the). — This is rather 
beneficial than otherwise, if not too profuse. 
When it requires to be stopped, apply cold 
water, ice, or cold keys to the back of the neck; 
throw back the head and raise the arms. If 
this does not stop it, dissolve a little alum in 
water and squirt it up the nostril with a small 
syringe. Should this fail, send for the doctor. 
It is not desirable to plug the nose, as the 
bleeding finds its way to the top of the throat. 
Make a roll of paper an inch long, and as 
thick as a lead pencil, and crowd it, bent, under 
the upper lip. A chronic tendency to nose- 
bleed may be permanently cured by bathing the 
neck with cold water every morning. 

Stomach (Bleeding at the). — It is a start- 
ling sight to see a person vomiting blood, but 
this is not always dangerous. It may usually 
be checked by lying on the back and taking 
occasional small draughts of iced water or 
lemonade. If the vomiting is severe, give two 
teaspoonfuls of vinegar and one teaspoonful of 
Epsom salts in a wineglass of cold water, re- 
peating the dose every half hour till the bleed- 
ing stops. 

BLISTERS. —Those which are caused by 
burns or scalds are treated of in their proper 
places. {See Burns and Scalds.) Bhsters 
are often produced purposely in medical prac- 
tice on the principle that morbid action in one 
part of the body may be relieved or removed by 
counter-irritation in another and neighboring 
part ; but it is not well to apply them except 
under a physician's advice. Many substances 
will produce a blister, such as mustard, iodine, 
and croton-oil ; but the powder of the dry can- 
tharis, or Spanish fly, operates rapidly and with 
certainty, and is now almost invaribly used. 
The plaster of Cantharides is usually employ- 
ed as a blister. It should be allowed to remain 
in contact with the skin about twelve hours. 
After its removal vesication is promoted by the 
application of a poultice. 

Cantharidal Collodion is often used and re- 
quires simply to be painted upon the skin. 
The raw surface produced in this manner af- 



fords a means of introducing medicinal substan- 
ces ; morphine, for instance, sprinkled on this 
raw surface, is quickly absorbed, and patients 
may be thus relieved when direct remedies 
could not be employed, as in violent colic or 
cholera. {See Morphine.) 

To Dress a Blister. — Great care must be 
taken in dressing a blister; unless perfect 
cleanliness is observed, an unhealthy sore is 
hable to be the result. Spread thinly, on a 
linen cloth, an ointment composed of one third 
beeswax to two thirds of tallow ; lay this upon 
a linen cloth folded many times. With a sharp 
pair of scissors make an aperture in the lower 
part of the blister bag, with a little hole above 
to give it vent. Break the raised skin as little 
as possible. Lay on the cloth spread as direct- 
ed. The blister should be dressed as often as 
three times in a day, and the dressing removed 
each time. 

BLOOD (as Food). — Blood consists of two 
parts, coaguluiii or clot, and the serum, 
and soon after it is drawn it separates into 
these spontaneously. The coagulum is the 
part that becomes solid and has the red 
color ; it is very analogous to flesh and possesses 
almost equal nutritive properties. The serum 
is nearly identical in substance with whites of 
eggs, and like it coagulates by heat. The 
blood of animals is used as food, and is ex- 
tremely digestible and wholesome, — that of the 
hog and ox is used for making black puddings ; 
but there is a strong popular prejudice against 
it which has prevented its coming into general 
use. Dr. Edward Smith, in his book on 
" Food," observes that this prejudice is formed 
partly on the prohibition to the Jews as contained 
in the Old Testament, and partly on the common 
belief that blood maybe diseased without show- 
ing any signs whereby the disease might be recog- 
nized. "As to the former," he says, "it may 
be scarcely necessary to add, that we eat a 
portion of blood in every kind of flesh, and that 
even when the animal is killed by cutting his 
throat after the Jewish fashion, it is not pos- 
sible to extract all the blood from the body, 
and that even the Jews must eat some of it. 
Moreover, blood contains nutritive elements 
of great value, and is inferior only to the flesh 
which is made from it. . . . If there be any 
ground for fear lest diseased germs should 
exist in the blood,, it may be set aside by the 
consideration that a temperature of 212° (that 
of boiling) if freely applied, will suffice to 
destroy all known elements of disease, and that 
blood when fresh and so cooked may be eaten 
with impunity. I think it would be folly to ob- 
ject to the use of blood as a food under proper 
restrictions, one of which should be that the ani- 
mal from which it was taken should not be in a 
state of disease." {See Black Pudding.) 

BLOODROOT. — Poison ; Syviptoms, thirst, 
faintness, dimness of vision; Antidote: Emetic. 
— A perennial plant of the poppy family which 
grows throughout the United States, and flow- 
ers beautifully in March and April. When any 
part of the plant is broken a juice flows out 



BLOUSE. 



BOILING 



39 



which is of a deep red color, hence its name. 
The root is much used in medicine. It is dried 
and pulverized, and adminstered while fresh, 
either in the powder or in pills prepared from it, 
the latter being preferable- A decoction is 
also made from it, in many parts of the coun- 
try ; but it should be used sparingly in any 
form. It is an acrid narcotic and emetic, and 
over-doses have proved fatal in some cases. 
The diseases for which it has been found most 
useful are coughs, colds, croup, and fevers : 
but it is also good for typhoid, pneumonia, scar- 
latina, rheumatism, jaundice, dyspepsia, etc. 

BLOUSE. — {See Sacque.) 

BLUEFISH.— Abound along the North 
American coast, and are known as "snapping 
mackerel," or " blue mackerel," in Virginia, as 
'■'■ Grecnfish;'''' in Carolina, '■'■Slapjack" and in 
Philadelphia as " Tailors^ 




In season from June ist to the end of Octo- 
ber : weight from two to six pounds. Excel- 
lent when fresh, they soon grow strong and 
rancid. 

Baked Bluefish. — Stuff the fish with a dress- 
ing made of about two cups of bread-crumbs, 
a little fat pork chopped fine, one egg, 
plenty of parsley, and pepper and salt, mixed 
well together; then sew the fish up. Fry a 
piece of pork to extract the gravy ; add half a 
teacup of hot water; lay the fish in, sprinkle 
it over with flour and put small lumps of butter 
over it ; bake one hour, basting often. Dish 
the fish ; add a little water and flour and butter 
to the gravy ; let it boil up once, and turn it 
over the fish ; garnish it with slices of lemon, 
or grated horseradish^ 

Boiled Bluefish. — Put the fish in a kettle, 
cover with cold water ; add five stalks of parsley, 
a middle sized onion sliced, salt, and three 
tablespoonfuls of vinegar. For a fish weigh- 
ing five pounds, boil half an hour, and for one 
of eight boil three quarters of an hour. Serve 
with drawn butter and eggs, or with lemon 
sauce, or with anchovy, caper, matelote, or to- 
mato. 

Broiled Bluefish. — Split in the back, and 
clean ; spread melted butter over it inside and 
out ; set the flesh side to the fire first, and when 
this is browned turn the other side ; a fish 
weighing three pounds will take half an hour to 
broil. When done rub a little more butter on, 
season with pepper and salt, and serve at once. 

Fried Bluefish. — Split in the back, clean 
thoroughly, and wipe dry ; then dip the fish in 
milk, let it stand five minutes to dry, roll in 
flour, and fry. Another way is to wipe the 
fish dry, after cleaning, dip in beaten egg, roll 
in bread-crumbs, and fry. The latter is espe- 
cially nice. 



BOILING. — This consists in keeping the 
food for a sufficient time in water heated to the 
boiling point ; if the water does not quite boil, 
it is called simmering. Most meats, to be prop>- 
perly boiled, should be put over the fire in boil- 
ing water ; but fowls and white meat generally 
require the water but a little warm, that the heat 
may penetrate gradually to the centre. All cooks 
should understand that water is converted into 
steam by being heated to the boiling point 
(212°), and that heat employed in the effort to 
raise it above that point is simply wasted. Some 
imagine that by using much fire, and causing 
the water to bubble much, it is made hotter in 




Iron Boiler. 

proportion to the noise it makes ; but this only 
causes the water to evaporate, or boil away fas- 
ter, without making it any hotter, and as the 
cooking of the meat depends upon the temper- 
ature, and not on the quantity of water, the 
meat will not be done any sooner by boiling 
fast, but on the contrary will in many cases be 
hardened on the outside, and longer in cooking. 
By too rapid boiling also, the meat is not only 
rendered harder, bat its savory juices are to a 
great extent evaporated and lost. The great 
art of boiling, therefore, for economy and good 
cooking, is to ketp the water jjist wider the 
boiling point ; and after it once boils, surpris- 
ingly little fuel will be req uired to do this. Cooks 
should also bear in mind that boiling meats for 
soup, and boiling them for solid food are en- 
tirely different processes : and that they can- 
not have in the same pot a well cooked piece 
of meat, and a supply of nutritious broth. The 
process for obtaining one is in fact diametrically 
opposite to that required for the other. If the 
object be to make a good soup, the meat should 
be cut in pieces, put in plenty of cold water, 
raised gradually to the boiling point, and then 
boiled well and long. {See Soup Digestor, 
in article on Soup.) The solid residue after 
this is done will be about as nutritious as 
a piece of sponge. If on the other hand a well 
cooked piece of meat is desired, it should be 
put whole in the pot when the water is boiling, 
and kept just under the boiling point till done; 
the liquid after this process may be used as a 
basis for soup. 

In boiling vegetables, some require soft 
water and others hard{i. e., containing lime 
salts). Soft water has a greater solvent 
power than hard, and when the object is to 
extract the juice of vegetables, as in making 
tea or barley water, soft water must be used; 
but when the juices are not to be extracted 
but preserved in the vegetable, then hard water 



40 



BOILS. 



BOOTS AND SHOES 



should be used with a little salt, and the vege- 
tables put in when it is boiling. Vegetables to 
be digestible should be boiled thoroughly ; and 
some recommend boiling them in two waters. 

In the case offish, as firmness after boiling 
is a desirable quality, hard water is decidedly 
the best, salt should, therefore, always be put 
into the water in which the fish are boiled and 
should not be put in until the water boils. {See 
Warren Cooker. 




Fish Kettle. 



BOILS. {See Abscess.) 

BOLOGNA-SAUSAGE.— A large kind of 
sausage, made in a peculiar way, and so named 
because manufactured first at Bologna, Italy. 
They are made of dry, preserved meats ; and 
their nutritive value is much greater than that 
of fresh sausage, since they are composed of 
meat entirely. Their flavor is agreeable and 
varied with garlic and cloves; and their nutri- 
tive value is equal to three times their weight 
of fresh meat. They are eaten raw, but care 
should be taken lest they are made of diseased 
pork which would be liable to produce trichin 
ous disease. 

BOMBAZET. — A thin, cheap woollen stuff, 
plain and twilled, with warp of single thread, 
pressed and finished without glazing. It is 
21 or 22 inches wide. 

BOMBAZINE. — A mixed fabric, the warp 
being of silk and the woof of worsted. It can 
be had occasionally in colors; but it is generally 
black, and is used as an article of mourning 
for female dress. 

BONE. — Bone consists chiefly of an earthy 
base, called phosphate of lime and an organic ma- 
terial termed chondrin. Its numerous minute 
cells and interstices are filled with marrow. 
When bones are broken to pieces and boiled a 
long time in water, the gelatine, which is a modi- 
fication of chondrin produced by cooking,and the 
oily matter are extracted, thus making an excel- 
lent soup or gravy. The nutritive value of bones 
is not very great, still they maybe utilized in the 
preparation of soup and thus give variety to 
the table. Hundreds of pounds of good food 
are thrown away every year, even in poor fami- 
lies, by neglecting to utilize the bones. In 
making soup from bones, break or rasp them 



into very small pieces, and boil all day over a 
slow fire. Strain before using. 

BONE-FELON. — A collection of matter 
forming beneath the periosteum (the covering 
of the bone) of a joint of a thumb or finger. 
As the periosteum resists its working its way 
outward, there are few things which cause so 
much suffering while it lasts, and if allowed to 
have its own way, it may end in the loss of 
the joint affected and thus deform the hand 
for life. Its coming is manifested by a peculiar 
keen throbbing, thrilling, and persistent pain ; 
and, at this stage, progress may perhaps be 
arrested by soaking the part in a mixture made 
by dissolving a tablespoonful of saleratus in 
half a gill of vinegar. Let it be used as hot 
as can be borne, and repeat as often as the 
pain returns. Painting the part with tincture 
of Iodine, and then placing the finger for ten 
or fifteen minutes under a stream of cool water 
has been recommended. If matter has actually 
collected, however, // must be lanced at once 
down to the bone. This gives relief in an 
hour, which well repays for the suffering caused 
by the operation, which is really less than what 
is endured in a minute from the felon itself. 
If allowed to go on, the felon not unfrequently 
destroys the bone, before coming to the surface 
and thus causes from two to six weeks of 
intense suffering and a life-long deformity. In 
such a case warm poultices should be con- 
stantly applied, with a view of lessening the 
agony. 

BONED FOWL — Chop up and pound in a 
mortar i lb white veal, i lb fat pork, | box 
mushrooms, 2 tablespoonfuls parsley, | nut- 
meg, white pepper and salt, i teaspoonful 
powdered thyme, and the raw yolks of 3 eggs. 
Cut I lb of fat salt pork into fillets half an inch 
square ; cut also the remains of a cold boiled 
tongue in fillets.. Make an incision from the 
neck to the rump; cut the neck off short; draw 
the crop, pull the skin well back over the breasts, 
disjoint the wings, draw the skin back and down 
the breast; clear the whole body down to the 
legs, then bend them back to start them from 
the sockets, and cut the ligature ; when free keep 
pulling the skin down all round until the " pope's 
nose " is reached, cut through it and the carcase 
is out. Make layers of the preparedy(TrrzV and 
fillets of tongue and pork, inserting rows of 
mushrooms until full; sew it up the back, roll 
it in a long towel, secure it at each end, place it 
in a stew-pan with the scraps and trimmings 
chopped fine, i carrot, 2 calfs' feet, 2 onions, 4 
cloves, I bay-leaf, 2 blades mace, a bouquet of 
parsley, garnished with 2 sprigs thyme, 3 green 
onions, the rind of i lemon, 2 glasses brandy, 
\ pint white wine, and white broth to cover; 
boil slowly 2 hours, and press between two 
dishes. Clarify the braise to garnish the dish. 
BONNY CLABBER. {See Clabber.) 
BOOKS. {See FURNITURE and LIBRARY.) 
BOOTS AND SHOES.— The shoe consists 
ofthesoleand theupperleather. Thepart which 
covers the upper is called the vamp, and the 
part which surrounds the heel is called the two 



BORDEAUX WINES 



BRAIN FEVER 



41 



gtiarters J these last are sewed together at the 
heel, and to the vamp at the middle of the foot 
on each side. Boots are simply shoes with a 
covering extending up the legs, though they 
are made usually of fewer pieces. The best 
boots and shoes, both for comfort and durability, 
have the uppers made of soft well-seasoned calf- 
skin and the soles of stout well-hammered Heats' 
leather. Various other kinds of leather, made 
from the skins of goats, horses, dogs, and seals, 
are used especially for ladies' shoes ; but they 
are lighter than calf-skin and not so effective in 
keeping out the wet. A coarse heavy kind of 
shoes, made with the uppers of canvas and the 
soles of wood have lately been mtroduced, but 
though superior to leather in point of durabihty 
and ventilation, they have met with little favor. 
There is probably no portion of our dress in 
which fashion has wrought such mischief as in 
the case of boots and shoes. None of our 
members are called upon to do more important 
work than the feet, yet instead of rendering 
their task as easy as possible they are fettered 
in close, hard, ill-fitting structures of which the 
fancy of the shoemaker and not the shape of the 
foot seems to have dictated the model. The 
mistaken idea that a very small foot is hand- 
some has crippled many ; whereas good taste 
demands that the foot should have a certain 
proportion to the rest of the body. But fashion 
not only compels the habitual wearing of shoes 
that are too small, but now and then devises ec- 
centricities which are even more directly and 
generally hurtful. The high-heeled shoes with 
the heels running forward under the instep, which 
ladies have been wearing the last few years, not 
only deform the feet, but distort the muscles of 
the entire leg, and destroy the equilibrium 
which the body should maintain on the spinal 
column. Boots and shoes ahke should, while 
fitting snugly around the instep, be large enough 
to feel easy at all times and especially to allow 
the toes some liberty of action. The best 
method of securing this is to have lasts made 
especially for the foot, and all shoes made on 
them. The heel also should be broad and low, 
and the sole flexible. 

To make Boots and Shoes Waterproof. — 
Melt in an earthen vessel, over a slow fire, half 
a pint of linseed oil, one ounce of beeswax, 
half an ounce of rosin, and one ounce of oil of 
turpentine. If new boots and shoes are satu- 
rated with this mixture, and left to hang in a 
warm place for a week or ten days, they will 
not only be entirely waterproof but the leather 
will also be soft and pliable. The soles may 
be rendered waterproof by applying a coat of 
gum-copal varnish to them, and repeating it 
until the pores of the leather are filled. 
BOUCHEE. — A small Pate (which see). 
BORDEAUX WINES. {See Claret.) 
BOUILLON. (See SoUPS.) 
BOX. — A comprehensive genus of plants, em- 
bracing numerous species which proceed in reg- 
ular succession from extremely small shrubs to 
trees thirty feet in height. Several varieties of 
the shrub are cultivated in our gardens. The 



leaves are thick and very green, and the flowers, 
which are quite small, grow in clusters all over 
the plant. The divay-f box is the species most 
generally cultivated, and being hardy and ever- 
green it is unequalled for forming low hedges 
or borderings for garden-walls and flower-beds. 
If kept smoothly trimmed these hedges are 
very pretty, and once fairly started they will 
last for years without requiring attention. To 
raise, procure plenty of shoots from the florist 
and plant them in early spring close together 
in a rich, dry, and slightly sandy soil. If in 
growing, some of the bushes lag behind the 
others considerably, pull them up and substitute 
more vigorous plants. 

BRAIN FEVER. — A term often inexactly 
used to denote a variety of fevers in which 
brain symptoms predominate. It may with 
propriety be employed to denote the fever re- 
sulting from inflammation of the membranes 
covering the brain, or intense congestion of 
the brain itself. Exposure to a hot sun, is a 
well-established cause of brain fever. It may 
also result from hard drinking, Bright's Disease, 
and perhaps rheumatism. Acute congestion 
may likewise arise from excessive study, grief, 
anxiety, or anger, gormandizing, etc. The 
symptoms are a severe pain in the head, red- 
ness or suffusion of the eyes, violent flushing 
of the face, disturbed sleep, heat of the head and 
dryness cf the skin, costiveness and sometimes 
retention of urine. When the disease has ad- 
vanced these symptoms are followed by delirium 
or stupor. 

Treatment. — As brain fever often proves fatal 
in a few days, it requires the most speedy treat- 
ment ; but a mistake is very dangerous, and a 
physician should be called immediately. When 
the symptoms first present themselves, the 
patient should be kept very quiet and only al- 
lowed to partake sparingly of farinaceous food, 
such as water-gruel, roasted or boiled fruits, jel- 
lies, preserves, etc. Bleeding from the nose af- 
fords great relief, and when it comes of its own 
accord it is by no means to be stopped, but pro- 
moted by applying cloths dipped in warm water 
to the part. Linen cloths wetted with vinegar 
and water, cold spirituous lotions, diluted ether, 
or iced water should be kept constantly on the 
temples and forehead, renewing them as often 
as they become dry. Cold applied to the top 
of the head by means of wet cloths or pounded 
ice is also excellent. The feet should be fre- 
quently placed in warm water; and to assist in 
diminishing the tendency of blood to the head 
it should be elevated by pillov.'s. The bowels 
if confined should be kept open with purgatives, 
saline laxatives to be employed by preference, 
and bromide of potassium, in fifteen to thirty 
grain doses, may be administered every 3 to 4 
hours. Besides the application of cold to the 
brain, the most important thing is to keep the 
sufferer quiet ; he must be soothed and humor- 
ed even in his whims, and great care taken that 
he is not disturbed or excited in any way. The 
symptoms of recovery are a reduction of the 
heat about the head, a return to consciousness 



42 



BRAISING 



BRAWN 



and power of sleep. An enfeeblement of the 
memory frequently persists for some weeks 
following the attack. 

BRAISING. — This is simply a more expen- 
sive mode of stewing meat. The followijig 
Frertch receipt will explain the process : We 
would observe, however, that the layers of beef 
or veal in which the joint to be braised is im- 
bedded can afterwards be converted into an 
excellent soup, gravy, or glaze ; and that, con- 
sequently, there need be no waste, no unreason- 
able degree of expense attending it ; but it is a 
troublesome process, and quite as good a 
result may be obtained by simmering the meat 
in very strong gravy. Should the flavor of the 
bacon be considered an advantage, slices of it 
can be laid on the meat, and tied to it with a 
piece of tape. 

" To braise the inside (or stnall fillet^ as it 
is called in France) of a sirloin of beef : Raise 
the fillet clean froiji the joint ; and with a sharp 
knife strip off all the skin, leaving the surface 
of the meat as smooth as possible ; have ready 
some strips of unsmoked bacon, half as thick 
as your little finger, roll them in a mixture of 
thyme finely minced, spices in powder, and a 
little pepper and salt. Lard the fillet quite 
through with these, and tie it round with tape 
in any shape you choose. Line the bottom of 
a stewpan (or braising pan) with slices of bacon ; 




English Braising- Pan. 

next put in a layer of beef or veal, four onions, 
two bay leaves, two carrots, and a bunch of 
sweet herbs, and place the fillet on them. 
Cover it with slices of bacon, put some trim- 
mings of meat all round it, and pour on to it 
half a pint of good beef broth or gravy. Let 
it stew as gently as possible for two hours and 
a half ; take it up, and keep it very hot ; strain, 
and reduce the gravy by quick boiling until it 
is thick enough to glaze with ; brush "the meat 
over with it ; put the rest in the dish with the 
fillet, after the tape has been removed from it, 
and send it direct}^ to table." 

Equal parts of Madeira and gravy are some- 
times used to moisten the meat. 




Copper Stew- Pan. 



No attempt should be made to braise a joint 
in any vessel that is not very nearly of its own 
size. Braising-pans are of various forms. 
The best is that represented in the accompany- 
ing illustration ; but a stew-pan of modern form, 
or any other vessel that will admit of coals 
being placed upon the lid, will answer the 
purpose. 

BRANDY. — Brandy is made by distillation 
from wine, and genuine brandy can be made in 
no other way ; it is, therefore, in its pure state 
the choicest and most agreeable of the class of 
ardent spirits. The best brandy is made from 
the white wines of the Cognac and Annagnac 
district of France ; but as looo gallons of wine 
makes only loo to 150 gallons of brandy, it may 
be imagined that some inferior wanes are 
generally substituted for delicate and highly 
flavored wines. In point of fact, however, the 
greater part of the brandy consumed all over the 
world, is not made from wine at all, but is simply 
alcohol distilled and flavored with oil of Cognac. 
Fiery potato s]Mrits are also frequently convert- 
ed into so-called brandy by distillation and 
"flavoring." Among the adulterations of 
brandy, hot and pungent substances, such as 
pepper, capsicum, ginger, etc., are added to give 
the appearance of strength. They may be de- 
tected by evaporating a little of the suspected 
brandy nearly to dryness, when the acrid and 
burning taste will be sensibly increased if such 
substances have been used. 

The liquors manufactured in this country 
and known as apple bratidy, peach brandy, 
blackberry brandy, and the like, are not bran- 
dies at all but a radically different spirit. 

BRANT. — A fine bird much sought after by 
gunners, and known variously as " horsefoot 
snipe," and " turnstone." It is very rich and 
savory, and may generally be found in the 
markets in April and May, and again in Sep- 
tember and October. It is scarcely suitable for 
eating purposes at other times of the year. 
For method of cooking see Snipe. 

BRASIER. {See Warming-Pan.) 

BRASS-WARE. — Before the invention of 
tinned iron, brass was the most popular sub- 
stance for making pots and kettles, sauce-pans, 
stew-pans, and similar utensils. It is less liable 
to rust or be acted upon by acids and other 
corrosive substances than copper, and is con- 
sequently easy to keep clean, and safer than 
the latter. It is far from desirable however as 
a material for cooking utensils, and since iron 
is both cheaper and better, it should for this 
purpose, at least, go entirely out of use. Into 
ornamentation of furniture of course, it enters 
appropriately enough. 

To Clean. — The best substance for clean- 
ing brass-ware is bath-brick, pulverized, and 
rubbed on vigorously with a coarse, damj) rag. 
Whiting applied dry, is also good. 

BRAWN. — The prepared flesh of the wild 
boar or domestic hog, usually made of the head, 
cheeks, tongue, and ears. It is a peculiar 
kind of fat, and is very nutritious for those 
whose stomachs can dissolve it. 



BRAZIL NUT 



BREAD 



43 



To Make. — Take a pig's head weighing 
about six pounds ; one pound of lean beef ; 
one teaspoonf ul of salt ; one half teaspoonful 
each of black pepper, cayenne pepper, and mace; 
a i^inch of cloves ; and a small onion minced 
very fine. Clean the head carefully, and stew 
with the beef in enough cold water to cover. 
When the bones will slip out easily, remove 
them, after draining off the liquor; chop the 
meat up fine while it is hot, put in the 
seasonings, and pour all into a mould that has 
been wetted inside. By having special moulds 
the brawn can be made into a great variety of 
fanciful shapes. 

BRAZIL-NUT. — These nuts, as their name 
implies, are a native of South America. They 
have a large, white kernel in a brown, rough, 
three-cornered shell, taste like the hazel-nut, 
and are extremely rich and oily. They are in- 
digestible and should be eaten rarely ; children, 
especially, should never be permitted to eat them. 
The fresh nuts arrive from March to May, but 
they are not good until they have dried several 
months. 

BREAD. — Bread is, in a peculiar sense, the 
" staff of life," and is one of the most important 
subjects in the whole range of domestic econ- 
omy. Badly cooked meats, or pastry, or vege- 
tables, may be endured with more or less of 
patience provided there is plenty of good whole- 
some bread to fall back upon, — they may even 
be dispensed with for a time ; but if the bread 
is bad, the health of the family cannot possibly 
be maintained. Bread-making is an art which 
should be thoroughly mastered by every house- 
keeper in her earliest experience as such ; and 
the young women should be taught it as they 
grow up, even if they attempt no other branch 
of the art of cookery. For the making of good 
bread three things are indispensable : the right 
kind of flour, good yeast, and careful baking. 
The flour should be the best that can be had, and 
above all things dty j new flour cannot be made 
to answer, it should be at least three months 
old, and should also be elastic and odorless. 

New flour may sometimes be ripened for use 
by spreading enough for each baking in a large 
tray and exposing it to the hot sun for several 
hours, or by setting it near a fire for the same 
length of time ; but this is troublesome, and 
not always successful, and it is best to return 
the flour at once if it is found not to be per- 
fectly dry. (The following are good tests in 
buying flour; on squeezing a handful it should 
retain the print of the skin ; the grain should be 
perceptible in rubbing between the thumb and 
finger.) Good, strong yeast is also indispen- 
sable, for, without it, bread cannot be hght and 
digestible. In the cities what is known as 
distillery yeast may usually be had of the 
baker, and occasionally good yeast cakes ; but 
home-brewed yeast is most reliable, and con-, 
sequently most satisfactory to use. (^See 
Yeast.) After the dough is mixed, — it should 
be made as soft as it can be conveniently 
handled, — it must be set for several hours in a 
warm (not too warm) place where it will be ex- 



posed to a steady, even temperature. Too much 
heat excites too rapid fermentation, and makes 
the bread sour; too little, on the other hand, 
arrests the process, and makes the bread heavy, 
lumpy, and soggy. Before being put into the 
oven the dough should be kneaded till it is 
elastic and flexible as india-rubber. The bak- 
ing is the part of the process in which bread is 
most frequently spoiled, and this should be 
carefully attended to. The ovens must be of 
just the right heat when the pans are first put 
in, and the heat must be kept uniform while 
the cooking is in progress, if a mistake is made 
in either case the baking is spoiled. As to the 
degree of heat, it depends somewhat on the 
substance of which the bread is made, but in 
no case should the oven be too hot. The best 
plan is to use a thermometer and decide the 
degree by experiment ; but in the absence of 
this, if the bared arm can be held in the oven 
for half a minute it is about right for the 
dough. 

To Make (Plain). — Put eight quarts of 
flour (sifted) into the tray ; pour in a pint of 
home-made yeast, mix with a pint of warm 
water ; then work them together till a thick 
batter is made. Scatter a handful of flour over 
this batter, lay a warm towel over the whole, 
set it in a warm place to rise. This is called the 
sponge. When the sponge has risen so as to 
crack the flour on the top, which will take from 
three to five hours, scatter over it two table- 
spoonfuls of fine salt ; add, in small quantities 
at a time, about two quarts of warm milk or 
water ; knead the whole thoi-otighly., adding 
flour enough to make a soft dough ; then shape 
it into a round mass, and set it in a warm place ; 
when light, mould into loaves, and, when these 
are light, bake from thirty to sixty minutes ac- 
cording to the size. 

Barley Bread. — This is very popular in 
Scotland, Norway and all countries where wheat 
will not grow, but is seldom made in this country. 
It is wholesome, however, and nutritious, and 
very palatable when eaten warm with butter. 
Use no yeast : but mix the barley-meal with 
warm water and a little salt to the consistency 
of a stiff dough. Bake in flat cakes either in 
the oven or before the fire. 

Boston Bro-wn Bread. — Take : Home-made 
yeast, i teacupful; flour, 3 teacupfuls; potatoes, 
6 ; water, i qt ; lard, 2 tablespoonfuls : brown 
sugar, 2 tablespoonfuls; Indian meal, 2 qts ; 
rye flour, i qt ; soda, i teaspoonful ; salt, i table- 
spoonful. 

Make a sponge with one teacupful of yeast, 
six potatoes mashed fine with three cups of 
flour, one quart of warm water ; two table- 
spoonfuls of lard, and two tablespoonfuls of 
brown sugar. Set to rise over night or for 
five or six hours. When light, sift into the 
bread-tray two quarts of Indian meal ; one 
quart of rye flour ; and one tablespoonful each 
of soda or saleratus and salt ; mix this up very 
soft with the risen sponge, adding warm 
water, if needed, and work in gradually 
half a teacupful of molasses, Knead well 



44 



BREAD 



and set to rise six or seven hours. Then 
work over again, divide into loaves, and 
set to rise again for one hour. Then bake 
four hours in a moderately heated oven. 

Brown Bread. —/"^/f^.- Indian meal, i qt ; 
rye flour, i qt ; water, i pt ; home-made yeast, 
I teacupful ; salt, to taste. 

Take a quart of Indian meal, scald it with a 
pint of hot water, and when it becomes luke- 
warm, stir into it a quart of rye flour, a teacup- 
ful of yeast, the usual quantity of salt: and 
enough tepid water to make a rather stiff dough, 
set to rise as with other bread, and bake in two 
loaves an hour and a half. 

Corn Bread. — Take: Indian meal, i qt. ; 
boiling water, i qt ; yeast, i teacupful : salt. 

Mix a quart of Indian meal with a little cold 
water ; stir it into a quart of boiling water and 
let it boil an hour ; stir in a little salt, take it 
from the fire ; let it stand till luke-warm, then stir 
in half a teacupful of yeast and enough Indian 
meal to make it of the consistency of dough. 
Set to rise several hours, and when light, bake 
in two loaves an hour and a half. 

Graham Bread. — Take: Graham flour, 3 qts. ; 
warm water, i qt. ; home-made yeast, i gill ; 
syrup, I gill ; salt, i tablespoonful ; soda, i even 
teaspoonful. 

Mix all the ingredients thoroughly, put it in 
well-buttered pans and leave it in a warm place 
to rise ; or let it rise slowly over night in the 
bowl in which it was mixed, and, unless very 
light in the morning, let it stand fifteen or 
twenty minutes in the pans before putting it in 
the oven. Bake about an hour and a half. 

n. — Thin a pint of light bread sponge with 
a pint of warm water ; add two tablespoonfuls 
of molasses, a teaspoonful of salt, and sufficient 
Graham flour to make a batter that can be 
stirred with a spoon ; put it in well-buttered 
pans, and when light, bake. A part of this may 
be baked in gem-pans for breakfast or tea. If 
wanted for tea and the bread is light in the 
morning, keep it in a cold place until half an 
hour before the time for baking. 

Indian Pone. — Take:-\'s\6\2ca meal, i qt; 
lard, I tablespoonful ; salt, i teaspoonful ; water 
or milk. 

Take one quart of Indian meal; mix it 
with enough hot water to make a moderately 
stiff dough, work in a tablespoonful of lard, and 
a teaspoonful of salt ; mould into thick oblong 
loaves (or pones), rounded on top ; and bake in 
a rather quick oven till brown. Bat hot with 
butter. Milk instead of water is an improve- 
ment. 

Oatmeal Bread. — This is seldom made in this 
country, but it is very wholesome and not un- 
palatable. Make as directed for barley bread. 
When made thick, this bread in Scotland is 
called bannock ; the term cakes is applied to the 
thin loaves, which are first baked upon a hot 
plate or griddle till they are stiff enough to stand 
upon their edges, and then toasted on the hearth 
before the fire till they are crisp. In farm- 
houses they bake a considerable quantity at 
once, and keep them on a rack fixed to the ceiling 



to be eaten when needed. They may be kept a 
long time if the room is dry. 

Potato Bread. — Take .•-Potatoes ; flour ; 
yeast ; lukewarm water. 

Boil good mealy potatoes soft, then peel 
and mash them fine. Sift flour upon them 
in the proportion of two-thirds of flour to one- 
third of potatoes ; add the yeast, and enough 
lukewarm water to bring the whole to the con- 
sistency of dough. Knead well. This bread 
will rise more quickly than common wheat 
bread, and it should be baked as soon as 
risen, for it turns sour very soon. 

Pumpkin Bread. — Take .--Pumpkin ; yeast; 
Indian meal ; salt. 

Take a ripe pumpkin, stew and strain ; add 
yeast, Indian meal enough to stiffen it, and a 
little salt ; set to rise, and bake in the usual way. 
This makes excellent bread. 

Rice Bread. — Take: Rice, i pt ; rice flour 
or wheat flour, 2 qts ; home made yeast, half a 
teacupful ; salt i teaspoonful ; raUk. 

Boil a pint of rice till soft, and mix it with 
two quarts of rice flour or wheat flour. When 
cool add half a teacupful of yeast, a teaspoon- 
ful of salt, and enough milk to make a soft 
dough. When it has risen, bake in small but- 
tered pans. 

n. Take .--Rice flour, 3 pts ; wheat flour ; 
milk and water ; yeast, ^pt ; salt 2 teaspoonfuls. 

Mix three pints of rice flour with cold 
milk and water to a thin gruel, and boil it three 
minutes ; then stir in wheat flour till as stiff as 
can be stirred with a spoon. When this has 
cooled down to blood heat, add half a pint of 
home-brewed yeast, and two level teaspoonfuls 
of salt. Knead into soft, elastic dough, and 
when light, bake in a moderately quick oven. 

Rye Bread. — Take .--Indian meal, 3 cupfuls ; 
rye flour, 4 cups; wheat flour, 6 cups ; sugar, i 
cup ; home-made yeast, I cup ; warm water. 

Mix three cups of Indian meal, scalded, with 
four cups of rye flour, six cups of wheat flour, 
one cup of sugar, one cup of yeast, and enough 
warm water to reduce to the consistency of soft 
dough. Knead well, and when risen bake 
three-quarters of an hour in small buttered 
pans, or cups. 

II. Take:-KyQ. flour ; milk or water ; yeast ; 
butter ; salt. 

Wet up rye flour with lukewarm milk (water 
will do but is not so good). Put in the same 
proportion of yeast as for wheat bread. For 
two quarts of flour put in a teaspoonful of 
salt, and a tablespoonful of melted butter. 
Knead into a soft dough, and set to rise. When 
light, put it into pans, without moulding it up ; 
let it remain in them twenty minutes, and then 
bake slowly three or four hours. 

Stale Bread (to improve). — Steam it half 
an hour or so and shut it up from the air. 

Unleavened Bread. — Take .--Flour ; warm 
water or milk ; lard ; salt. 

This is made without yeast or fermentation, 
and is the simplest and easiest way to pre- 
pare bread, though not the healthiest. Flour 
made into a stiff dough with warm water or 



BREAD-CRUMBING 



BREAKFAST 



45 



milk, a little lard, and suet, and baked in thin 
cakes, is very palatable eaten hot. It may be 
baked as soon as mixed. The Jews make the 
bread in this way which they use for the 
Passover or " feast of unleavened bread." 

BREAD-ORUMBING is performed by roll- 
ing in dry, finely-sifted bread-crumbs, then 
into a mixture of one egg beaten with one- 
third of a cup of milk — salt and white pepper to 
taste — then into bread crumbs again, great care 
being exercised to cover the whole surface, to 
prevent the grease from entering. In bread- 
crumbing sweet dishes, dispense with the salt 
and pepper in the egg mixture. To broil any- 
thing bread-crumbed, proceed as described, 
finishing by dipping in melted butter and in 
bread-crumbs again. 

BREAKFAST — The substantial and hearty 
meal partaken of by Americans, is the bone of 
a very great contention. On the one hand it is 
maintained it is //z<? ruin of digestion and the 
most prolific source of dyspepsia, etc. On the 
other hand it is shown that, for a busy, active 
people, and also for a people who generally 
have only two meals a day — breakfast and 
dinner — the meal is none too substantial. How- 
ever, which is right or wrong, must be a 
matter of individual opinion and experience. 

The difficulty lies in what is eaten at break- 
fast. More attention could be, with very great 
advantage, bestowed on this meal. The table, 
to begin with, could be fresher and more cheer- 
ful, with flowers and fruit ; table-cloth and nap- 
kins white, with a colored border too, have a 
much more pleasing effect than a cloth entirely 
colored. Too often the breakfast-room is about 
the worst for the purpose in the house — dark, 
dismal, and chilly. 

The dishes should be varied ; a change 
should be striven for every day. The beef- 
steak one day should be plain, another day 
with fine herbs or stewed tomatoes over it, 
with brown oyster sauce or onion sauce, etc. ; 
then vary it with chops, eggs, kidneys broiled, 
stewed, or saute j with fish, in the many differ- 
ent ways described ; tripe, oysters, liver, and 
the many other preparations given, such as 
savory hashes of game, beef, lamb ; with slices 
of cold, boiled, and roast beef, mutton, etc., 
grilled or devilled, and served with any sort of 
piquant sauce. 

Fresh fruit and salads are to be commended 
for breakfast — very relishable and extremely 
healthful. Oatmeal, too, is to be particularly 
recommended ; eat it the first thing at break- 
fast every morning. Eschew too liberal indul- 
gence in hot breads ; accustom yourselves to 
eating bread (home made) twelve hours old. 

Breakfast parties are rapidly coming into 
fashion — they have been popular abroad some 
time — usually served at 9 A. M. to 12 M. Of 
course the earlier they are served the more ap- 
propriate they are as breakfasts. Some bills 
of fare are given as selections for parties and 
also for family use. The dishes marked in 
italics may be left out, if thought too elaborate, 
without spoiling the effect of the breakfast. 



FAMILY BREAKFASTS. 

SPRING. 
Oatmeal and milk. 
Stewed apples. 

Rolls, butter. Coffee, chocolate, broma, or tea. 
Beefsteak, broiled oysters. 
Lyonnaise potatoes, poached eggs on toast. 
Rice cakes, syrup. 

SPRING. 
Cracked wheat and milk. 
Stewed prunes. 

Bread or rolls, butter, coffee, etc. 
Mutton chops, fried bacon. 
Boiled eggs, potatoes a la maitre d'hotel. 
Waifles, cinnamon and sugar. 

SPRING. 

Fried hominy. 

Stewed dried peaches. 

Rolls or bread, butter, coffee, etc. 

Broiled ham, with fried eggs. 

Mutton and potato hash, browned. 

Baked potatoes. 

Flannel cakes, powdered sugar. 

SUMMER. 

Coarse hominy, boiled. 
Strawberries and cream. 
Bread, butter, coffee, etc. 
Broiled chicken, stewed potatoes. 
Dried beef, dressed with cream. 
Radishes. 
Muffins. 

SUMMER. 

Oatmeal and milk. 
Fresh currants and sugar. 
lUittered toast, bread, coffee, etc. 
Broiled blue or whitefish. 
Stewed potatoes. 
Minced mutton, served on toast. 
Stirred eggs. 
Hominy cakes, syrup. 

SUMMER. 

Cracked wheat and milk. 
Fresh raspberries. 
Rolls, butter, coffee, etc. 
Cold roast beef, sliced thin. 
Frizzled ham, with eggs. 
Fried potatoes, sliced cucumbers. 
Graham gems, or popovers. 

AUTUMN. 

Oatmeal mush, fried in slices. 
Peaches and cream, or blackberries. 
Brown bread, rolls, butter, coffee, etc. 
Lamb chops, fried potatoes. 
Mushrooms baked, and served on toast. 
Sliced tomatoes, dressed as a salad. 

AUTUMN. 
Hulled corn, with cream. 
Baked pears, grapes. 
Bread, butter, coffee, etc. 
Veal cutlets, potato balls. 
Omelette, with grated ham. 
Virginia bakes (thin corn-meal pancakes). 

AUTUMN. 

Coarse hominy, boiled and browned. 
Peaches and cream. 
Bread, butter, coffee, etc. 
Beefsteak, oysters on toast. 
Stewed potatoes. 
Muffins. 



46 



BREAM 



BREWING 



WINTER. 

Fried mush. 

Baked sweet apples. 

Rolls, bread, butter, coffee, etc. 

Turkey hash, stewed potatoes. 

Salt mackerel. 

Buckwheat cakes, syrup. 

WINTER. 

Cracked wheat. 

Baked pears. 

Rolls, Graham bread, butter, coffee, etc. 

Sausages, garnished with fried sour apples. 

Quail on toast, baked potatoes. 

Buckwheat cakes, syrup. 

WINTER. 
Fried hominy. 
Stewed apples. 
Bread, butter, coffee, etc. 
Venison steak, cold spare-rib sliced. 
Potatoes a la maitre d'hotel. 
Buckwheat cakes, syrup. 



inland waters from New England to Texas. 
It is a small, flat, perch-shaped fish, variously 



BREAKFAST PARTIES. 

EARLY SPRING. 
Grapes, apples, oranges. 
( Cutlets of bass en papilotte. K^tour Blanche, 
y Cucumbers pickled. ) 

I Roast English snipe. { gj^^ 
/ Baked mushrooms. J •'* 

j Lobster salad. ) Coffee 

} Bread, butter, crackers. ) 
(Chocolate eclairs, 
j Vanilla ice-cream. 

SUMMER. 

Berries and peaches, with cream. 
[ Brook trout broiled, with tomato sauce. ) 
Boiled potatoes, pickled gherkins, andV Chablis. 

olives. ; 

: Fillets of beef saute, with ) chateau La Rose. 
Lima beans. ) 

Cauliflower bread-crumbed. 
[ Fillets of chickens en fricassee, with ) 

rice. > Hockheimer. 

jBrussel sprouts a la Bechamel. ) 
) Fried oysters. 
I Celery and lettuce, mixed with mayonnaise. 
Tutti frutti, assorted cakes, coffee. 

WINTER. 

Chicken consomme with poached eggs. 
; Small middle cut (darne) of salmon, 
with anchovy sauce and shrimps. 
' Potatoes 'a la Printaniere. 
! Chicken croquettes. \ 

Canned stiing beans (Haricdts verts\ \ 
Sorbet au kirch^vasser. 

! Roast saddle of Southdown mutton, 
sauce soubise. 
Turnips au veloute. 
( Broiled quails aux croutons. 
\ Endive with plain dressing. 
i Cream, in mould of swan and cygnets 
■] Macaroons, bonbons, chocolate wafers, 
(Fruits, and nuts. 
Vienna coffee {coffee with whipped cream 



(Madeira. ) 

Chateau 
Latour. 

Clos 
Vougeot. 



Sauterne^ 



" (• Sherry. 
piled on it). 




BREAM The variegated bream or dace, 

the only species known here, abounds in fresh 



Bream. 

colored, and rarely over six inches in length. 
It is not very highly esteemed for eating 
purposes ; but is, nevertheless, sweet and 
daintily flavored, and makes an excellent dish 
fried. Bream may be found in the markets 
duriftg the winter months. Prepared and cook- 
ed Hke mackerel. 

BREWING. — The process by which ale and 
beer are made. All malt liquors are manufac- 
tured from malt, which is usually produced from 
the parched grain of the germinating barley ; 
though it can be made from wheat and other 
seeds, and in fact from any substance contain- 
ing sugar. The first step in the process of 
brewing is to select barley with full, round, 
heavy and sweet grains, of uniform quality, 
and not a mixture of different crops. This 
grain is first steeped in cold water for a period 
of not less than forty hours, in order that it 
may soak up the utmost possible quantity of 
water ; if the water during this time exhibits 
any signs of fermentation it must be drawn off 
and replaced with cold water. After the steep- 
ing it is spread upon the floor of the malt 
house to a depth of about sixteen inches, which 
is called the conch. It is allowed to remain in 
this situation for twenty-six hours ; it is then 
turned by wooden shovels, and the depth of 
the couch is somewhat diminished. This pro- 
cess is repeated twice a day or oftener, and the 
depth of the barley is gradually diminished. 
In this state the barley absorbs oxygen from 
the air, and gives out carbonic acid, the tem- 
perature of the barley in the meantime being 
greatly increased, so that it shows a heat ten 
degrees above that of the surrounding atmos- 
phere. At the time this part of the process is 
going on, the barley gives out an agreeable 
odor, like that of apples, and becomes covered 
with moisture. The appearance of this mois- 
ture is called sweating. The interior of the 
grain by this time has undergone considerable 
change, its color has become whiter, and from 
being firm and dense it has become loose and 
crumbles to powder between the fingers. It 
is now taken to the kiln, and exposed to a heat 
of 90°, which is gradually increased to 140° or 
even higher. The tiny rootlets which had 
begun to sprout forth are then cleared away, 
and the grain has become malt. Brewers use 
three kinds of malt, which are known as pale 
or amber malt, brown or plain malt, and roasted 
or black malt. The first only is fermentable, 
the second is employed to give flavor to beer, 
and the last is used as a coloring matter to 



BRICK 



BRIGHT'S DISEASE 



47 



give the dark color to porters and stouts. 
The two last malts are made by carrying the 
roasting process so far as to destroy the sugar ; 
whilst in the black malt it is charred by the 
heat to which it is exposed. 

After the malt has been prepared the brew- 
ing process proper is commenced, and this also 
consists of several distinct operations. The 
first is to grind the malt, and this is done 
either by millstones or iron rollers. The grist 
thus produced has now to be mashed. For 
this purpose the malt is put into a mash-tub, 
and then hot water is let in upon it and run off 
by taps from the bottom of the tub. Successive 
quantities of hot water are in the same manner 
run through the malt, and the worts thus 
obtained are mixed together and introduced 
into a large copper. The hops are then added 
and the liquor is boiled ; after boiling it is 
strained from the hops and let into vessels to 
cool. When brought down to the proper 
temperature, the liquor is passed into the 
fermenting tub. There a quantity of yeast is 
added, and when the fermentation has brought 
the quantity of sugar down to a certain point, 
the yeast is cleaned away ; this process is 
called cleaning. The beer is now run into vats 
or casks, which is called racking. It is still, 
however, thick and muddy, and a solution of 
gelatine or isinglass is added for the purpose 
Qi fining it. The beer is then bunged up, and 
is ready for use at various periods. Beer can 
be made to vary greatly in its quality according 
to the way in which this process of brewing 
has been carried on. Of course the stronger 
the wort, the more sugar and the more alcohol 
as the result of fermentation ; but the fermen- 
tation may be carried up to various points. 
By stopping it before the latter stage, the sweet 
ales are made, which become stronger by 
keeping. If the fermentation is not arrested 
but carried on till the sugar is exhausted, and 
a large quantity of hops is added, the pale 
bitter ales are produced. 

BRICK. — A building material made of 
clay in rectangular blocks, and baked in the 
sun or by fire. When they are well made, and 
properly burned, there is no substance for 
building purposes equal to bricks in durability. 
All clays consist of two kinds of earth, alumina 
and silica, and when kneaded with water form 
a paste that is plastic or capable of being 
moulded into any form. In many parts of the 
country, good brick earth exists in a natural 
state, but frequently there is either too 
much or too little sand, and this has to be 
rectified either by adding " fat " or sticky clay 
or sand. 

The common process of brick-making is as 
follows : Brick earth, consisting of a clayey 
loam, is usually dug in September and exposed 
in heaps of a few feet in height to the action of 
the frost during the winter, which pulverizes 
and tempers it. The small stones are then 
separated by grinding it in water and running 
it through a grating. It is then mixed with 
water to the consistency of cream, and after 



standing till it has acquired a sufficient past- 
iness, it is tempered by being run through a 
pug-mill, when it is ready to be moulded. 
Before the invention of the pug-mill, the mortar 
was thrown into a shallow pit in which it was 
trodden out by the feet of men and oxen. As 
the clay comes out of the pug-mill it is taken 
to the moulder's bench and separated into small 
pieces. Each of these pieces is then placed 
into the mould, pressed flat, and the top scraped 
off with a flat stick. The newly moulded bricks 
are then carried in a wheelbarrow to a place 
where, arranged on each other diagonally, with 
spaces between, they are dried in the air suffi- 
ciently to bear removal, and are then ready for 
burning. Should the weather be fine, a few days 
will suffice for this drying. In baking bricks 
they are arranged either in kilns or clamps. 
The former are permanent ovens on an im- 
mense scale, and are commonly used in 
England ; the open method of arranging the 
bricks so that they form their own ovens is the 
plan almost universally adopted in this country. 
The top and sides of these kilns or clamps are 
built of bricks that have been baked, and flues 
for the heat are carried through every part of 
the pile. From 20,000 to 1,000,000 bricks are 
baked in one kiln, and the average time for bak- 
ing is eight days. 

In purchasing bricks care should be taken 
to select those which have been well burned, 
and which look smooth and solid. If the 
baking has been imperfectly done, or the pro- 
portion of sand in the clay was too great, the 
bricks will crumble to pieces when exposed to 
the weather. A good test when hard bricks 
are desired, is to soak a piece in water ; if the 
baking has been thorough it will not dissolve 
into mud. 

BRIGHT'S DISEASE.— A term applied to 
a number of different affections of the kidneys, 
so called because they were first described by 
Dr. Bright. The causes of kidney diseases are 
any which cause congestion of the kidneys — in- 
dulgence in strong drink, exposure to wet and 
cold, scarlet fever, fever and ague or similar dis- 
eases, and pregnancy. The symptoms of Bright's 
disease depend upon whether the patient suf- 
fers from the acute or chronic form. In acute 
cases there are pains in the back and loins, at 
first slight and occasional, but gradually dull, 
heavy, and settled, accompanied with restless- 
ness and fever, and the usual functional disor- 
ders in other organs ; loss of appetite, vomiting 
and sometimes purging, and diminution or 
entire suppression of the urine. These symp- 
toms are succeeded by swelling of the face 
and extremities, and in extreme cases by gen- 
eral dropsy. Should the above symptoms fail 
to point out the disease, heat applied to the 
urine will at once indicate its character, as there 
is in Bright's disease always more or less al- 
bumen in the urine which solidifies on the 
application of heat. The symptoms other than 
those furnished by boiling the urine, unless 
dropsy exists, are as a rule so obscure in 
chronic cases as rarely to be recognized except 



48 



BRINE 



BROCCOLI 



by a practiced physician. Acute cases of 
Bright's disease usually recover under suitable 
treatment. Chronic cases are indeed incurable, 
but with careful attention to the health, and 
judicious professional care and advice, life is 
often prolonged for many years. Medical aid 
must be had in all cases. 

BRINE.— The solution of salt and saltpetre 
usually made use of in preserving meats. An 
excellent brine maybe made by mixing a pound 
and a half of sugar or molasses and two ounces 
of saltpetre (or saleratus) in four gallons of 
water ; if it is to last only a month or two, put 
in six pounds of salt, if longer nine pounds. 
Boil all together gently, skim, and then let it 
cool. Put the meat in the vessels in which it is 
to stand, and pour the brine on till it is covered. 
At least once in two months the brine should 
be boiled and skimmed, and have two ounces 
of sugar and half a pound of salt added. 
Even then it is doubtful if brine can be 
kept fit for use beyond a few months' time. 
It acquires poisonous properties from standing 
long in contact with the meat, and unless 
the scum which rises to the surface is kept 
carefully skimmed off, fatal effects may result 
from its use. 

BRISKET. — That portion of the breast of 
beef which hes next to the ribs. It is rather 
coarse in grain and in flavor, but makes excel- 
lent soup or broth, and is a very good piece 
corned or salted. {See Beef.) 

BRISTOL-BOARD. — A kind of stiff strong 
pasteboard, made smooth by glazing, and much 
used for boxes, and such portions of needlework 
as require stiffening. It is also much the 
best material for the cutting of patterns which 
are much in use. 

BRISTOL-BRICK. — A sort of brick used for 
cleaning steel and all kinds of cutlery, man- 
ufactured for some years exclusively in Bristol, 
England. A small vein of sand suitable to 
the purpose was found near Liverpool, but was 
soon exhausted. Shortly afterwards the same 
kind of sand used in the Bristol bricks was 
discovered by accident at South Hampton, 
N. H. ; and since that time, bricks fully equal 
to the imported article have been manufactured 
extensively in this country. In using, pulver- 
ize and rub with a wet cloth. 

BRITANNIA. — A composition of tin, anti- 
mony, copper and brass, which has entirely su- 
perseded pewter and tin in the manufacture 
of very many articles of household use. It is 
not easily acted upon by acids, and is perfectly 
safe to use for cooking and table purposes. 
It also takes a high polish, and does not 
readily tarnish ; when kept very bright it 
has great beauty, far excelling pewter, and 
approaching in lustre to silver. There are vari- 
ous qualities of Britannia ware, arising from the 
introduction of lead into some kinds of it; 
the best is firm and silvery looking, and will 
not easily bend. Coffee-pots, tea-pots, and 
similar utensils, made of the britannia metal 
should not be placed on the fire, as they are 
liable to melt on fires at high temperatures. — 



Most of the silver-plated goods now in such 
general use have britannia for their base. 

BROADCLOTH. — A fine quality of woollen 
cloth, about twenty-nine inches wide, and very 
closely woven, with a short smooth nap. It is 
manufactured chiefly for men's outer garments, 
though used also for ladies' cloaks, coats, and the 
like, and may be had in any of the darker colors. 
In cutting broadcloth, shrink it first by wetting 
in cold water and exposing to the sun, and be 
careful to cut so that the nap will smooth down- 
wards. 

BROCADE. — Brocade proper is a stout silken 
stuff, variegated with gold and silver, raised and 
enriched with flowers, foliage, and other orna- 
ments, and was very much used for women's 
dress during the 17th and i8th centuries. This 
fashion of dress was never in good taste and 
did not last long, and the name was then given 
to rich silk stuffs which were adorned with 
worked flowers without gold or silver. At 
present the term brocade is applied to various 
silks, as satins, taffetas, lute-strings, and even 
to woollen stuffs and grosgrains, if they are 
ornamented with flowers or other figures. 

BROCATEL. — A fabric of silk or wool, or of 
both combined, used for upholstering; it is usu- 
ally of rich designs, requiring the greatest care 
in its wearing ; and until very lately was woven 
exclusively on hand looms. The French bro- 
catel is the best, but is very costly. 

BROCCOLI. — A species of cabbage very 
closely resembling the cauliflower, from which 
it differs by no very precise characteristic 
save that in most varieties the head of the 
broccoli is purplish, while that of the cauli- 
flower is white. The broccoli is very hardy 
and prolific, and may be raised by sowing the 
seed in open beds early in the spring, or in 
summer, or autumn, and transplanting the 
plants once or twice. It has a woody stem, 
and may be propagated by cuttings as well as 
by seed. To do this take a portion of the old 
stem containing an eye or bud, dry it well in 
the sun, then stick it into the garden soil, and 
do not water till it shows signs of growing. 
Plant in rows like cabbage. Broccoli is gener- 
ally abundant in the market from September to 
November. 

Boiled Broccoli. — Clean and wash the 
head well in cold water, throw into boiling 
water with a little salt and a little flour, and boil 
till tender, which will take from ten to fifteen 
minutes, and then drain them. Serve hot with 
drawn butter. 

Eggs (Broccoli with). — Boil two or three 
heads as above ; have ready two teacupfuls of 
butter drawn in the usual way, and beat into it, 
while hot, four well whipped eggs. Lay but- 
tered toast on the bottom of a hot dish and 
place on this the largest head of broccoli 
whole, as a centre-piece, arrange the smaller 
heads quartered about this, and pour the egg- 
sauce over the whole. 

Fried Broccoli. — Prepare as above, and 
boil about five minutes or until half done ; 
then dip them in batter and fry in hot fat. 



BROILING 



BRONZE 



49 



Dish them in a hot dish, sprinkle salt all over 
them, and serve at once hot. 

BROILING-. — For steaks, chops, and in 
fact all kinds of meat, broiHng is in every 
respect a better method of cooking than frying. 
It produces a much more palatable and whole- 
some dish, and has the further recommendation 
of being the most expeditious and simplest 
mode of" cooking. Broiling is simply a quicker 
kind of roasting, the meat being placed over 
instead of before the fire. In order to do it 
well the fire should be glowing hot and free 
from smoke, and the meat should be turned 
often so as to expose all sides to the heat 
equally ; for this purpose broiling tongs should 
be used, and not a fork which lets out the gravy. 
As the surface of the meat is set firm almost 
immediately, the internal juices are retained, 
and this accounts for the great juiciness and 
savoriness of meat well broiled. Of all methods 
of cooking, broiling is the best suited and most 
acceptable to invahds ; and it recommends itself 
to small families, and those who have to do 
their own cooking, as affording a means of 
dressing a small quantity of meat hot as 
delicately as the largest quantity. The time 
required for broiling will depend on the kind 
of meat, and the thickness of the slices into 
which it has been cut; but for the ordinary 
steak or chop fifteen minutes will usually suf- 
fice. 

Steaks or cutlets may be quickly cooked 
with a sheet or two of lighted paper only, in 
the apparatus shown below, and called a 
Conjuror. Lift off the cover and lay in 
the meat properly seasoned, with a small slice 
of butter under it, and insert the lighted paper 
in the aperture shown in the plate ; in from 




A Conjuror. 

eight to ten minutes the meat will be done, and 
found to be remarkably tender, and very 
palatable : it must be turned and moved occa- 
sionally during the process. This is an 
especially convenient mode of cooking for 
persons whose hours of dining are rendered un- 
certain by the nature of their avocations. 

BROKEN BONES. {See Fractures.) 

BROMA. {See Chocolate.) 

BRONCHITIS. An inflammatory disease 
of the bronchial tubes or air passages between 
the lungs and the throat. It is rarely a serious 
disease except in the young, aged and feeble. 
Its treatment had, however, better be left to 
the medical adviser. Bronchitis, when not 
4 



simply a companion of some other disease, is 
not unfrequently brought on by cold or sudden 
changes in the weather ; and the symptoms 
are at first those of a common cold in the 
head, accompanied by fever, and an occasional 
hacking cough. The cough increases in fre- 
quency, pain in the chest is experienced during 
the act of coughing; and the patient has a 
feeling of weariness and oppression. If the 
attack is severe, all these symptoms become 
more intense, and moderate fever is developed. 
The breathing in asthmatic persons produces a 
kind of wheezing noise, and as the disease 
progresses, the mucus raised in coughing 
becomes thick, yellowish and viscous. The 
cough is then said to become loose, and a feel- 
ing of comfort is experienced. In the course 
of a few days, if the disease has been arrested, 
the symptoms begin to decrease in severity, 
the expectorated matter becomes less abundant, 
the pain in the chest and difficulty of respira- 
tion pass off, and the disease ends in conva- 
lescence. 

Treatment. — In the earlier stages of catarrh 
the development of bronchitis may frequently 
be arrested by frequent use of a gargle 
made by dissolving a teaspoonful of com- 
mon saleratus or chlorate of potash in a 
tumbler of water.. Should this fail, and bron- 
chitis become developed, a mustard plaster 
should be applied to the chest (not strong 
enough to draw a blister), the feet bathed in 
hot water, and warm emollient drinks, such as 
barley water or linseed tea, administered. Ten 
grains of Dover's powder taken at bedtime 
by an adult has a marked influence in shorten- 
ing the disease. If the obstruction becomes 
great and breathing difficult, an emetic may be 
given, and the bowels, if constipation exists, 
should be kept open during the whole course 
of the disease by mild laxatives. The diet of 
the patient while the bronchitis maintains its 
hold upon him should be low and farinaceous. 
Chronic Bronchitis, which is sometimes a 
sequel to the acute, and sometimes a disease 
of old age, shows fewer marks of inflammation 
but more of thickening and dilatation of the 
air tubes ; the cough is generally loose and the 
expectoration abundant and easy. Chronic 
bronchitis unattended by asthma or dilatation 
of the air cells gives little difficulty in breath- 
ing, and does not tend directly to destroy life. 
The treatment should be conducted under the 
direction of an intelligent physician. 

BRONZf:. — An alloy of copper and tin, to 
which lead, zinc, and silver are sometimes 
added to give greater brilliancy to the com- 
pound, or to render it more fusible. The zinc 
is generally added in the form of brass, and 
sometimes brass is used instead of tin ; the 
compound is then nothing more than brass 
with a very large proportion of copper. In 
former times bronze was extensively employed 
in the manufacture of domestic utensils and 
articles of furniture ; it is at present used to 
some extent for similar purposes, but the 
modern improvements in casting iron, which is 



50 



BROOM 



BRUSHES 



a much cheaper material, have superseded the 
use of bronze for most purposes. The chief 
use to which it is put now in household art 
is in the manufacture of statues, vases, can- 
delabra, candlesticks, lamps, brackets, door 
knobs, and other articles of ornament. For 
these it is one of the richest, most manage- 
able, and most durable of substances ; and 
there are many other articles of household 
ornament or utility to the manufacture of 
which it might be advantageously applied. 
Bronze requires no " cleaning " in the ordinary 
meaning of the word, since the dark ohve 
color which it acquires by age and exposure is 
considered one of its greatest beauties. Should 
it become greasy or spotted, however, it may 
be washed in warm water with plenty of good 
soap and gentle rubbing. 

BROOM. — A family of plants embracing 
several species of shrubs and small trees, with 
leaves in threes, and yellow or purplish-white 
flowers. The Spanish broom is hardy and 
rapid in growth, and will thrive in any dry and 
slightly sandy soil. Propagated by cuttings. 

Broom. — A new broom always gives trou- 
ble by sowing the carpet with fine bits that 
break from the ends of the corn. This may be 
prevented by holding it, for a few minutes, im- 
mersed nearly up to the point where it is sew- 
ed, in boiling suds. The corn will not become 
brittle so soon with age, if the broom is kept 
habitually moist. Too thick a handle makes 
tiresome sweeping ; a painted or varnished 
handle should never be used. Never sweep 
in a sick-room; take up the dust by going over 
the carpet with a damp sponge. 

BROTH. — In English and French cookery, 
especially in the latter, broth or bouillon forms 
the basis of nearly all soups and gravies, as 
well as of many other dishes ; and this is one 
reason of their superiority to similar prepara- 
tions in American cookery in which water or 
milk is used instead. Properly speaking, broth 
is made only from beef with such vegetables 
and spices as are necessary to flavor it ; but 
the term is also commonly applied to a sim- 
ilar preparation of mutton and veal, and of 
barley. 

Barley Broth. — Take four ounces of 
Scotch barley, four ounces of onions, four 
ounces of oatmeal or Indian meal, and two 
ounces of butter. After washing the barley 
well, soak it in cold water for twelve hours ; 
then set it on the fire in two quarts of water, 
adding the onions and a little salt, and boil 
gently for an hour and a quarter. Melt the 
butter in a saucepan, stir in the meal till it be- 
comes a paste, and then add a little of the 
broth gradually till it is of a proper thickness 
to mix with the whole quantity; stir well to- 
gether till it boils, and add a dram of pounded 
celery seed mixed with a little broth; simmer 
gently a quarter of an hour longer, and serve. 

Beef Broth. {See SoUPS.) 

Mutton or Veal Broth. — To each pound 
of meat add a quart of cold water, bring it 
gently to a boil, skim it very clean, add salt 



in the same proportion as for ootiillon {see 
Soups), with spices and vegetables also, un- 
less unfiavored broth is desired, when a few 
pepper-corns, a blade or two of mace, and a 
bunch of sweet herbs will be sufficient; though 
for some purposes, even these, with the excep- 
tion of the salt, had better be omitted. Sim- 
mer the broth for about four hours, unless the 
quanity be very small, when from two and a 
half to three will be sufficient. A little rice 
boiled dovyn with the meat will both thicken the 
broth and render it more nutritious. Strain 
it off when done, and let it stand till quite cold 
that the fat may be entirely cleared from it ; 
this is especially needful when it is to be served 
to an invalid. 

BRUISES. — In slight bruises, if there is 
much pain, warm applications, such as a bread 
poultice, or flannel dipped in very hot water 
and frequently renewed, will usually afford re- 
lief. A thin slice of raw meat bound on the 
part is said to remove the discoloration quicker 
than anything else. If inflammation sets in, 
an application of ice will deaden the pain. 
An ice-bag, if the spot will support it, or cold 
water is most grateful. A lotion of one tea- 
spoonful of arnica in six of water is a popular 
remedy for relieving pain and promoting the ab- 
sorption of the blood poured out by the rup- 
tured vessels ; arnica alone is apt to prove 
irritating to the parts in persons possessing 
very sensitive skins, if used too freely. The 
so called " Anodyne liniment," that which 
can be obtained from the apothecar}', is very 
useful in ordinary bruises of a painful charac- 
ter. If the contusion is severe and inflamma- 
tion threatens, warm bread poultices or hot 
flannels may be applied. The patient must be 
kept quiet for some days, and avoid stimula- 
ting food or drinks. The change of color in the 
injured part from black, through many degrees 
of shade to a dingy yellow is due to alteration 
in the effused blood, and is an indication of slow 
recovery. In those cases when the wound is 
very severe, medical aid must be summoned at 
once, and the only treatment that can be ven- 
tured on without such aid is to support the ir>- 
jured part, especially during removal, and ap- 
ply cold water dressing and stiff bandages. 
When the wound is on the head, and of such 
severity as to stun the person injured, place the 
patient in a recumbent posture, incline the head 
slightly backward, and those who are anxious to 
do something may try to bring about a reaction 
by causing him to inhale pungent sahs, harts- 
horn, or any strong scent. Bathe the bruise 
with cold water and at the same time apply 
mustard poultices or hot lotions to the wrists 
and ankles. Perfect quiet after such a contu- 
sion is very important, as inflammation of the 
brain may possibly result from it. 

BRUSHES are more used than people 
generally realize. When practicable, it is 
worth while to occasionally lay in an assorts 
ment from the factory, rather than buy them 
piecemeal from the druggist, grocer, etc. 
The most costly are generally cheapest, infe- 



BRUSSELLS SPROUTS 



BUCKWHEAT 



61 



rior ones not only being perishable but doing 
no work while they last. 

The bristles should always be set in one 
solid piece of wood or bone. Supplementary 
pieces glued on the back tend to come off. 

White bristles in toilet brushes are not as 
stiff or durable as unbleached brown or black. 

A crumb-brush used a few times is not fit to 
come on to the table. A metal crumb-scraper 
is much preferable. A brush used with water 
should afterwards be placed where it will dry 
moderately fast. Water will soften it, and great 
heat will make bristles brittle. {See Cleaning. 
For tooth-brushes, see Teeth.) 

BRUSSELS SPROXJTS.— A species of 
the cabbage family much esteemed on the 
Continent and in England but not much culti- 
vated here. It closely resembles Savory, is 
very tender, and considered by epicures to be 
the best of all the cabbage tribe. The sprouts 
are best after the frost has touched them, and 
are in season from September to January, and 
are eaten as greens. They should be drained 
carefully after boiling (like Broccoli), and 
eaten hot with bechamel sauce. (.S"^^ Bechamel 
under Sauces.) 

BUCCANED MEAT. — Buccaning is a 
method of preserving meat practised in sojne 
parts of the West Indies, and the pirates who 
infested those islands in the seventeenth 
century received their name of " Buccaneers" 
from their raiding upon the settlers' flocks and 
curing the meat in this way. The flesh is cut 
in pieces of the length of the arm and salted in 
the usual way ; next day the pieces are laid 
upon a grating or hurdle, made of sticks and 
called a bucan, and placed at some height 
above th^ ground ; a wood fire is made below 
and a thick smoke produced. The meat is 
thus partly roasted and partly dried as well as 
smoked. Large quantities are cured in this 
way in the hunting region of Cuba, San Do- 
mingo, and Jamaica, and the flavor is said to be 
peculiarly rich and delicious. Occasionally it 
is brought to this country, and the process 
might be tried here with advantage. 

BUCKRAM. — A coarse kind of linen cloth, 
stiffened with glue, and originally having open 
holes or interstices between the threads. It is 
used chiefly for stiffening certain portions of 
men's coats and ladies' dresses, and as the 
groundwork for worsted work and some kinds 
of heavy embroidery. 

BUCKSKIN.— The skin of the deer 
tanned in a pecuHar manner which renders it 
extremely soft and pliable. Buckskin has pol- 
ishing powers which render it much superior 
to cloth, and every housewife should have at 
least one piece for brightening silverware and 
jewelry, and another for polishing finely finish- 
ed furniture, such as pianos, etc. Nothing 
equals it for cleaning windows, cutlery, looking- 
glasses, and the like, and the choicest metallic 
articles that are liable to rust should be laid 
away in it when not in use. In buying buck- 
skin see that it has no hard or lumpy spots in 
it, as these indicate that it is imperfectly tanned 



and comparatively worthless in consequence. 
Always use it dry — buckskin is ruined generally 
when it has been wetted. 

BUCKWHEAT.— Though it is hardly en- 
titled to rank among the cereals, buckwheat is 
extensively cultivated for human food in this 
country and on the continent and to a -much 
less extent in England. It can be grown on 
poor sandy soils if plowed in as a green crop. 
It grows rapidly with little cultivation ; and it 
is excellent food for poultry. Cows are largely 
fed on buckwheat bran. It increases the 
quantity of their milk but makes it thin. Buck- 
wheat contains more sugar than barley even, 
and is used chiefly in the United States for 
making the delicious dish called buckwheat 
cakes. These cakes are extremely palatable, 
easily digested, and though they do not contain 
all the elements of nutrition, their deficiencies 
are made up by eating with them molasses, or 
sugar, or butter, or cream. In buying buck- 
wheat flour, get only small quantities at a time 
and keep it in a tightly covered box or tub. It 
is sometimes infested with little black bugs, 
and an examination must occasionally be made 
for them. 

Buckwheat Cakes. — I. 7>?^v .--Buckwheat 
flour, I qt ; milk or water, i pt ; yeast, yi teacup- 
ful ; salt, I teaspoonful. 

Mix a quart of buckwheat flour Avith a pint 
of lukewarm milk or water, and half a tea-cup- 
ful of home brewed yeast, or i dessertspoonful 
of distillery yeast, and set to rise over night. 
In the morning add half a teaspoonful of salt 
and if the batter is at all sour add a teaspoon- 
ful of saleratus dissolved in a little milk and 
strained, or a teaspoonful of soda. If the 
batter is too thick to poUr out easily, add 
enough warm milk or water to thin it. Make 
the cakes large, and fry them in just enough 
fat to keep them from sticking to the griddle. 

If a cupful or so of the batter be left in the 
bottom of the vessel in which it is mixed, it 
will serve as a yeast for the next night instead 
of getting fresh yeast. In cold weather this 
plan will answer for a week or more without 
setting a new supply. 

II. Take .--Buckwheat flour, i qt ; Indian 
meal, l teacupful ; yeast, % teacupful ; mo- 
lasses, 2 tablespoonfuls ; salt, i teaspoonful ; 
milk or water. 

Mix one quart of buckwheat flour, a tea- 
cupful of Indian meal, half a teacupful of 
yeast; two tablespoonfuls of molasses, and 
one teaspoonful of salt, in enough warm water 
or milk to make a thin batter. Beat thor- 
oughly, and set to rise over night in a warm 
place. If the batter is at all sour in the morn- 
ing, stir in a teaspoonful of soda or saleratus 
dissolved in a little hot water. These are the 
best kind of buckwheat cakes. 

Quick Cakes. — 7«/^^ .--Buckwheat flour, 3 
pts ; warm water i pt ; soda I teaspoonful ; 
cream tartar, i teaspoonful. 

Take three pints of buckwheat flour; one 
teaspoonful of soda dissolved in a pint of warm 
water; mix thoroughly, and then add one 



52 



BUDDING-, 



and a half teaspoonfuls of cream tartar dissolved 
in a few spoonfuls of hot water. Stir together, 
adding a little warm water, and fry immediately 
Use salt pork to grease the griddle. 

BUDDING. * — Budding consists in introdu- 
cing the bud of one tree, with a portion of bark 
and a little adhering wood, beneath the bark 
of another, and upon the face of the newly form- 
ing wood. It must be performed while the 
stock is in a state of vigorous growth. An in- 
cision is made lengthwise through the bark of 
the stock, and a small cut at right angles at the 
top, the whole somewhat resembling the letter 
T., Fig. I. 



Fig. I- 



Fig 



A bud is then taken from a shoot, of the 
present year's growth, by shaving off the bark 
an inch or an inch and a half in length, with 
a small part of the wood directly beneath the 
bud. Fig. 2. 

The edges of the bark, at the incision in the 
stock, are then raised a little, Fig. 3, and the 
bud pushed downwards under the bark. Fig. 4. 



Fig. 3. Fig. 4- 

A bandage of bass, corn liusk^ or other sub- 
stance, is wrapped round, covering all parts but 
the bud. The pressure should be just sufficient 
to keep the inserted portion closely to the stock, 

• The directions in this article on budding are selected from 
" The A}>teruan Fruit Culturist" an excellent and compre- 
hensive work by John J. Thomas, published by Wm. Wood & 
Co., New York. 



but not such as to bruise or crush the bark. 

Fig. 5. 

The shoots containing the 
buds should be cut when so 
mature as to be firm and hard 
in texture ; they are usually in 
the best condition after the 
terminal bud has formed. 

To prevent withering, the 
leaves must be immediately 
cut off, as they withdraw and 
exhale rapidly the moisture 
from the shoot. About one- 
quarter of an inch of the foot- 
stalks of the leaves should re- 
main, to serve as handles to 
the buds while inserting them. 
Fig. 5- Fig. 6. 

After being thus divested of leaves, they may 
be safely kept and be sent hundreds of miles in 
damp moss, or enclosed separately in thin oil 
cloth. 





Fig. 6. 



Fig. 7. 



When, by growth of the stock, the bandage 
cuts into it, usually in ten days or more, it 
must be removed. The bud remains dormant 
till the following spring, when the stock is 
cut off two inches or more above it, before the 
swelling of the bud. If cut closer, the end of 
the stock becomes too dry, and the bud often 
perishes. All other buds must be then remov- 
ed, and all the vigor of the stock or branch 
thrown into the remaining bud, which immedi- 
ately commences a rapid growth. 

To secure a straight and erect tree, the new 
shoot when a few inches long, is tied to the 
remaining stump of the stock. Fig. 7. 



BUFFALO 



BULBS 



53 



By another month, S the operation be well] 
performed, no further support will be needed, 
and the stump may be wholly cut away and the 
wound allowed to heal by the rapid formation 
of new wood, .^ee Grafting. \ 

BTTFTAIjO. — The meat of the buffalo ranks 
verj- high as food, but as it can be obtained 
only by hunting the buffalo on the plains of 
the'far West, it is not often found in the Eastern 
markets. In the Western markets it appears 
more frequently, and during December and 
January- can generally be obtained in the larger 
cities. ' The flesh resembles that of beef, but 
is darker and coarser, and the fat is solid and 
reddish. Like all game, buffalo meat is better 
if it is kept for some time after killing before it 
is eaten : and like the meat of all large animals 
is better roasted than cooked in any other way. 
It makes excellent steaks, however, and the 
best way to cook these is to broil them. Indian 
fashion, on the coals without any gridiron or 
other utensil. Cooked thus they are even more 
juicy and savon,- than venison. Buffalo tongue, 
when properly cured, is also an excellent dish : 
the brains are often eaten raw by himters : and 
the marrow bones are greatly esteemed, espe- 
ciaUv when roasted. Buffalo meat is cooked 
and ser\-ed in the same wav as venison. 

BUFFALO ROBE.— The skin of the buffalo, 
dried ^ith the hair on. It is ven,- warm and 
pleasant to the touch, and is much esteemed 
by travellers : but it is cumbrous and expensive. 

BUGS. — How to Destroy. This term prop- 
erly includes the numerous tribes of Hemipter- 
ous insects, but it is commonly applied to that 
worst of household pests, the bed-bug. It is 
difficult alike to prevent bed-bugs from getting 
into a house, and to get them out when once 
they are in. They are ver\- partial to certain 
kinds of wood, and sometimes are fairly built 
into the house ; or they may be brought in 
from outside in boxes or baskets, in clothes. 
or by the hired girl. So prolific are they too, 
that two or three females •• stock "' the entire 
house in one season if undisturbed. The best 
weapon for fighting them is the most scrupulous 
and ^^gilant cleanliness. All beds and bed- 
steads should be examined at least once a week 
in sunmier. and if anj- traces of bed-bugs are 
found, the bedstead should be taken to pieces 
and washed thoroughly with cold water and 
soap, applied with a scrubbing brush. This is 
the only way to destroy the eggs which are de- 
posited during the summer in e\"en,- crack and 
cre^•ice : and unless these are destroyed the 
bugs will increase in number, no matter how 
man}- are killed. 

After the scrubbing, the different parts of 
the bedstead should be washed over with spirits 
of turpentine : and if this proves ineffective, an 
ounce of corrosive sublimate, mixed in half a 
pint of alcohol, or quicksilver beaten up Asith 
whites of eggs, may be used. Both these last, 
however, are deadly poisons, and should be 
cautiously used if at all. The "Persian Insect 
Powder,"' which is harmless to man, but certain 
death to all insects, is the best bed-bug poison 



yet de\-ised ; but it is not easy to procure an 
unadulterated article. It should be sprinkled 
plentifully in ever}- chink and cre\nce. A so- 
lution of potash is also good, and some recom- 
mend highly simple kerosene oil : others declare 
salt and water to be unequalled. We shall 
presently give a recipe for bed-bug poison which 
may be reUed on, but there are one or two 
points to be mentioned first Bed-bugs do not 
confine their attention to beds, but make a home 
in the walls, behind mantel-pieces, and wherever 
they can find a congenial crack, and they must 
be warred upon here no less vigorously. If 
there be any cracks in the wall-paper they 
should be carefully pasted over with fresh 
paper ; or if the paper has become loose from 
the wall at any point, that also should be again 
made fast. Bugs love to harbor in plaster work : 
but imless the paper be broken loose they can- 
not make their way through it If it be sus- 
pected that they are secreted under the sur- 
face, they should be shut in by pasting strong 
brown paper over the chink between the board 
and the floor. 

It is one of the discouragements of fighting 
bed-bugs that one never knows when the \4ctory 
is secured. Just when they seem to have been 
utterly destroyed, they wiU make their appear- 
ance again in scarcely diminished numbers ; 
and. as we have said, one or two bugs will pro- 
duce hundreds in a single summer. The only 
plan is to keep constantly on the lookout for 
them, to keep the bed and its surroundings 
scrupulously clean, and to have some reliable 
preparation ready to hand. 

Bed-bug Poison. — Spirits of wine, half a pint ; 
spirits of turpentine, half a pint ; crude sal- 
ammoniac, I oz : corrosive sublimate, i oz ; 
camphor, i oz. This mixture should be injected 
into the joints of the bedstead with a s%Tinge, 
or a sponge fastened on a stick : all the rest of 
the woodwork should be washed -with it. 

BUTjBS. — Bulbous plants produce some of the 
best known and most beautiful flowers in our 
gardens, and are extremely easy to cultivate. 
The peculiar nature of the bulb is not generally 
well understood : it really partakes more of the 
properties of a seed than of a root for when in 
the act of vegetating it sends down into the soil 
roots, and into the air a li\-ing stem, and the 
substance contained in the bulb decomposes 
and nourishes the young plant But the bulb 
is removed, and from the roots another bulb is 
composed which appears to be the same one 
planted, yet it is its offspring, and the offshoots 
or young" bulbs are its surkers and are distinct 
from the parent bulb. The Spring Flo'u.-ering 
Bulbs are the flowers of spring, and embrace the 
Snowdrop, the Crocus, the Hyacinthe, Tulips, 
Daffodils, Jonquils, Narciss'us, Anemones, 
Lilv of the Valley, and the Ranunculus. They 
should be planted in October or November, and 
before the frost is fairly out of the groimd 
in the spring they shoot up their green and 
well-sheathed stenis, blooming in March and 
April Bulbs that can be preser\ed in the 
house in a dry state during the winter and 



54 



BULLOCK 



BURGUNDY 



bloom in the house, are called Suinmer Bulbs. 
To this class belong the Japan Lily, Gladiolus, 
Dahlia, Tuberose, Tigridia, Amaryllis formo- 
sissima, Vallota, and Tritoma. They should 
be planted in early spring (April or May), and 
they will bloom, most of them, from July to 
October. Besides these there are two families 
of bulbous plants, excellent for indoor culture, 
known as Cape Bulbs and Dutch Bulbs. 




Most bulbs may be dug up, dried, and kept in 
the cellar, in a box of sand, during the winter. 
Further directions will be given under the names 
of the special flowers (see Dahlia, Gladio- 
lus, Tuberose, &c.). A very beautiful orna- 
ment can be secured by planting bulbs in a 
vase, as shown in the cut. Each bulb must be 
so planted that its stem will come out through 
one of the holes in the vase. 

BULLOCK. {See Beef.) 

BULL-TROUT. — A large kind of sea trout, 
not very delicate or palatable, and seldom seen 
in our market. It is also called Gray-trout., 
from its light silvery color. 

BUNS. — Takc:-Y\oViX\ butter, i tablespoon- 
ful ; boiling water, 4 pt ; home-made yeast, \ 
teacupful ; eggs, 2 ; sugar, i teacupful ; dried 
currants, i teacupful; nutmeg; milk, \ pt. 

Put a tablespoonful of butter in half a pint 
of boiling water ; when melted add half a pint 
of milk, half a teacupful of yeast, half a tea 
spoonful of salt, and flour enough to make a 
stiff batter ; mix this at night and set to rise 



till morning. In the morning add two eggs mixed 
with a teacupful of fine white sugar ; beat the 
whole together, and add enough of flour to make 
a dough ; add one teacupful of dried currants, 
and a sprinkle of nutmeg, and set away to rise 




Paper Basket for Buns. 

until time to bake for tea. Then make the 
dough into small cakes, place them close 
together in the pans, and let them rise again un- 
til very light. Bake them about half an hour. 
When done brush the buns over with a mixture 
of a teaspoonful each of milk and molasses, and 
set them in the oven for two or three minutes 
to dry. 

Bath Buns. — Take :-Flour i J4\hs; butter, 
X lb ; milk, ^ pt ; home-made yeast, }4 tea- 
cupful ; loaf sugar, X lb; eggs, 4; citron, 1^ 
oz ; caraway seed, ^ oz. 

Rub a quarter of a pound of butter into a 
pound and a half of flour, adding a pinch of 
salt. Mix half a pint of warm milk with half 
a teacupful of yeast ; pour into the middle of 
the flour, cover it, and set before the fire to 
rise ; when risen add a quarter of a pound of 
crushed loaf sugar, half an ounce of caraway 
seeds picked and washed, four eggs well beaten, 
and an ounce and a half of candied citron cut 
in thin slices. Make up the buns, lay them on 
baking tins, and let them rise again until quite 
light. Bake them in a quick oven: when done, 
brush them over with beaten egg and sift sugar 
over them. 

BUNIONS. — Bunions, like corns, are occa- 
sioned either by the wearing of shoes which 
are too narrow and too short, or too large and 
badly fitting, or made from leather that is hard or 
unyielding to the foot. Shoes and stockings are 
the cause of all bunions, and the first step in the 
remedy is to so construct and adjust them as 
to avoid the evil. The common plan of soak- 
ing bunions in warm water and then paring 
them will not prove effective unless the paring 
is very smoothly and carefully done. Scraping 
with a sharp knife is better than paring, and 
should be continued until the skin feels soft • 
and flexible. A good plan to soften the 
hardened skin is to dissolve a piece of ammonia 
of the size of a pea in an ounce (two table- 
spoonfuls) of water and apply hot. It must be 
remembered, however, that there is no cure for 
bunions except the wearing of smoothly fitting 
stockings, and shoes which do not rub upon 
the spot. 

BUREAU. {See Furniture.) 

BURGUNDY. — The choicest wines of the 
ancient province of Burgundy in France are 



BURNS 



BURNING FLUID 



55 



among the richest, most aromatic, and del 
icately flavored in the world. They are im- 
perfectly known in this country, but if proper- 
ly bottled they can be brought over in good 
condition, and it is to be hoped they will 
become better known especially in our sick 
rooms. The Burgundy wines are of two kinds 
white and red. The red is much the finer of 
the two, but the best of these rarely leave 
France. The first in quahty of the red wines 
is the Romaiiee Cotiti, but this is not easy to 
get even in France ; the next in order of ex- 
cellence are Clos Voiigeot, Chambertin, Pom- 
ard, Niiits, Voltiay, and Beauiie. The Macon 
wines are lighter and of a lower grade. The 
higher grades of Burgundy should be drunk at 
the temperature of the room, never iced. 
High grade Burgundies will keep for from 
twenty to thirty years, or even longer, while 
the lower grades are best at the age of from 
five to ten years. Burgundies are often served 
in a cradle. {See Cradle.} 

The white Burgundies are smaller in number 
and inferior in quality to the red ; but some of 
them rank very high for their fine flavor, as the 
Chablis, Mont Racket, La Gontte d^Or, and 
Les Charmes. 

Burgundy is recommended to invalids as a 
light, mildly stimulating, but highly tonic drink. 
It should always be drunk a trifle warmer than 
the temperature of the room ; and should be 
served in a cradle. {See Cradle.) 

BURNS. — The treatment of burns is of the 
most delicate and difficult character, and un- 
less the wound is very slight the doctor should 
be at once sent for. As, however, prompt action 
is very important, there are a few points which 
every member of a household should under- 
stand. And first the amount of pain suffered 
is no index to the severity of the wound ; on the 
contrary, in really severe and dangerous burns, 
the shock to the nerves is so great that very 
little pain is felt, and its presence is rather of 
good omen than otherwise. The absence of 
suffering must be taken as an indication of 
extreme and imminent danger. In the next 
place the probable result of a burn will 
depend upon the part injured and the extent of 
surface which has been burned. Thus severe 
burns about the chest and abdomen, especially 
in children, are almost always fatal ; and burns 
of the lower extremities are more dangerous 
than the same injuries affecting the face, neck 
or arms. A deep burn, too, which may involve 
the loss of a limb is not so likely to prove fatal 
as a comparatively slight wound covering a 
large part of the body's surface. 

Treatment. — The treatment of burns in the 
first stages should consist of moist and warm 
applications. Dry flour is very good and may 
be sprinkled over the wound if it be slight, or 
if nothing better is at hand. Raw cotton, or 
wadding in sheets, such as is used in ladies' 
dressing, may be laid on and should be used 
freely enough to entirely exclude the air. 
Moist applications are best used warm. Wet 
a piece of old linen or cotton cloth in a mixture 



of equal parts of lime-water and linseed oil, 
shaken well together, and apply it to the in- 
jured part ; cover this with another dry cloth 
and secure it with a bandage. If the mixture 
of oil and lime-water is not at hand the wound 
may be covered with castor oil. Or a paste 
may be made of powdered chalk and lard 
spread half an inch thick on suitable cloths, and 
applied to the parts, and covered with an outer 
bandage ; this should be allowed to remain on 
two or three days. Or in cases- of severe in- 
jury the parts may be brushed with turpentine, 
and then covered with a mixture of equal parts 
of turpentine and resin ' ointment, spread on 
linen or wadding. An excellent appHcation is 
hot water and milk (equal parts), with a tea- 
spoonful of carbonate of soda. A bread-and- 
milk poultice serves the purpose very well. 
If the milk is not at hand use warm water with 
plenty of soap in it ; and if you have no soap use 
plain warm water with carbonate of soda, or 
a little piece of common washing soda, not larger 
than a small hazel-nut, to a pint of water, dis- 
solved in it. Whatever is applied, keep the parts, 
thoroughly wet and well covered. The first 
dressing of a burn should remain undisturbed 
for at least twenty-four hours, or longer, and 
then be repeated in a similar or modified form. 
In after dressings larger surfaces must not be 
exposed to the air ; either leave a thin covering 
and wet it with the lotion, or if you are using 
anointment, remove only a small portion of the 
dressing at a time, have everything in readiness, 
and cover again as quickly as possible. It must 
be borne in mind, however, that the treatment 
of severe burns cannot prudently be ventured 
upon without medical advice. When the burn 
is very serious the chief danger is from the 
sufferer sinking under the shock ; it will be 
necessary, therefore, to support his strength 
with wine. If there be much pain and fretful- 
ness, you may safely give to an adult thirty 
drops of laudanum in a little water, and repeat 
this in an hour, or a third time if needful. A 
child ten years of age may take three drops of 
laudanum in like manner ; younger children 
had better not have any, except upon a physi- 
cian's prescription. 

Chemical Agents sometimes come in con- 
tact with the skin. If lime get on the front of 
the eye or under the eyelid, wash it well with 
weak vinegar and water. If oil of vitriol, or 
any strong acid has caused the burn, apply at 
once lime-water, chalk or whiting and water, 
carbonate of soda or common washing soda 
and water ; in the absence of these use common 
soap made into a thick batter with soft water ; 
olive oil may afterwards be used freely. Alka- 
lies — as quicklime, potash, or caustic ammo- 
nia — need the opposite treatment ; weak vinegar, 
or much diluted acids, should be at once ap- 
plied. Corrosive sjiblimate is rendered inert 
by the free application of white of &gg. But- 
ter of atiiimony, hy water in abundance. 

BURNING FLUID.— A mixture of oil of 
turpentine and alcohol for illuminating pur- 
poses. Its simplicity, cleanliness, and great 



56 



BURNOUS 



BUTTER 



brilliancy of light have made it very popular 
when gas is not to be had ; but owing to the 
large proportion of expensive alcohol which 
must be used in making it, it is a very costly 
illumination, and the great danger which at- 
tends its use should banish it from the house- 
hold. Both alcohol and oil of turpentine are 
very volatile ; that is, when exposed to the air 
or not confined, they rapidly evaporate or rise 
into the gaseous state. The vapor thus thrown 
off is not only inflammable but explosive ; and 
being generated also inside the reservoir of the 
lamp while burning, the lamp itself is liable to 
explode at any time. The only lamp in which 
burning Jlidd may be used with safety is New- 
elTs lainp^ made especially for this purpose on 
the principle of Davy's safety lamp, and mount- 
ed with fine wire gauze. Even then the can 
for holding the fluid should have a sheet of the 
gauze inserted under the lid, and another fixed 
in the spout. 

BURNOUS. — The burnous or Arab cloak is 
made by taking 3 yds. of yard-wide material, 
folding it in halves for the middle of the back 
(Fig. 2), fastening it at b for the back of the 
neck, from whicli point the curved line b a 
indicates the cutting out ; this is longer than 
is needful to meet around the neck, because 




Fig. I 
Bunwus fnade up. 

the cloak is designed to fold loosely across the 
breast. The extra fulness in the back will 
then drape itself into a very long graceful hood, 
which requires a heavy tassel at d, (Fig. 2.) and 
may be sewed up from d to b, or left open and 
bned with silk. In Fig. i, the burnous is 



represented with a hood which can be drawn 
over the head ; this is made by cutting the 
cloak and hood apart following a diagonal 



Middle of the back. 




Middle of the front. 
Fig. 2, 

from b to c, (Fig. 2.) The cloak has then a 
seam in the back, and the hood is shaped 
according to taste. 

BUSH-BEAN. — The common low, garden- 
bean, growing on small bushes, and sometimes 
called kidney bean. For cultivation {see 
Bean). In cooking, shell into cold water and 
boil until tender. A small piece of fat bacon 
boiled with them is an improvement to them ; 
if this is used do not add any salt. 

BUTTER.— Butter is the oil of milk sep- 
arated by the process called "churning." It 
is the most popular and delicate of the class of 
animal fats, and its dietetic properties are nearly 
the same as those of vegetable oils, though it 
becomes rancid sooner than most other fats or 
oils. When fresh and pure it is very whole- 
some ; but it should be quite free from rancidity. 
If salted when quite fresh its wholesomeness 
is probably not at all impaired thereby; but 
should it begin to turn rancid no amount of 
salting can correct it. The flavor of butter de- 
pends very much upon the food of the cows 
from which it is produced; and for this reason 
cows whose milk is to be used for making but- 
ter should have liberal pasturage, and if fed 
should be given only simple, pure, and nutri- 
tious food. Good butter will not adhere to the 
knife when it is cut. The greatest fault of 
American butter is that it is too much salted 
— it has been estimated that every ten pounds 
of butter sold in the United States contains 
one pound of salt, or more than three times 



BUTTERCUP 



BUTTERMILK 



57 



what the average would be in England. It is 
also adulterated with mutton fat, lard, and the 
vegetable butters. All these, however, are 
harder than butter, and cannot be perfectly 
mixed with it, so that it is not very difficult to 
detect their presence by close examination. 
All butter bought at the stores should be worked 
over thoroughly before using, not only to purify 
it, but to preserve its freshness. 

To Make. — Butter is made either with the 
cream alone or with the milk and cream togeth- 
er; the former plan is said to produce the best 
butter, and the latter the largest quantity. In 
both cases the process is pretty much the same, 
though the churning of cream alone is the method 
usually adopted in this country, and the cream 
should be sour before it is taken from the milk. 
The first requisite in the making of good butter 
is perfect cleatiliness in all the utensils con- 
nected with the operation. All strongly-flavored 
substances must be kept from the neighborhood 
of the milk, the pans should be scalded just be- 
fore the milk is put into them, the cream should 
be kept in a stone jar or crock, and the churn 
should be scalded before using and then cooled 
with ice or spring water. In hot weather it is 
important to keep the milk, cream, and butter 
as cool as possible ; for this purpose those who 
have no ice-house or very cool milk-room should 
hang the cream down the well. In winter the 
temperature of the cream before the churning 
begins should be about 60° and the churn 
should be scalded, so as not to cool the cream. 
Any warming of the cream before churning 
should be very gradual. When the cream or 
milk is ready, churn steadily until the butter- 
flakes begin to show around the dasher on the 
top of the churn, then move slowly. The mo- 
tion should always be steady and regular, 
otherwise the butter is longer in coming. In 
warm weather, if the butter is slow in coming, 
pour a little cold water into the churn. When 
the butter has come, take it up on the dasher 
and put it into a wooden bowl or tray containing 
very cold water ; then pour off the cold water, 
squeezing and pressing the butter with a wooden 
ladle. Set the butter away in a cool place to 
harden, and then work it over and over until 
every drop of buttermilk has been extracted 
and the butter is yellow and solid ; throughout 
the process use the wooden ladle and do not 
touch the butter with the hands. When the 
buttermilk is all worked out it is time to add 
the salt ; on this no precise direction can be 
given as tastes differ so much ; a good plan is 
to notice the proportions which are most agreea- 
ble, and thereafter go by this measure. Mould 
the butter into rolls or " pats " of the desired 
size ; wrap each in a perfectly clean linen cloth : 
and pack in a stone jar, sprinkling a little salt 
between the layers. Butter packed thus will 
keep sweet and fresh for several weeks. 

To Preserve. — If butter is to be kept a 
long time it should be worked with especial 
care and packed down hard in a perfectly clean 
stone jar or firkin ; if the firkin is used, it 
should be thoroughly seasoned and the bottom 



covered with salt and the sides rubbed with it. 
The butter may now be covered with a strong 
brine ; but a better way is to press a fine linen 
cloth closely to the surface, and cover this 
with a layer of fine salt, and a closely-fitting 
lid. When butter is taken out, the cloth and 
lid should be carefully replaced ; it is best to 
take out enough to last a week as it spoils the 
butter to let air in upon it every day. 

Butter may be kept for a year or more by 
mixing into it a preparation made of two parts 
of fine salt, one of sugar, and one of saltpetre, 
in the proportion of one ounce of the mixture 
to a pound of butter. Pack away so as to 
entirely exclude the air. 

Butter may be preserved without salt by 
mixing honey with it in the proportion of an 
ounce to a pound of butter. This has an 
agreeable taste, will keep for years, and might 
be useful on long journeys ; but as the portion 
of honey is considerable it might not agree 
with some constitutions. 

To Restore. — Rancid butter may be restored 
thus : Put fifteen drops of chloride of lime to a 
pint of cold water, and work the butter in it 
till every particle has come in contact with 
the water ; then work it over in pure cold 
water. 

BUTTER (Drawn). {See Butter under 
Sauces.) 

BUTTERMILK. — This is the residue of the 
milk and cream after the butter has been made, 
and contains about two-thirds of the whole 
original weight. When quite fresh it differs 
from whole milk chiefly in the absence of the 
butter or oily part; but it retains the sugar, 
caseine, and salts of milk. It is very nourish- 
ing, and being easier of digestion than whole 
milk, it is sometimes recommended for invalids ; 
and as it is extremely cooling, it forms a useful 
and pleasant beverage in warm weather. When 
kept for a day or two buttermilk acquires an 
acidity ; but the acid of buttermilk does not in- 
crease the acidity of the stomach, or cause 
flatulence, as vegetable acids commonly do, and 
it may therefore be safely used by dyspeptics. 
In this state it is refrigerant, and should not be 
drunk while the body is unusually warm. 
Where cream alone has been churned the but- 
termilk is particularly rich and agreeable. But- 
termilk cannot always be procured in the cities, 
but it is easily made in small quantities by 
shaking sour cream in a bottle, or beating it in 
a crock until " the butter comes." Do not keep 
buttermilk in glazed stoneware. 

Fleetings (ButtermUk.) — When butter- 
milk is added to boiling whey, and the two are 
well mixed, a soft curd is thrown down, which 
is excellent when eaten either hot or cold with 
bread. 

Thickened Buttermilk.— If buttermilk be 
put into a Hnen bag and all the whey strained 
off, what remains is then much thicker, and, 
eaten with sugar and cream, is excellent. 

"Whey (Buttermilk.) — This is a nice drink 
for the sick. Put one quart of buttermilk in a 
pan on the fire ; when it boils up beat up the 



68 



BUTCHER-MEAT 



CABBAGE 



yolk of an egg and stir in ; add a half teacup- 
ful of cream or a tablespoonful of butter. Then 
beat the white of the egg to a stiff froth and stir 
it in. Sweeten to taste, and add spice if liked. 

BUTCHER-MEAT.— Each of the different 
kinds of animals slaughtered for human food 
is cut up differently in the shambles, and the 
various joints of each are called by different 
names ; it would not be easy, therefore, to treat 
them all under one head. For full details as to 
joints, etc., see separate subjects, as Beef, 
Mutton, Pork, Veal. 

BUTTERNUTS. — A species of the walnut, 
resembling, when young, the common black 
walnut, but longer and smaller. In the Eastern 
States they are known as oil-nuts, and in Ohio 
and neighboring States as white walmits. 
When ripe, butternuts are of an oval shape, 
not quite so large or rough as the black walnut, 
and are of a different flavor, with an agreeable 



taste, and rich in oil. When green and soft 
they are excellent for pickling. They ripen in 
September. 

BUTTON-HOLES.— For cutting button- 
holes there is a special kind of scissors, made 
for the purpose, which are much better than 
the ordinary kind ; it is best not to cut the 
hole to full size at first, but to lengthen it if it 
prove too small on trial. For broadcloth, cut 
the buttonhole with a chisel, on a board. The 
best stitch is made by turning the thread round 
the needle before it has been drawn entirely 
through ; this is better than to draw the needle 
through and then take up the loop. A stay 
thread should first be put along each side of 
the buttonhole, and a bar (or cross thread) at 
each end before working it ; in working the 
buttonhole keep the stay thread as far from 
the edge as possible. A small bar should be 
worked at each end to add to its durability. 



C 



CABBAGE. — Properly speaking the cabbage 
embraces a very numerous tribe of vegetables 
used as food, such as the different kind of 
Kales, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower, 
spinach, water-cress, etc.; but we shall restrict 
the name here to the common cabbage {Bras- 
sica). Even of this there are so many varieties 
that one or other is procurable at nearly every 
season of the year. In his book on Foods, 
Dr. Smith says that the cabbage " represents 
the least nutritious class of vegetable foods, 
and is perhaps less valuable for its direct nu- 
tritive elements than for its indirect and me- 
dicinal sahne juices ; " but it is nevertheless a 
most agreeable and useful adjunct in its season. 
The young cabbages appear in the Southern 
markets in May or June, and are brought thence 
to the North; the season in the Northern 
markets begins in July, and lasts till cold 
weather. When frost comes if the heads be 
cut off and put into a cellar, or buried under 
ground, they may be kept the entire winter. 
If left exposed, cabbages putrify very quickly, 
and in decomposing give out a very offensive 
odor, owing, it is supposed, to their containing a 
small portix)n of nitrogen in addition to the 
usual constituents of vegetables. Decayed 
cabbage leaves should therefore never be al- 
lowed to lie in the vicinity of dwellings ; 
and the water in which cabbage has been boiled 
should not be suffered to stand, but passed off 
at once into the drains. Care must be taken 
to have cabbage thoroughly cooked, or it will 
derange the stomach and cause flatulence. To 
raise cabbage requires a deep and moderately 
rich garden soil. In order to have a regular 
succession, the seed should be sown at differ- 
ent times, from the beginning of spring till the 
autumn ; the early sown will run to seed the same 
year, the later sown will produce larger and firm- 
er heads and will not go to seed till the next 



season. Cabbage should be started first in a 
seed-bed ; when they are intended for early 
produce, they should be planted in the fall and 
protected by glass frames. In this manner 
strong plants may be had early in the spring, 
which, planted out in April, will produce fine 
cabbage in July or August. Set out in rows i8 
inches apart, and the plants two feet from each 
other. Those which are raised on a large scale 
should be sown in a seed-bed in March, and 
planted where they are to remain in June. 
When they are picked out from the seed-bed 
very young, and allowed to grow to a good size 
in a piece of ground prepared for that purpose, 
before being finally transplanted to the field, 
the success is more certain, and will repay the 
additional trouble. These come to perfection 
in the autumn, and may be cut as they are 
wanted. Some kinds are so hardy that they 
will stand the severest frosts and remain cov- 
ered with snow for a considerable time with- 
out damage ; but the better sort for table pur- 
poses should be cut and packed away in the 
cellar, or buried underground, when cold 
weather comes on. Cabbages are subject to a 
peculiar disease called chibbing when planted 
repeatedly in the same ground ; the bottom of 
the stem enlarges and the heads never come to 
perfection. The only remedy for this disease 
is to change the cultivation, and for a time to 
plant no cabbage on the ground which pro- 
duced the clubbed plants. 

Boiled Cabbage. — Pick off the outer leaves, 
cut in quarters, and examine carefully for in- 
sects. Soak for an hour in cold water ; then 
put into a pot with plenty of boiling water, a 
teaspoonful of salt, and a level saltspoonful of 
bicarbonate of soda, which destroys the oil of 
cabbage. Allow it to boil twenty minutes, free 
it from the water, serve it with butter sauce, 
bechamel, allemande, ox fines herbes sauce. 



CABBAGE ROSE 



CAKE 



59 



Boiled, with Bacon. — Proceed as described 
on the preceding page ; allow the" cabbage 
to boil ten minutes ; finish cooking it in 
the broth which the bacon made in 'cook- 
ing ; be careful to preserve its shape as 
much as possible while draining it from 
the pot ; dish it, lay the bacon on in slices, 
and serve. 

Fried Cabbage. — Take cold boiled cabbage, 
cut it up fine, add a little melted butter and 
salt and pepper to taste, with three or four 
tablespoonfuls of cream. Put it into a buttered 
frying-pan and stir until it is very hot ; then let 
it stand long enough to brown slighly at the 
bottom. Turn out into a dish, and serve hot. 

Pickled Cabbage. — Cook as above, but not 
too much ; take it off as soon as it is done, 
and drain thoroughly ; drop it immediately 
into cold water and drain again. When dry, 
put it into jars and cover with boiling vinegar ; 
season with rock salt, pepper, pepper-corns, 
and cloves. When perfectly cold, seal the 
jars up air tight, and set away in a cool, dry 
closet. 

Salad (Cabbage). — Choose a hard clean head 
of red cabbage, peel off the outer leaves, and 
cut it in four pieces. Then with a sharp knife 
cut across the grain in as thin slices as possi- 
ble ; put it into a crockery dish, cover with 
vinegar, sprinkle salt and pepper over it, and 
leave to stand several hours. Then throw 
away the vinegar, and dress with oil and vine- 
gar. {See Sour Krout.) 

Stewed Cabbage. — Boil a large head of 
cabbage, drain, and cut it up very fine. Put 
two tablespoonfuls of butter in a sauce-pan on 
the fire, and when it has melted put in the cab- 
bage and stir for five minutes ; add salt and 
pepper to taste, and a pinch of flour ; wet with 
a pint of broth and stew until the sauce is 
reduced. Serve hot. 

CABBAGE ROSE. A species of rose 
having a thick compacted flower with petals ar- 
ranged like the leaves of a cabbage. It is 
hardy, and very pretty. Its culture is like that 
of other hardy roses. {See Rose.) 

CACTUS. — The families of the cactus are 
numerous, and each has a great number of 
species. Those chiefly grown for parlor and 
garden plants come under the families of 
Cereus and Epiphyllum. Both should be plant- 
ed in pots with a soil consisting of two parts 
peat, one part broken potsherds, one part loam 
or old mortar rubbish, and one part manure ; mix 
these well together and see that the drainage is 
good. During the summer the plants should 
stand out of doors, in a sheltered place. In 
September remove to the house, all parts of 
the shoots having no bloom buds (which may 
easily be seen along the leaves) being first cut 
back to just beyond the buds. It is better to 
confine the plant to six or eight strong stems, 
and while these are in good health the growth 
of shoots from the root is not to be encouraged. 
Give the plants no water from September to 
February ; while in growth in summer, water 
moderately. The cactus blooms from May to 



August. The difference between the Cereus 
and the Epiphyllum is that the shoots of 
the latter have flat shoots and leaves without 
spines, while in the former the shoots are 
round and the leaves prickly. The best varie- 
ties of the Cereus are : C. Speciosisshnus, crim- 
son and purple flowers (this is the best for 
general cultivation); C. Grandijlorus, flowers 
yellowish white (this is the "night-blooming 
cereus"); C. Maynatdi, deep orange red 
flowers ; and C. Triattgularis, immense cream- 
colored flowers. The best varieties of the 
Epiphyllum zxt: E. Akettuanni, f\n& scarlet 
flowers ; E. Speciosnm, rosy pink flower ; E. 
A latum, white flowers; and E. Trincaimn, 
and its varieties, with white, red, scarlet, rosy, 
and violet flowers. 

CAFi! AU LAIT.— Coffee and milk, for 
breakfast. Strain the coffee, while hot, off the 
grounds through a piece of fine muslin, into the 
coffee-pot ; add an equal quantity of boiling 
milk that has been boiled down one-half. Serve 
like plain coffee, with sugar. 

CAKE. — It is absolutely essential to the 
making of good cake that the materials should 
be good ; the flour must be white and dry, and 
carefully sifted before using ; the sugar white 
and free from lumps ; the eggs above suspicion ; 
the butter sweet and fresh ; and the milk whole 
or unskimmed. It is hardly less important 
that the measuring and weighing should be 
accurate throughout ; and that each step in the 
process of mixing should be rightly taken. 




Modern Cake Mould. 

The flour, as we have said, should be sifted 
before measuring, and if damp dried thoroughly. 
The eggs should be beaten separately, — the 
whites in a cool room till they are solid enough 
to slice. The milk maybe used either sour 
or sweet, but the two must never be mixed ; 
sour milk makes spongy cake, sweet makes 
it more solid. Saleratus and soda should be 
thoroughly dissolved in hot water and strained 
before they are stirred into cake. Currants 
should be carefully rinsed, rubbed in a dry 
cloth to get out the stems, and then spread on 
platters and dried, before being used. Almonds 
should be blanched, by pouring boiling water 



60 



CAKE 



on them ; drain and repeat the process and they 
will readily pop from the skin ; when blanched, 
dry and then pound them fine with a few drops 
of milk, to prevent their oiling. All kinds of 
cake that are made without yeast are better for 
being stirred till just before they are baked. 
When ready to mix, stir the butter to a cream, 
then add the sugar, and stir till white ; next beat 
the yolks of the eggs, strain them and add them 
to the sugar and butter ; meantime another per- 
son should beat the whites to a stiff froth and 
put them in ; then add the spices and flour, and 
last of all the fruit, if any be used. Earthen- 
ware is best to mix in, and a wooden spoon 
should be used. Butter the cake-pans well ; 
the cake will be less liable to burn if the pans 
are lined with white buttered paper. The oven 
should be "quick" but not furiously hot; if it 
be slow the cake will not rise properly. The 
cake must not, while baking, be moved, or 
changed from one oven to another, and if it 
browns too rapidly on top, cover it over with a 
piece of white buttered paper. To find out 
when it is baked enough, half open the oven 
door, and try the centre of the loaf with a clean 
broom-straw. If the cake is baked the straw 
will come out dry, if not, a little of tlie batter 
will adhere to it, in which case the door of the 
oven must be closed immediately, or the cake 
will fall. Cake that is to be frosted should be 
cooked in pans with sides perpendicular, in- 
stead of slanting. It should be iced as soon as 
taken from the oven, to ensure its drying quickly 
and smoothly. As soon as the cake is cool, 
wrap it in a thick white cloth, and keep it in a 
covered earthen jar or tight tin box. Do 
not cut more at a time than is likely to be 
used. {See Crullers, Doughnuts, Mac- 

CAROONS). 

Almond Cake.— Th:/^^. --Sugar, i lb ; butter, 
% lb ; flour, i lb ; eggs, 8 ; almonds, i coffee- 
cupful ; essence of bitter almonds, }i teaspoon- 
ful ; brandy, i wineglassful. 

Stir one pound of powdered sugar and a quar- 
ter of a pound of butter to a cream ; beat up the 
eight eggs, the whites and yolks separately, and 
add the yolks to the butter and sugar ; stir to- 
gether very thoroughly, and then put in one 
pound of flour; add a coffeecupful of sweet 
almonds blanched, and beat to a smooth paste, 
with half a teaspoonful of essence of bitter 
almonds; along with the almonds stir in the 
whites of the eggs ; finally add a wineglass of 
brandy. Bake in a quick oven, and frost it as 
soon as it is done. Season the icing with rose- 
water. 

Almond Cheese Cake. — Take .-Milk, i 
Pt; ^ggs, 6; white sugar, 6 oz ; sweet almonds, 
K lb ; butter, % lb ; wine, % wineglassful ; rose- 
water, I teaspoonful. 

Boil a pint of new milk ; beat three eggs and 
stir them into the milk, while it is boiling. 
When it boils up, take it from the fire, add half 
a wineglass of wine (any cooking wine) ; sepa- 
rate the curd from the whey, and add to the 
curd three eggs and six ounces of powdered 
white sugar that have previously been beaten 



together; add a teaspoonful of rose-water, 
half a pound of sweet almonds blanched and 
pounded fine, and a quarter of a pound of melt- 
ed butter. Mix well together, and pour it into 
small pans that have been lined with pastry ; 
ornament the top with Zante currants and al- 
monds cut in thin slices, and bake immediately 
in a rather quick oven. 

Bannock, or Indian Meal Cake. — Take :- 
Brown sugar, i% lbs; butter, i lb; eggs, 6; 
cinnamon or ginger, i teaspoonful; Indian 
meal, iX lbs; flour, % lb. 

Stir a pound of butter and a pound and a 
quarter of brown sugar to a cream ; beat six 
eggs, and mix them with the sugar and butter; 
add a teaspoonful of cinnamon or ginger; stir 
in a pound and a quarter of white Indian meal 
(sifted), and a quarter of a pound of wheat 
flour. Mix thoroughly, and bake in small cups, 
and let it remain in them till cold. 

Bervrick Sponge Cake. — Take :-¥\o\ir, 4 
teacupf uls ; eggs, 6 ; powdered sugar, 3 teacup- 
fuls ; cream-tartar, 2 teaspoonfuls ; soda, i tea- 
spoonful ; cold water, i cupful ; lemon, the rind 
and juice of }4. Beat six eggs two minutes ; add 
three cups of powdered sugar, beat six minutes ; 
two cups of flour with two teaspoonfuls of cream- 
tartar, beat one minute ; one cup of cold water 
with a teaspoonful of soda, beat one minute ; 
half the grated rind and juice of a lemon, two 
more cupfuls of flour and a small pinch of salt ; 
stir gently ; bake twenty minutes. 

Black Cake. — Take . --Flour (browned), i 
lb ; brown sugar, r lb ; butter, a little more than 
I lb; eggs, 10; seeded raisins, 3 lbs; Zante cur- 
rants, 3 lbs ; citron, i lb ; wine, brandy, and 
milk,' I wineglassful of each ; molasses, i table- 
spoonful ; saleratus, i teaspoonful ; cinnamon, i 
tablespoonful ; cloves, i teaspoonful ; mace, i 
tablespoonful, or i nutmeg. 

Take one pound of flour, brown it in a pan 
over the fire, stirring constantly, and let it cool 
before using ; one pound of brown sugar ; a lit- 
tle more than a pound of butter; ten eggs ; three 
pounds of seeded raisins ; three pounds of Zante 
currants ; one pound of citron ; a wineglass of 
wine, one of brandy, and one of milk ; a tea- 
spoonful of saleratus ; a tablespoonful of mo- 
lasses > a tablespoonful of cinnamon ; a tea- 
spoonful of cloves ; and i tablespoonful of 
mace, or one nutmeg. Stir the sugar and 
butter together ; beat the eggs to a froth, and 
stir them in ; then add the flour, stirring it in 
gradually ; after this the molasses and spice. 
Dissolve the saleratus in the milk, strain it, 
and mix with the brandy and wine to curdle 
them ; stir the whole into the cake. Just be- 
fore putting the cake into the pans, stir in the 
fruit gradually, a handful of each alternately. 
When well mixed together, put the mixture 
into cake pans, and bake immediately in a mod- 
erately hot oven. If baked in three loaves it 
will take from one to two hours. Black cake 
should be kept three or four weeks before it is 
cut. 

Caraway Cakes. — Take .--Flour, 2 qts ; 
white sugar, i qt ; butter, i teacupful ; caraway 



CAKE 



61 



seeds, j^ gill ; essence of lemon, i teaspoonful ; 
milk, to make a dough that may be rolled. 

Stir one quart of powdered white sugar and 
a teacupful of butter to a cream ; add two quarts 
of flour, half a gill of caraway seed, and a tea- 
spoonful of essence of lemon ; make into a 
dough, roll out into a sheet half an inch thick, 
cut into square cakes, and crimp the edges. 
Then bake in a tolerably quick oven, A piece 
of sal-volatile, the size of a nutmeg, dissolved 
in two tablespoonfuls of hot water, improves 
this. 

Children's Cake. — Take .--Flour, 2 lbs ; 
butter, % lb ; coffee sugar, j^ lb ; currants, i 
lb ; caraway seed, y, oz ; allspice, i tablespoon- 
ful ; brewers' yeast, 2 tablespoonfuls. 

Rub a quarter of a pound of butter into two 
pounds of flour ; add half a pound of coffee 
sugar, one pound of currants well washed and 
dried, half an ounce of caraway seed, and a 
tablespoonful of allspice ; mix all together thor- 
oughly. Warm a pint of new milk, but do not 
let it get hot ; stir into it two tablespoonfuls of 
good yeast ; with this liquid make up the dough 
lightly, and knead it well. Line the pans with 
buttered paper, and put in the dough , set it 
in a warm place for an hour and a half to 
rise ; then bake in a quick oven. This quan- 
tity will make two moderately sized cakes ; 
thus divided they will require an hour or more 
to bake. 

Chocolate Cake. — Take .--Flour, 3^ cup- 
fuls ; butter, i cupful ; sugar, 2 cupfuls ; eggs, 
5 ; milk, i cupful ; cream-tartar, i teaspoonful ; 
soda, ^ teaspoonful ; fine white sugar, i ^ cup- 
fuls ; grated chocolate, 3 tablespoonfuls ; es- 
sence of vanilla, i teaspoonful. 

Mix together one cupful of butter; two cup- 
fuls of sugar ; the yolks of five eggs and whites 
of two ; three and a half cupfuls of flour, into 
which one teaspoonful of cream-tartar has been 
stirred ; one cupful of milk, and half a teaspoon- 
ful of soda. Bake in jelly-cake tins ; and use 
the following mixture for spreading between 
the layers and on the top : One and a half cup- 
fuls of sugar ; the remaining whites of the three 
eggs ; three tablespoonfuls of grated chocolate ; 
and one teaspoonful of essence of vanilla ; beat 
together well. 

Cider Cake. — Take .--Flour, 6 cupfuls ; 
white sugar, 3 cupfuls ; butter, i cupful ; milk, 
y^ cupful ; nutmeg, i (grated); saleratus, i tea- 
spoonful ; cider, i cupful. 

Stir together a cupful of butter, three cupfuls 
of white sugar, two cupfuls of flour, a grated 
nutmeg, and half a cupful of milk with a tea- 
spoonful of saleratus dissolved in it. Mix all 
together; and, while doing so, add a cupful of 
cider, and four even cupfuls of sifted flour. 
Bake at once in a quick (but not too quick) 
oven. 

Cocoanut Cakes. — Take .--Grated cocoa- 
nut, I lb ; white sugar, i lb ; eggs, whites of 6. 

Take a pound each of powdered white sugar 
and grated cocoanut (the brown part of the co- 
coanut should be cut off before grating it ) ; add 
the whites of half a dozen eggs beaten to a stiff 



froth. There should be just eggs enough to 
wet up the whole stiff. Drop this mixture on 
buttered plates in "dabs " the size of a two-cent 
piece and several inches apart ; and bake im- 
mediately in a moderately warm oven, watching 
constantly to keep them from scorching. 

11. Take .--Flour, 4 cupfuls ; sugar, 3 cup- 
fuls ; butter, i cupful ; soda, l teaspoonful ; 
cream-tartar, 2 teaspoonfuls ; grated cocoanut, 
3 cupfuls ; eggs, whites of 3 ; lemon, grated 
rind of i. 

Mix together three cupfuls of sugar ; one of 
butter ; the whites of three eggs ; a level tea- 
spoonful of soda ; four cupfuls of flour, with 
two teaspoonfuls of cream-tartar sifted into it; 
three cupfuls of grated cocoanut; the grated rind 
of one lemon ; and a gill of milk. Stir thor- 
oughly, and bake in a moderate oven. 

ni. (Sponge.) — Take:-Y\o\ir, \ pt ; grated 
cocoanut, i ; white sugar, i pt ; eggs, 6 ; salt, 
\ teaspoonful. 

Stir together a pint of fine white sugar, and 
the yolks of six eggs, beaten and strained ; add 
one cocoanut (grated), and half a teaspoonful 
of salt, and the juice of half a fresh lemon ; just 
before the cake is put into the oven, add the 
whites of the six eggs beaten up stiff, and then 
stir in half a pint of flour. Stir the flour in only 
just enough to mix it ; then put the cake in 
pans lined with buttered paper, and bake in a 
quick oven. Do not let the top harden quickly ; 
if there is danger of it, cover with buttered 
paper. 

rv. Tlz/^^ .--Sugar, i^ cupfuls ; butter, ^ cup- 
ful ; eggs, 3 ; milk, \ cupful ; flour, 2 cupfuls ; 
cream-tartar, i teaspoonful; soda, y teaspoon- 
ful ; cocoanut, i ; fine white sugar, i y, cup- 
fuls. 

Stir one and a half cupfuls of sugar and half 
a cupful of butter to a cream ; beat up three 
eggs and add them, together with half a cupful 
of new milk ; then add two cupfuls of flour into 
which a teaspoonful of cream-tartar and a quarter 
of a teaspoonful of soda have been sifted. Stir 
together well, and bake in jelly-cake tins. Mix 
one cocoanut (grated) and its milk with a cup- 
ful and a half of white sugar ; set this in the 
oven till the sugar melts, and spread between 
the layers of cake. 

Coffee Cake.— 1. Take:-Y\onx, 2^ lbs ; brown 
sugar, 9 oz ; butter, 14 oz ; molasses, i pt ; cold 
strong coffee, i pt ; stoned raisins, cut in two, 
2^ lbs ; citron, i lb ; mace, cinnamon and gin- 
ger, 2 teaspoonfuls each ; cloves and allspice, I 
teaspoonful each ; soda, dissolved in a little of 
the coffee, 2 even teaspoonfuls. 

Rub the sugar and butter together, add the 
molasses, coffee and flour alternately, leaving a 
pint of flour in which to rub the fruit, then the 
soda, and lastly the fruit. Bake slowly about 
an hour. 

2. Ta/?-^ .--Ground coffee, i cupful steeped 
in 2 cupfuls of boiling water ; sugar, 4 cupfuls ; 
butter, 2 cupfuls ; eggs, 3 ; soda, i teaspoon- 
ful ; allspice, i teaspoonful ; nutmeg, y^ (grated); 
cream-tartar, 2 teaspoonfuls ; flour enough to 
make dough. 



62 



CAKE 



Pour two cupfuls of boiling water on a cup- 
ful of ground coffee ; cover it over tightly, and 
let it steep an hour ; then strain it and let it 
cool. Beat together four cupfuls of sugar, two 
of butter, and three eggs ; dissolve one tea- 
spoonful of soda in the coffee, and stir this into 
the sugar and egg ; add flour enough to_ make 
a soft dough, having previously mixed into it 
a teaspoonful of allspice, half a nutmeg (grated), 
and two teaspoonfuls of cream-tartar. Roll it 
thin with sugar ; cut it with a cake-cutter ; and 
bake in a slow oven on tin sheets. 

Composition Cake.-Butter, Yz lb ; sugar, i X 
lbs ; flour, i K lb ; eggs, 4 ; milk, i pt ; nutmeg, i ; 
baking powder, 5 even teaspoonfuls ; raisins, 
stoned and chopped, % lb ; currants, ^^ lb. 

Beat the butter and sugar together until very 
light ; add alternately, but gradually, the milk 
and one fourth of the flour ; whisk the eggs 
until thick and add them in the same way with 
the remainder of the flour with which the bak- 
ing powder has been thoroughly mixed and 
sifted ; beat well and add the grated nutmeg. 
Mix the fruit and stir in half at a time. When 
well beaten put it in pans buttered and lined 
with paper. Bake at once in a moderate oven. 
Ice the bottom and sides while hot. 

Confederate Pound Cake. — Take :-Y.gg?,^ 
10 large or 12 small ones ; butter, i lb ; powdered 
sugar, I lb; flour, i lb. less i tablespoonful. 

Cream the butter thoroughly and beat in the 
sugar ; add the whites of the eggs, beaten to a 
stiff froth, and then the well-beaten yolks ; put 
in the sifted flour carefully, stirring only enough 
to mix well. Bake in pans lined with paper 
and be careful not to move it while baking. 

Cornstarch Cake. — Take :-'&\\gzx^ 2 cup- 
fuls ; butter, i cupful ; milk, i cupful ; eggs, 3 ; 
soda, I teaspoonful ; flour, 2 cupfuls ; corn- 
starch I cupful ; cream-tartar, 2 teaspoonfuls. 

Stir two cupfuls of sugar and one of butter 
to a cream ; add one cup of milk, three eggs, 
whites and yolks beaten separately, and one 
teaspoonful of soda, dissolved in a little hot 
water ; then stir in two cupfuls of flour, and 
one cupful of cornstarch, with two teaspoon- 
fuls of cream-tartar sifted through them. Bake 
in small tins, and eat fresh . 

Cream Cake. — 7rt;>^^ .--Sugar, ^ lb; butter, 
^ lb ; eggs, 7 ; flour, i^ lbs ; brandy, i wine- 
glassful ; nutmeg, i ; cream, V^ pt. 

Take half a pound of butter and three 
quarters of a pound of sugar, and stir together 
till very white; beat seven eggs, the whites 
and yolks separately, and stir them into the 
cake, then add a wineglass of brandy, a grated 
nutmeg, and a pound and a half of sifted 
flour ; just before putting it into the pans, add 
half a pint of sweet cream, and a pound of 
seeded raisins. Bake in a quick oven. 

II. Trt/'^.'-Butter, \ lb; boiling water, i pt; 
flour, ^ lb; eggs, 14; milk, i pt; sugar, 2 cup- 
fuls; flour, \ cupful; lemon, to taste. 

Put half a pound of butter into a pint of 
boihng water, and let them boil together ; stir 
in three quarters of a pound of flour, then re 
move from the fire. 



thoroughly one by one. This is the crust. 
For the cream, take: one pint of milk, four 
eggs, one cupful of sugar, and half a cupful of 
flour; boil the milk, and while it is boiling add 
the sugar, eggs, and flour, and then flavor with 
lemon. Drop the crust on tins, and bake in a 
quick oven fifteen or twenty minutes ; when 
they are done open them at the sides and fill 
with the cream. 

III. 7}z/(v.--White sugar, 2 cupfuls; butter, f 
cupful; milk, i cupful; eggs, 5; cream-tartar, i 
teaspoonful; soda, ^ teaspoonful; flour, 3 
cupfuls ; cornstarch, 2 teaspoonfuls ; vanilla, i 
teaspoonful. 

Stir two cupfuls of fine white sugar and two 
thirds of a cupful of butter to a cream ; then 
add a cupful of milk, four eggs, a teaspoonful of 
cream-tartar, half a teaspoonful of soda, and 
three cupfuls of flour. Bake in thin layers 
as for jelly cake, and when cold spread between 
them the following cream: stir two teaspoonfuls 
of cornstarch, wet with a little cold milk, into 
half a pint of boiling milk ; beat half a cupful 
of sugar and one egg together and add to the 
milk, let it boil till quite thick, stirring constant- 
ly to prevent its burning; when cold flavor with 
one teaspoonful of vanilla. If icing is used 
flavor it also with vanilla. 

IV. (Without Eggs) — Take:-'SiVi<g2,x, 3 cup- 
fuls; butter, I cupful; flour, 4 cupfuls; salera- 
tus, ly^ teaspoonfuls; ess. of lemon, i teaspoon- 
ful ; nutmeg, \ (grated) ; sour cream, 2 cupfuls. 

Stir three cups of sugar and one of butter 
together thoroughly ; add two cupfuls of sour 
cream, one and a half teaspoonfuls of saleratus 
dissolved in a little cold water, a teaspoonful of 
essence of lemon, and half a grated nutmeg; 
pour all this into the middle of four cupfuls of 
flour. Mix together quickly and thoroughly, 
and bake at once. 

Cream-Tartar Cake. — Z^^^ .--Flour, 3 pts; 
cream-tartar, 2 teaspoonfuls ; soda, i teaspoon- 
ful ; nutmeg yi (grated); milk, xyi cupfuls; 
sugar, I pt. 

Mix two teaspoonfuls of cream-tartar thor- 
oughly with three pints of flour, and add half 
a grated nutmeg; dissolve one teaspoonful of 
soda in two tablespoonfuls of hot water, add it 
to one cupful and a half of milk, and stir in a 
pint of crushed sugar; use this to mix the flour 
into a soft dough. Roll the dough out, cut into 
round cakes with a tumbler, and bake imme- 
diately in a quick oven for fifteen or twenty 
minutes. 

Cup Cake. — I. Take .--Sugar, 2 cupfuls ; but- 
ter, I cupful ; eggs, 4 ; flour, 3 cupfuls ; baking 
powder, i teaspoonful; ess. of almond, to 
taste. 

Beat one cup of butter and two of sugar to 
cream; then add four eggs, whites and yolks 
beaten separately, and three cupfuls of flour; 
flavor with almond to taste, and at last, just 
before putting into the oven, add one teaspoon- 
ful of baking powder. Bake in a quick oven, 
either in cups or pans. 

II. 7^2^^ .--Sugar, 3 teacupfuls ; butter, i>^ 
cupfuls ; eggs, 3 ; flour, 6 cupfuls ; ess. of 



CAKE 



63 



lemon, or rose-water, to taste ; saleratus, i 
teaspoonful ; milk, i cupful. 

Stir three teacupfuls of sugar and one and 
a half of butter to a cream ; beat three eggs 
to a froth, and stir them into the sugar and 
butter, together with three cupfuls of flour; 
flavor to taste with essence of lemon or rose- 
water. Dissolve a teaspoonful of saleratus in 
a cupful of milk, strain it into the cake, and 
then add three more cupfuls of flour ; with three 
teaspoonfuls of cream-tartar. Mix well, and 
bake immediately either in cups or pans. 

Currant Cake. — Taie . --Flour, i lb; butter, 
^2 lb ; sugar ^ lb ; currants, }4 lb ; eggs, 4 ; 
cinnamon, i teaspoonful ; soda, }4 teaspoonful ; 
)4 a lemon. 

Mix together one pound of flour, half a 
pound of butter, three quarters of a pound of 
sugar, half a pound of currants (well washed), 
four eggs, one teaspoonful of cinnamon, half 
'a teaspoonful of soda dissolved in hot water, 
half a lemon (squeezed and the rind grated). 
Line the bake-pans with buttered paper ; drop 
the mixture upon it ; and bake quickly. 

Delicate Cake. — T^cz/y' .-Butter, i cupful; 
sugar, 2 cupfuls ; milk, i cupful; eggs, whites 
of 5 ; cream-tartar, i teaspoonful ; soda, ^ 
teaspoonful; flour, 3 cupfuls. 

Stir one cupful of butter and two of sugar 
to a cream ; add one cupful of milk, the whites 
of five eggs, one teaspoonful of cream-tartar, 
half a teaspoonful of soda, and three cupfuls 
of sifted flour. The yolks of the eggs can be 
used for other purposes. 

Diet Cake. — Boil one pound of crushed su- 
gar in one and a half gills of water to the 
crack (see candy) ; pour it on eight well-beaten 
eggs, whisking them well the while ; beat un- 
til the mixture is cold ; then add ten ounces 
of flour, and 4 oz almonds, blanched and cut 
into thin strips. Bake in a mould lined with 
paper, 35 minutes, in a moderate oven. 

Dover Cake. — Z'cz-i'^ .-White sugar, i lb; 
butter, }4, lb; eggs, 6; milk, i cupful; soda, i 
teaspoonful ; vinegar, i tablespoonful ; cinna- 
mon (powdered), i teaspoonful; rose-water, i 
tablespoonful. 

Stir a pound of white sugar and half a pound 
of butter to a light cream ; add six eggs, beaten 
to a froth, one cupful of sweet milk, one tea- 
spoonful of soda dissolved in a tablespoonful 
of vinegar, one tablespoonful of powdered 
cmnamon, and one pound of flour ; flavor with 
one tablespoonful of rose-water. Bake in a 
quick oven and frost as soon as done ; flavor 
the frosting with lemon-juice. 

Fancy Cake. — Taie .--Sugar, }4 lb ; eggs, 4 ; 
flour, ^ lb ; ess. of lemon, i teaspoonful. 

Beat half a pound of sugar and the yolks of 
four eggs together ; add half a pound of flour, 
and beat up thoj-ojighly ; then add a teaspoon- 
ful of essence of lemon, and the whites of the 
eggs, beaten to a stiff froth. Bake in small 
patties, and put a sugar plum on the top of 
each. 

French Cake. — Zizy^^ .'-Sugar, T lb; butter, 
^ lb ; eggs, 1 2 ; flour, i yi lbs ; milk, wine, 



and brandy, i gill each ; nutmeg (grated), \ ; 
raisins, f lb ; citron, i lb ; almonds (blanched 
and pounded fine), \ lb. 

Mix one pound of sugar and three quarters 
of a pound of butter to a white cream ; add 12 
eggs, the whites and yolks beaten separately ; 
then stir in a pound and a half of flour, and a 
gill each of milk, wine, and brandy; flavor with 
one half of a grated nutmeg. Just before bak- 
ing add three quarters of a pound of seeded rai- 
sins, a quarter of a pound of citron, and a quarter 
of a pound of almonds, blanched and pounded 
fine. Bake in a moderately quick oven. 

Fruitcake. — I. Take :-'SN\\\\.& sugar, i lb; 
butter, \ lb ; eggs, 7 ; flour, l lb ; citron, \ lb ; 
nutmeg, i teaspoonful ; cinnamon, i teaspoon- 
ful ; currants, \ lb; raisins, \ lb; brandy, i 
wineglassful. 

Beat one pound of fine white sug'ar and 
three quarters of a pound of butter to a cream ; 
add the yolks of seven eggs, beaten to a froth; 
then the whites of the eggs, whipped to a 
froth, and a quarter of a pound of citron, one 
teaspoonful of nutmeg, one of cinnamon, and 
one pound of flour; stir together, and add half 
a pound of currants, washed carefully and 
dredged, and half a pound of raisins, seeded 
and chopped ; finally a wineglass of brandy. 
Mix thoroughly, and bake in a moderately 
quick oven. 

II. (With Apples.) — 7«^v .--Dried apples, 3 
cupfuls; molasses, 3 cupfuls; flour, 3 cupfuls; 
butter, I cupful; eggs, 3; cream-tartar, i tea- 
spoonful ; soda, 3^ teaspoonful ; spice and 
raisins. 

Take three cups of dried apples ; three of 
molasses; three of flour; one of butter; three 
eggs ; one teaspoonful of cream-tartar ; and 
half a teaspoonful of soda. Soak the dried 
apples in water until soft ; then chop them up 
fine and boil them with the molasses for half 
an hour ; let them cool, and then add the but- 
ter, eggs, and flour. Beat the eggs very high, 
and sift the cream-tartar and soda in with the 
flour. Bake in a slow oven three hours. 

Gingerbread. — I. Z'^-ff .--Sugar, ^ lb; but- 
ter, y2 lb ; flour, 2 lbs ; caraway seed, i oz ; 
ground ginger, i oz ; coriander seed, ^ oz ; 
molasses, i^ lbs. 

Rub together half a pound of fine sugar and 
half a pound of butter ; then add two pounds 
of flour, well dried by the fire, one ounce of 
caraway seed, one ounce of ground ginger, 
and half an ounce of coriander seed. Mix 
them with one and three quarter pounds of 
molasses, roll thin, and bake in a quick oven. 

II. (Fleming). — Take-.-^vXitr and sugar, % 
lb. each; molasses, >^ pt; eggs, 4; flour, i^ 
pts ; ground ginger, i tablespoonful ; cinnamon, 
I teaspoonful ; soda or pearlash, i teaspoonful. 

Stir together a quarter of a pound of butter 
and a quarter of brown sugar ; add half a pint 
of molasses. Beat four eggs to a froth, and 
stir them into the mixture alternately with 
rather less than a pint and a half of flour; 
add a heaping tablespoonful of ground ginger, 
and a teaspoonful of powdered cinnamon. 



64 



CAKE 



Stir all together well. Dissolve a level tea- 
spoonful of soda or pearlash in two tablespoon- 
fuls of warm water, and stir this in last. Put 
the mixture into a buttered tin pan, set it 
immediately into the oven which must be 
brisk but not too hot, and bake well. Test 
with a straw. 

in. (Hard.) — Take . --Molasses, I pt; butter, i 
lb ; sour milk, I teacupful ; ground ginger, 2 
tablespoonfuls; soda, i tablespoonful ; cloves, i 
tablespoonful ; lemon, rind of i ; flour. 

Mix one pint of molasses, half a pound of 
butter, one cupful of sour milk, two tablespoon- 
fuls of ginger, one tablespoonful of soda, one 
tablespoonful of cloves, the rind of one lemon 
(grated), and flour enough to make a stiff paste. 
Butter the tin sheets, roll the dough on them, 
sprinkle lightly with sugar as thin as possible, 
and bake in a quick oven. 

IV. (Soft.)— 7«/&^?.-- Butter, i teacupful, 
melted ; molasses, i pt ; ground ginger, i 
tablespoonful; flour, i pt ; eggs, 2; saleratus, 
2 teaspoonfuls ; sour milk, }4 pt ; flour ; lemon 
peel. 

Mix a teacupful of melted butter with a pint 
of molasses, a tablespoonful of ground ginger, 
a pint of flour, and two beaten eggs ; a fresh 
lemon peel, cut into strips, may be added. 
Mix two teaspoonfuls of saleratus in half a 
pint of sour milk, stir it into the cake, and add 
flour enough to make soft sponge. Bake in 
deep pans, in a moderately quick oven, about 
half an hour. 

V. (Spiced.) — Take . -Sugar,! lb ; butter,^ lb; 
eggs, 5 ; milk, 3 tablespoonfuls ; cream-tartar, 
I teaspoonful ; soda, ^ teaspoonful ; ground 
ginger, i tablespoonful ; flour, i lb ; cloves, 
nutmeg, and cinnamon, teaspoonful each. 

Stir one pound of sugar and half a pound of 
butter to a cream ; add five eggs beaten to a 
froth, three tablespoonfuls of sweet milk, one 
teaspoonful of cream-tartar, half a teaspoon- 
ful of soda dissolved in a little hot water, a 
heaping tablespoonful of ground ginger, and 
one teaspoonful each of cloves, nutmeg, and 
cinnamon ; mix together well and add one 
pound of flour. This amount will make two 
good sized loaves. 

VI. (Sponge.)— Trt/f-^ .--Molasses, l cupful; 
butter, i cupful; ginger, i tablespoonful; sour 
milk, I cupful ; saleratus, li teaspoonfuls ; 
flour. 

Mix a cupful of molasses, half a cupful of 
butter, and one tablespoonful of ginger, and 
set it on the fire till well warmed ; then add one 
cupful of sour milk, one teaspoonful and a half 
of saleratus, and enough flour to make a stiff 
sponge. Bake at once in a rather quick oven. 

VII. Sugar — TaA-e:-Sugar, i lb ; butter, 6 
oz ; eggs, 4 ; ground ginger, 3 teaspoonfuls ; 
flour, U lbs; saleratus, i teaspoonful; milk, i 
wineglassful. 

Mix a pound of sugar and six ounces of but- 
ter; beat four eggs to a froth and stir them 
into the butter and sugar, with three teaspoon- 
fuls of ground ginger; stir in gradually a pound 
and a half of flour ; dissolve a teaspoonful of 



saleratus in a wineglass of milk, and stir it 
in; roll out and bake immediately in a quick 
oven. 

Ginger Snaps. — L Take :-'Butter and lard, 
j^ lb each ; brown sugar, X ^b ; molasses, i 
pt ; ginger, 2 tablespoonfuls ; flour, i qt ; sale- 
ratus, 2 teaspoonfuls ; milk, i wineglassful. 

Take a quarter of a pound of butter and the 
same quantity of lard, melt them and mix with 
a quarter of a pound of brown sugar, a pint of 
molasses, two tablespoonfuls of ground ginger, 
and a quart of flour. Dissolve two teaspoon- 
fuls of saleratus in a wineglass of milk, strain 
it into the cake, and add sufficient flour to 
make a soft dough. Roll it out thin, cut into 
small cakes, and bake them in a quick oven. 

IL Take .--Butter and lard, ^ cupful each ; 
sugar, I cupful ; molasses, i cupful ; water, ^ 
cupful ; ground ginger, cinnamon, and cloves, 
I tablespoonful each ; soda, i teaspoonful ; 
flour. 

Mix half a cupful of butter with the same 
quantity of lard ; add one heaping cupful of 
sugar, one cupful of molasses, half a cupful of 
cold water, one tablespoonful each ground 
ginger and cinnamon, one teaspoonful of cloves, 
one of soda dissolved in hot water, and enough 
flour to make a pretty stiff dougl^ Roll out 
thin, and bake at once. 

Golden Cake. — Trt*^^ .'-White sugar, i lb; 
butter ^ lb; eggs, yolks of 16; flour, 2 lbs; 
milk, I cupful ; lemon, i ; mace ; baking pow- 
der. 

Mix together one pound of fine white sugar, 
three quarters of a pound of butter, the yolks 
of sixteen eggs, the rind and juice of one lemon, 
one cupful of milk, and two pounds of flour, 
with two teaspoonfuls of baking powder ; sea- 
son to taste with mace. Bake about half an 
hour. 

Honey Cake. — Take .--Honey, 1 qt ; butter 
^ lb. ; sugar i lb. ; soda i tablespoonful (slightly 
heaped); caraway seeds, j4 a gill. 

Warm the quart of honey and the pound of 
sugar in a tin pan ; add the three quarters of 
a pound of butter, the tablespoonful of soda 
dissolved in a little warm water, the half gill of 
caraway seeds, and flour to make it stiff enough 
to roll. Roll it thick, score and bake in a sheet 
or tin, and cut it in small cakes. 

Huckleberry Cake.— 7<7;f^. --Sugar, i cup- 
ful; molasses, l cupful; milk, i cupful; butter, 
yz cupful ; cream-tartar, 1% teaspoonfuls; feoda, 
I teaspoonful ; flour ; huckleberries, i pt ; all- 
spice, cinnamon, and cloves. 

Beat together one cup of sugar, one of mo- 
lasses, one of milk, half a cup of butter, one 
teaspoonful and a half of cream-tartar, one tea- 
spoonful of soda dissolved in a little warm 
water ; stir in enough flour to make a soft 
sponge, and then add one pint of huckleberries, 
washed and dredged ; season to taste with all- 
spice, cinnamon, and cloves. 

Jelly Cake. — I. Take .--Sugar, i lb; butter, 
K lb; milk, i cupful; eggs, 6; cream-tartar, I 
teaspoonful ; soda, )4 teaspoonful ; flour, i lb ; 
jelly. 



CAKE 



65 



Stir to a light cream one pound of sugar and 
half a pound of butter ; add one cupful of milk, 
six eggs beaten to a froth, one teaspoonful of 
cream-tartar, half a teaspoonful of soda, and 
one pound of flour. Spread over buttered tins 
to the thickness of a quarter of an inch, bake 
till brown, and when done pile them on a plate, 
and put a layer of jelly between. 

TLTake .--Sugar, Yz lb ; butter, 6 oz ; eggs, 8 ; 
flour, I lb ; lemon, i ; jelly. 

Stir together till white half a pound of rolled 
sugar and six ounces of butter ; beat eight 
eggs to a froth, stir them into the butter and 
sugar, and add a pound of flour ; add the juice 
and grated rind of a fresh lemon ; turn this 
mixture into scolloped tin plates that have been 
well buttered. Bake and arrange as in No. i. 
Lady Cake. — 7rt/t6' .--Sugar, i lb; butter, 6 
oz ; eggs, whites of 12; flour ^yi lb ; lemon, or 
bitter almond. 

Stir together one pound of sugar and six 
ounces of butter; add the whites of twelve 
eggs whipped to a froth, and three-quarters of 
a pound of flour ; flavor with bitter almond or 
with the juice and grated rind of one lemon. 
Bake in square shallow tins, and flavor the 
frosting with vanilla. 

Lemon Cake. — I. Take .--Sugar, 3 cupfuls ; 
butter, one cupful ; milk, one cupful ; eggs, 5 ; 
saleratus, i teaspoonful ; flour, 4 cupfuls ; 
lemons, 2. 

Beat three cups of sugar and one of butter 
to a light cream ; add one cup of milk, five 
eggs beaten to a froth, one teaspoonful of sale- 
ratus, four cups of flour, and the juice and 
grated rind of two lemons. Beat together 
thoroughly and bake in a moderately quick 
oven. 

IL Take :-?>ng7<iX, i lb ; butter, ^ lb; eggs, 
7 ; flour, I lb ; lemons, 2 ; currants i Yz tea- 
cupfuls. 

Beat one pound of sugar and three-quarters 
of a pound of butter to a cream ; add the yolks 
of seven eggs beaten to a froth and strained ; 
whip the whites up stiff and stir them in with 
one pound of dried flour, the juice of one lemon 
and the peel of two cut into strips, and a cupful 
and a half of currants. The currants may be 
left out if desired. Bake in a moderately quick 
oven. 

Loaf Cake. — I. Tlz/^^ .--Brown sugar, i lb ; 
butter, ^ lb ; sour milk, i pt ; molasses, i pt ; 
eggs, 5 ; soda, 2 teaspoonfuls ; flour, 3 lbs ; 
currants, 2 lbs ; raisins (seeded), i lb : cloves, 
allspice, and cinnamon, i teaspoonful each ; 
nutmeg, i (grated). 

Beat together a pound of brown sugar and 
three quarters of a pound of butter ; add a 
pint of sour milk, a pint of molasses, five eggs 
beaten to a froth, two teaspoonfuls of soda, one 
teaspoonful each of cloves, allspice, and cinna- 
mon, one grated nutmeg, and three pounds of 
flour. Mix well, and then stir in two pounds 
of currants, carefully washed, and one pound 
of seeded raisins. Bake in a moderately 
quick oven. 

II. (Raised.)— r«>&^. --Flour, 2 lbs; milk, 

5 



yeast, i teacupful ; butter, i lb ; white sugar, 

1 ^ lb ; eggs, 4 ; wine and brandy, one wine- 
glassful each ; mace or nutmeg ; raisins (seeded), 

2 lbs ; citron, or almonds, \i lb. 

Stir a pound of flour gradually into a pint of 
lukewarm milk, add a small teacupful of yeast, 
and set where it will rise quickly. When it is 
of a spongy lightness, stir one pound of butter 
and a pound and a quarter of fine white sugar 
to a cream, and work into the sponge with the 
hand. Beat four eggs to a froth, the whites 
and yolks separately, mix them with the cake, 
and add a wineglass of wine, one of brandy, a 
quarter of an ounce of mace, or (if preferred) 
one grated nutmeg. Add one pound of flour 
and work the dough with the hand for fifteen 
or twenty minutes.. Set it to rise, and when 
perfectly light, work it a few minutes with the 
hand, and add two pounds of seeded raisins, a 
quarter of a pound of citron, or the same quan- 
tity of almonds blanched and pounded fine. 
Place in buttered cake-pans ; let them stand 
half an hour in a warm place ; then bake in a 
quick oven about an hour and a half. If the 
tops brown too fast, cover over with buttered 
paper. This cake is very rich and nice. 

Marbled Cake. — 7<!r^^.--Brown sugar, Yz cup- 
ful ; white sugar, i cupful ; molasses, ^ cup- 
ful ; butter, ^ cupful ; milk, ^ cupful ; cream- 
tartar, 2 teaspoonfuls ; soda, i teaspoonful ; 
cinnamon, i teaspoonful ; eggs, 3 ; alkpice, ^ 
teaspoonful ; nutmeg (grated), J!^ ; flour, 4 cup- 
fuls. 

This is made by mixing a light batter and a 
dark one, and baking them in alternate layers. 
For dark batter : Beat together half a cup of 
brown sugar, half a cup of molasses, a quarter 
of a cup of butter, quarter of a cup of milk, one 
teaspoonful of cream-tartar, one of cinnamon, 
half a teaspoonful of soda, half a teaspoonful 
of allspice, half a grated nutmeg, the yolks of 
three eggs well beaten up, and two cupfuls of 
flour. For ligJit batter: Mix one cup of white 
sugar, half a cup of butter, half a cup of milk, 
the whites of three eggs whipped to a froth, one 
teaspoonful of cream-tartar, half a teaspoonful 
of soda, and two cups of flour. Butter the pan 
well and put in the two batters in alternate 
spoonfuls. 

Measure Cake. — 7^(2/^^ .--Sugar, 2 cupfuls; 
butter, I cupful ; eggs, 4 ; nutmeg (grated) i ; 
flour, I pt. 

Stir two cupfuls of sugar and one of butter 
to a light cream ; then add four eggs beaten to 
a froth, one grated nutmeg, and a pint of flour. 
Stir it constantly until jus*!: before it is put into 
the oven. Bake either in cups or pans. 

Molasses Cake. — Take .--Molasses, i cupful ; 
sugar, I cupful ; warm water, i cupful ; soda, i 
tablespoonful ; lard, % cupful; salt, Y^ tea- 
spoonful ; flour. 

Mix one cup of molasses, one cup of sugar, 
one of warm water with a teaspoonful of soda 
dissolved in it, two-thirds of a cup of lard, half 
a teaspoonful of salt, and enough flour to make 
a dough as soft as can be rolled. Roll out 
thin, cut into cakes, and bake in a quick oven. 



66 



CAKE 



Mountain Cake. — Mix togetlier three-quar- 
ters of a pound of sugar, half a pound of but- 
ter, one pound of flour, the yolks of six eggs, 
and whites of four beaten to a froth, one tea- 
cupful of milk, one teaspoonful of soda, and 
two of cream-tartar ; flavor with vanilla. For 
a jelly to put over the top, beat together the 
whites of eggs left over, one pound of sugar, 
and a cupful of current jelly. 

Nut Cake. — Take .--SugSir, 1% cupfuls ; but- 
ter, }4 cupful ; eggs, 3 ; milk, yz cupful ; flour, 
2'y4 cupfuls; cream-tartar, i teaspoonful; soda, 
}4 teaspoonful ; hickory-nut meats (or any 
other kind), i cupful. Beat together one and 
a half cupfuls of coffee sugar, half a cupful of 
butter, and three eggs, to a light froth ; add al- 
ternately the half cup of milk in which the soda 
has been dissolved, and the two and a half 
cups of flour with which the cream-tartar has 
been sifted ; add the half cupful of nuts and 
bake in one loaf. 

Orange Cake. — Take :-Y\our, i lb, lacking 
3 even tablespoonfuls ; sugar, i lb ; butter, \ 
lb ; sweet milk, ^ pt ; baking powder, U even 
tablespoonfuls ; eggs, 5. 

Cream the butter with the sugar, adding 
enough of the milk to make them mix easily ; 
add the yolks of the eggs and beat well, then 
add the milk, the beaten whites of the eggs and 
the flour in which the baking powder has been 
well mixed. Spread one-third of an inch deep 
in jelly cake pans, and bake in a very quick 
oven. Make this icing : Whites of three eggs, 
beaten stiff, one pound and a quarter of pow- 
dered sugar ; grated rind, soft pulp and juice 
of two large sour oranges and one lemon. Add 
sugar for outside icing. 

Plum Cake. (English.) — Take a pound 
and a half of flour, one pound of butter, one of 
sugar, half a pound of currants, half a pound of 
candied citron and orange peel, two ounces of 
sweet almonds, half an ounce of allspice, half 
an ounce of cinnamon, ten eggs, and one wine- 
glassful of brandy. Beat the sugar and butter 
to a light cream ; add the allspice and pounded 
cinnamon ; work in the yolks of the eggs, two at 
a time ; whip the whites till they are highly 
frothed, and work them in, keeping the paste 
warm, or it may become heavy. Cut the citron 
and orange peel into strips ; mix them with the 
currants (previously well washed and dried be- 
fore the fire), and also with the almonds ; stir 
in by degrees the flour, and then the brandy. 
Beat the whole together thoroughly, and bake 
ll hours in a moderate oven. There should 
be a couple sheets of paper both under the cake 
and over the top of it. 

Portugal Cake. — Stir one pound of fine 
white sugar and half a pound of butter to a 
cream ; add eight eggs, the whites and yolks 
beaten separately; stir in gradually one pound 
of flour; and then add one pound of fruit, a 
grated nutmeg, one and a half pounds of sweet 
almonds, blanched and pounded, and last of all 
two tablespoonfuls of lemon juice. Stir to- 
gether thoroughly, and bake at once. 

Pound Cake. — I. — Take .--White sugar, i 



lb ; butter, ^ lb ; eggs, 8 ; flour, i lb ; lemon 
or nutmeg. 

Stir one pound of fine white sugar, and three 
quarters of a pound of butter to a light cream ; 
add eight eggs, the whites and yolks beaten 
separately to a froth, and one pound of flour ; 
flavor to taste with lemon or nutmeg. Cover 
with icing as soon as done. 

II. Take .--White sugar, i lb; butter, 3^ lb; 
eggs, 10; flour, I lb; currants, i teacupful ; 
white wine, i wineglassful ; mace, ^ teaspoon- 
ful ; nutmeg, yi (grated). 

Beat a pound of fine white sugar, and three 
quarters of a pound of butter to a cream ; beat 
up ten eggs, the whites and yolks separately : 
add the yolks to the butter and sugar, and stir 
in a wineglass of white wine, half a teaspoonful 
of mace, and half a grated nutmeg ; mix well 
together, and add the whites of the eggs; stir 
in a pound of flour thoroughly, and then add a 
teacupful of currants, washed and dried. Bake 
in a rather quick oven. 

Queen's Cake. — Take .--Sugar, i lb ; butter, 
1^ lb; wine, brandy, and milk, a wineglassful 
each ; flour, i lb : mace, X oz ; rose-water, or 
ess. of lemon, i teaspoonful ; eggs, 8 ; raisins, 
yz lb ; Zante currants, }4 lb ; citron or almonds, 
'A lb. 

Stir a pound of sugar, and three-quarters of 
a pound of butter to a very light cream ; mix a 
wineglass of white wine, one of brandy, and 
one of milk, and stir them into the butter and 
sugar ; add a pound of flour, a teaspoonful of 
rose-water or essence of lemon, and a quarter 
of an ounce of mace. Beat eight eggs to a 
froth, the whites and yolks separately, and add 
them to the paste ; stir the whole well together, 
and then add, just before baking, half a pound 
of seeded raisins, half a pound of Zante cur- 
rants, a quarter of a pound of citron, or al- 
monds, blanched and pounded fine in rose- 
water. The fruit should be stirred in grad- 
ually, a handful of each alternately. Put in 
pans lined with buttered white paper, and 
bake it from an hour and a quarter to an 
hour and a half, according to the heat of the 
oven. 

Quick Cake. — Take .--Raised bread-dough, 
I A lbs; butter, >^lb; sugar, ^ lb; eggs, 4; 
wine or brandy, i wineglassful ; cinnamon, i 
teaspoonful ; nutmeg, i ; milk, i teaspoonful ; 
saleratus, yi teaspoonful ; raisins (seeded), i lb. 

Melt half a pound of butter, and when cool, 
work it into a pound and a half of raised bread- 
dough. Beat four eggs and three-quarters of 
a pound of rolled sugar together, and mix with 
the dough; add a wineglass of wine or brandy, 
a teaspoonful of cinnamon, and a grated nut- 
meg. Dissolve half a teaspoonful of saleratus 
in a teaspoonful of milk, strain it over the 
dough, and work the whole with the hands for 
a quarter of an hour ; then add a pound of 
seeded raisins, and put it into cake-pans. Let 
it stand in them until light before putting it into 
the oven. 

Raised Cake (without eggs). — Ta-t^ .--Su- 
gar, I coffeecupful ; butter, yi cupful ; milk and 



CAKE 



67 



warm water, Yz pt. each ; home-made yeast, %, 
cupful ; flour ; raisins or currants , i cupful ; 
cinnamon, cloves, and grated nutmeg, i tea- 
spoonful each. 

Stir together a large coffeecupful of sugar 
and half a cupful of butter; add half a pint of 
sweet milk and half a pint of warm water. To 
this mixture stir in flour enough to make a 
thick dough, and half a cupful of yeast; set it 
to rise over night. Next morning stir in a 
cupful of seeded raisins or currants, and a tea- 
spoonful each of cinnamon, cloves, and grated 
nutmeg. Put into baking-pans, let it rise until 
perfectly light, then bake three-quarters of an 
hour in a moderately quick oven. 

Republican Cake. — Take .--Flour, Yz lb ; 
butter ]^ lb ; sugar, 6 oz ; cream, >^ teacupful ; 
eggs 3 ; baking-powder, i teaspoonful ; raisins, 
I teacupful ; white wine, Y2 wineglassful ; nut- 
meg, cloves, and cinnamon. 

Mix together half a pound of flour, a quarter 
of a pound of butter, six ounces of sugar, three 
eggs beaten to a froth, a teaspoonful of baking- 
powder, one teacupful of raisins, and halt a 
wineglass of white wine, and half a teacupful 
of cream ; season to taste with nutmeg, cloves, 
and cinnamon. Bake at once in a moderately 
hot oven. 

Rice Cake. — 7(?>ti? .--Ground rice, 10 oz; 
white sugar, 8 oz ; flour, 3 oz ; eggs, 6 ; nutmeg, 
Yz (grated). 

Mix ten ounces of ground rice, eight ounces 
of powdered white sugar, and three of wheat 
flour ; sift the whole into the beaten yolks of 
six eggs ; add the whites of the eggs, whipped 
to a stiff froth, and half a grated nutmeg. Beat 
together very gently, put into deep pans, and 
bake about twenty minutes in a quick oven. If 
not watched they may burn. 

Royal Cake. — Take .--Sugar, i ^ lbs ; butter, 
I lb ; eggs, 4 ; milk, i Y2 pts ; soda, ^ teaspoon- 
ful ; brandy, >^ teacupful ; flour, 2|^ lbs ; nut- 
meg, I ; raisins and currants (mixed), i lb ; 
citron, Y lb ; cloves, allspice, cinnamon, i tea- 
spoonful each. 

Stir together one pound and three-quarters 
of sugar, and one pound of butter ;' add four 
eggs beaten to a froth, a pint and a half of 
milk, half a teaspoonful of soda, half a teacup- 
ful of brandy, two pounds and three-quarters 
of flour, one nutmeg, a teaspoonful each of 
cloves, allspice, and cinnamon, two pounds of 
raisins and currants mixed, and a quarter of a 
pound of citron. Bake in thick loaves in a 
moderately quick oven. 

Savory Cakes. — Take :-^\\\i& sugar, i lb; 
eggs, 8 ; flour, i lb ; coriander seed, 2 table- 
spoonfuls ; lemon, i. 

Mix together a pound of powdered white 
sugar, and eight eggs, the whites and yolks 
beaten up separately ; beat them well together 
for several minutes, then add the grated rind 
of a fresh lemon and half the juice, a pound of 
flour, and two tablespoonfuls of coriander seed. 
Drop this batter by the large spoonful upon 
buttered baking pans, sift white sugar over 
them and bake them immediately in a quick oven. 



Scotch Cake. — 7"^/^^ .--Sugar, i lb; butter, 
Y- lb ; lemon, i ; brandy, i wineglassful ; eggs, 
9 ; flour, I lb ; raisins (seeded), i lb. 

Stir a pound of sugar and three-quarters of 
a pound of butter to a very light cream ; add 
the juice and grated rind of a lemon, and a 
wineglass of brandy. Beat nine eggs the 
whites and yolks separately, to a froth and stir 
them into the cake ; then add a pound of flour, 
and, just before it is put into the bake-pans, a 
pound of seeded raisins. Bake in a moderate 
oven. 

Shrewsbury Cake. — 7*7/^^ .--White sugar, 
Y lb ; butter, Yi lb ; eggs, 5 ; flour, i lb ; rose- 
water or grated lemon peel. 

Stir three-quarters of a pound of powdered 
white sugar and half a pound of butter to a 
cream ; add five eggs, the whites and yolks 
beaten separately ; then stir in a pound of flour 
dried by the fire, and flavor to taste with rose- 
water or grated lemon peel. Mix thoroughly, 
and bake at once. 

Silver Cake. — 7<z^^ .--White sugar, i lb; 
butter, Y2. lb; eggs, whites of, 10; flour, Y lb; 
ess. bitter almonds, i teaspoonful. 

Beat to a cream one pound of fine white 
sugar, and half a pound of butter, ; add the 
whites of ten eggs, whipped to a stiff froth ; 
then add three-quarters of a pound of flour, 
flavor with one teaspoonful of the essence of 
bitter almonds. Flavor the icing with rose- 
water. 

Spice Cakes. — Take .--Butter, i teacupful ; 
sugar, I teacupful ; molasses, Ys. teacupful ; 
saleratus, i teaspoonful ; nutmeg, i (grated), 
ground ginger, cinnamon, caraway seed, cori- 
ander seed, I teaspoonful each. 

Melt a teacupful of butter, and mix it with a 
teacupful of sugar, and half a teacupful of mo- 
lasses ; add a teaspoonful of cinnamon, a tea- 
spoonful of ground ginger, a grated nutmeg, 
and a teaspoonful each of caraway and corian- 
der seed ; put in a teaspoonful of saleratus, 
dissolved in half a teacupful of warm water, 
stir in flour till stiff enough to roll out thin ; 
cut into cakes and bake them in a slow 
oven. 

Sponge Cake. — Zh:/^^' .--Powdered sugar, 2 
cupfuls ; flour, xYz cupfuls ; eggs, 7; lemon, 
the grated rind and juice of one. Beat the 
yolks of the eggs with the sugar until very light ; 
add the rind of the lemon and the whites beaten 
to a stiff froth ; sift in the flour and all the 
juice, stirring as gently as possible. 

IL (White.) — Take .--Sugar, i Yz cupful ; flour, 
I cupful; eggs, whites of 10; cream-tartar, i 
teaspoonful. 

Take one and a half cupfuls of sugar, one 
cupful of flour, the whites of ten eggs, and one 
teaspoonful of cream-tartar. Beat the eggs to 
a froth and stir the sugar with them; put the 
cream-tartar in the flour, and then stir the flour 
with the paste lightly and quickly. Do not stir 
the cake after the flour is fairly in. Bake in a 
quick oven. 

ni. 77?^^ .--Loaf sugar, weight of 10 eggs; 
eggs, 12 ; lemon, i ; flour, weight of 6 eggs. 



68 



CAKE 



Take the weiglit of ten eggs in powdered loaf 
sugar, beat it to a froth with the yolks of twelve 
eggs, and add the juice and grated rind of a 
fresh lemon ; whip the whites of twelve eggs to 
a stiff froth, and mix them with the sugar and 
yolks. Stir the whole constantly for tifteen 
minutes, and then sprinkle in the weight of six 
eggs in sifted flour. The moment the flour is 
well mixed in, turn the cake into pans lined 
with buttered paper, and bake immediately in a 
quick oven. It will bake in about twenty 
minutes. 

Strawberry Short Cake (I.)— Take .--Flour, 
I qt ; eggs, 4 ; cream or melted butter, i teacup- 
ful; mtlk; salt, i teaspoonful; strawberries; 
white sugar. 

Mix a quart of flour with four beaten eggs, a 
teacupful of cream or melted butter, and a tea- 
spoonful of salt ; add enough milk to roll it out. 
Roll it out thin ; line a shallow baking-pan with 
part of it, put in a thick layer of nice, ripe straw- 
berries, and sprinkle in sufficient white sugar 
to sweeten them ; cover them with a thin layer 
of the crust ; then add another layer of straw- 
berries and sugar, and cover the whole with 
another layer of the crust. Bake in a quick 
oven about twenty-five minutes. 

Strawberry Short Cake (II.) — Take :-K 
soda biscuit crust made with flour, i qt ; soda, i 
teaspoonful ; cream-tartar, 2 y^ teaspoonfuls ; 
butter, 2 oz ; lard, i oz ; salt, i even teaspoonful ; 
sweet milk, 3 gills. This will make two cakes. 

If the cake is to be served on a platter, roll 
the crust the shape and size insida the rim ; if 
a dinner plate is to be used, make the cakes 
round. Roll the crust to the thickness of half 
an inch, prick and bake in a quick oven. Have 
the strawberries cut in two or three pieces, 
split the cakes, lay one half on the plate ; 
butter it and put over it a thick layer of straw- 
berries and sugar ; then replace the other half, 
upside down, if there is to be another layer of 
fruit. The two cakes may be served together 
or separately and the upper layer may be 
fruit or crust, as preferred. Leave in the oven 
from five to ten minutes, and serve smoking 
hot. 

Sugar Cake. — 7iz/^^ .--Raised dough, 3 tea- 
cupfuls ; saleratus, Yz teaspoonful ; wine or 
milk, I wineglassful ; butter, Yi teacupful; 
sugar, 2 teacupfuls ; eggs, 3 ; cinnamon, 2 tea- 
spoonfuls. 

Dissolve half a teaspoonful of saleratus in a 
wineglass of wine or milk, and strain it on three 
teacupfuls of raised dough. Work into this two 
thirds of a teacupful of lukewarm melted butter, 
two teacupfuls of coffee sugar, three eggs 
beaten up well, and two teaspoonfuls of cinna- 
mon. Work the whole with the hands for 
fifteen minutes ; then put it into cake-pans and 
let it stand until light before baking it. 

Raisins, stoned and chopped, dried currants 
and citron greatly improve this cake. 

Sugar Drops. — Take .--White sugar, 24 
tablespoonfuls ; butter, 1 2 tablespoonfuls ; eggs, 
3; flour, I pt; nutmeg (grated), '^. 

Stir to a cream twenty-four tablepoonfuls of 



powdered white sugar and twelve teaspoon- 
fuls of butter ; add three eggs, the whites and 
yolks beaten separately, a pint of flour, and half 
a grated nutmeg. Drop from the spoon on 
buttered tins, bake ten or fifteen minutes, and 
when done put a sugar plum on the top of 
each. 

Tea Cakes. — Take .--Sugar, xYz teacupfuls ; 
butter, Y^. teacupful ; nutmeg (grated), Yz '1 milk, 
I teacupful ; saleratus, Y^. teaspoonful ; flour. 

Beat together one teacupful and a half of 
sugar, and half a teacupful of butter ; stir in 
half a teacupful of flour, and half a grated nut- 
meg. Dissolve half a teaspoonful of saleratus 
in a teacupful of milk, strain and mix it with the 
cake ; add flour till stiff enough to roll out. 
Roll it out half an inch thick, cut into cakes, and. 
bake them on flat buttered tins in a quick oven. 
If the oven is not quick they will be spoiled. 

Washington Cake. — Take :-?}Vig2iX, 3 cuf)- 
fuls ; butter, 2 cupfuls ; eggs, 5 ; milk, i cup- 
ful ; cream-tartar, 2 teaspoonfuls ; soda, i tea- 
spoonful ; flour, 4 cupfuls ; currants, Y2 lb ; 
raisins, % lb; citron, Y2 teacupful; nutmeg 
and cinnamon. 

Stir three cupfuls of sugar and two of but- 
ter to a cream ; then add five eggs, beaten to a 
froth, one cupful of milk, two teaspoonfuls of 
cream-tartar, one of soda, and four cupfuls of 
flour. Mix altogether thoroughly, and just 
before baking stir in half a pound of currants 
washed and dried, a quarter of a pound of 
raisins seeded and chopped fine, and half a 
teacupful of citron sliced ; flavor to taste with 
nutmeg and cinnamon. Bake in a steady, 
moderately quick oven. 

"Webster Cake. — Beat together three cupfuls 
of sugar and one cupful of butter ; add two eggs 
beaten to a froth, one teaspoonful of soda, one 
cupful of milk, five cupfuls of flour, and the 
rind and juice of a lemon. Mix in fruit and 
spice to taste. Bake in a moderately quick oven. 

Wedding Cake. — Take :-'Swg:vc, i lb; but- 
ter, I lb; eggs, 10; brandy, % pt; wine, i 
wine-glassful ; nutmegs, 3 ; cinnamon, i table- 
spoonful ; flour, I lb ; currants, 2 lbs ; seeded 
raisins, i lb ; citron, Y2 lb. 

Stir one pound of sugar and one of butter 
to a light cream ; add ten eggs beaten thick 
and smooth, half a pint of brandy, a wineglass 
of wine, three grated nutmegs, a tablespoonful 
of mace, and a pound of flour. Mix thoroughly, 
and then add two pounds of currants washed 
and dried, one pound of seeded raisins, and 
half a pound of citron. Bake in a moderate 
oven from one to two hours. Try the cake 
with a straw, and be sure that it is done before 
removing it; then turn the loaves upside down 
on a sieve, and immediately cover the bottom 
and sides with this icing ; beat the whites of 
three eggs until frothy only, not white ; beat in 
gradually one pound of powdered sugar ; flavor 
with vanilla, or fresh lemon juice. Put several 
large spoonfuls on the cake, and smooth it 
with a knife. It will dry quickly. 

White Cake. — Take .--Sugar, 2 cupfuls ; 
butter, I cupful ; milk, i cupful ; eggs, whites of 



CALCELLARIA 



CALLA 



69 



six ; tartar, 2 teaspoonfuls ; soda, i teaspoon- 
ful ; flour, 2 cupfuls ; cornstarch i cupful. 

Beat together two cups of sugar and one 
of butter ; add one cupful of sweet milk, the 
white of six eggs whipped to a froth, two tea- 
spoonfuls of cream-tartar, one of soda, two cup- 
fuls of flour, and one of cornstarch. Mix 
together thoroughly, and bake in a rather 
quick oven. 

White Mountain Cake. — Take -.-Flom, i 
lb ; sugar, i lb ; butter, >^ lb ; milk }4 pt ; 
eggs, whites of 6; baking powder, 3 even tea- 
spoonfuls. 

Cream the butter, add the sugar by degrees, 
and a little of the milk ; sift the flour and 
baking powder together, and add alternately 
with the rest of the milk, and the whites beaten 
to a stiff froth. Bake in jelly cake-pans, and 
arrange in layers with cocoanut icing between 
the cakes, and over the top and sides of the 
loaf. 

Wine Cake. — Take powdered sugar, 12 oz; 
flour, 8 oz ; wine, i gill ; eggs, 6. 

Heat the wine, pour it over the sugar, cover 
and let it stand while the yolks and whites are 
beaten separately until very light, and then 
beaten together ; add the wine and sugar, and 
beat until thick ; beat in gently the sifted flour, 
pour into paper-lined pans, and bake at once. 

Yardley Cake. — Cream half a pound of but- 
ter ; add gradually, with one gill of milk, one 
and a quarter pounds of powdered sugar ; six 
well-beaten eggs, another gill of milk, with 
eighteen ounces of flour which has been sifted 
with one and a half tablespoonfuls of baking- 
powder, and one pound of stoned raisins, with 
one pound of shred, blanched almonds. Bake 
in loaves. 

CALCEIiIiARIA. — A pretty plant with 
showy flowers, much cultivated by florists. 
The shrubby varieties grow readily in the 
flower-garden in any warm sunny spot with a 
moderately rich soil. Those used in window 
gardening are best raised from seedlings. Sow 
seeds in August in a box containing soil made 
of three parts light, rich loam, one of fine peat, 
and one of sand. Transplant the young plants 
to separate pots ; punch out the centre of the 
plant, and continue to do so till it is of bloom- 
ing size. As the roots of the plants reach the 
sides of the pot, re-pot into a size larger ; and 
when the flower-stems push up, tie them neatly 
to upright sticks. Be careful in watering not 
to give too much, or the plants will rot. Give 
all the sun and air possible, and keep the 
plants close to the glass. 

CALF. {See Veal.) 

CALT'S-HEAD AND FEET.— Calves' 
heads are usually sold with the hair scalded 
and scraped cleanly off. When fresh the eyes 
have a bright, full look, while the skin seems 
firmly fastened to the head. There should 
also be a prominent bump or appearance of the 
young horns ; if there are no signs of horns, 
the animal was too young to be wholesome as 
food. Do not purchase either calves' heads 
or feet if they have a yellowish look, or a 



slippery, slimy feeling. In buying feet, reject 
the very small ones. 

To cleanse calf's head or feet, wash them 
clean, sprinkle powdered resin over the hair, 
dip them in boiling water and take out immedi- 
ately, and then scrape them clean ; afterwards 
soaic them in water four days, changing the 
water every day. 

To Cook. — Remove the brains and put the 
head and feet in salted water, just enough to 
corn them ; boil two hours. Soak the brains, 
skin them and pick out every bit of membrane 
till they are perfectly white ; when the head, 
etc., have boiled nearly an hour and a half, tie 
the brains in a cloth and put them in the pot 
with the rest. When the two hours have 
elapsed, take the whole from the fire ; mash 
the brains fine with the back of a spoon, 
season them with pepper and salt, bread-crumbs, 
and a wineglass of wine, and use them as a 
sauce for the meat. Send to the table very 
hot. The liquor that remains can be made into 
an excellent soup. 

Calfs Foot Jelly. — Take .--CaWs feet, 4; 
white wine, i pt ; lemons, 2 ; eggs 6 ; cinnamon, 
I stick. 

Boil four feet (that have been carefully 
Washed) in four quarts of water till very soft 
and the water is reduced to two quarts. Remove 
from the fire and let it stand till perfectly cold, 
then scrape off all the fat and dregs. Put the 
jelly in a preserving kettle, and set it on a 
slow fire ; when it melts, take it from the fire, 
mix into it a pint of white-wine, the juice 
and a grated rind of two fresh lemons, and a 
stick of cinnamon, broken into bits. Wash 
and wipe dry six eggs ; beat the whites to a 
froth and stir them into the jelly when it is 
cool ; bruise the egg-shells and mix them in, 
and then set the jelly on a few coals. When 
hot, sweeten it to the taste with white sugar. 
Let it boil slowly fifteen minutes without 
stirring it ; then strain through a flannel bag 
into a deep dish or pitcher — if it is not clear 
the first time, pass it through the bag again. 
The bag should not be squeezed ; if it is, the 
jelly will not look clear. When strained, pour 
it into glasses, and if the weather is hot set 
the glasses into cold water and keep them in 
a cool place. Even then the jelly will keep 
but a few days. 

CALICO.— A cheap cotton cloth, so called 
because it was originally imported into Europe 
from CaHcut in India. It is made of an infinity 
of different patterns and of several qualities, 
and the colors are sometimes "fast" and again 
wash out the moment they are dipped into 
water. Calicoes are frequently so full of 
" sizing," a preparation put in by the manufac- 
turer to give them a better appearance, that it 
is difficult to ascertain their quality ; it is best, 
therefore, to choose calico that is free from 
sizing, and to see that the threads are straight 
and evenly woven. 

CALIFORNIA WINES. (See American 
Wines.) 

CALLA. — The Calla Lily is one of the most 



70 



CALLIPASH 



CAMPHOR 



ornamental plants that can be grown either in 
house or garden. It grows sometimes as high 
as five feet, has broad, green, beautifully 
veined leaves more than a foot long, and when 
blooming throws up a long raceme of delicately 
tinted flowers. It is a bulbous plant; and if 
planted in the spring in a light rich soil, and 
copiously watered during the hot weather, will 
bloom freely during the summer. It may be 
wintered in a light cellar without difficulty ; or 
the bulbs may be taken up after the first frost 
and kept during the winter in some dry place 
where the temperature does not fall below 50°. 
In the latter case, plant again in April or May. 
When grown as a house plant they should b,e 
potted "in soil composed of richest loam and 
peat well mixed ; they should be watered abun- 
dantly, and placed where the sunlight _ will 
reach them freely. If a plant with a single 
stem is desired, remove all suckers : otherwise 
they will do no harm to remain. 

CALLIPASH. — The green, gelatinous fat 
which forms part of the upper shield of the turtle. 
It, together with Callipee, the yellowish fat 
which belongs to the lower shield, is considered 
by epicures the choicest portion of the turtle. 

CALOMEL.-A preparation of mercury, used 
as an alterative and purgative, and in certain 
specific diseases. Calomel has always been 
inveighed against by quacks of every descrip- 
tion, so that a common popular impression 
exists against its employment at the present 
day. It still, however, remains a valuable 
remedy in many conditions of the human system, 
though it should be used only under proper 
direction — never as an article of domestic medi- 
cine. Dose, from 5 to 10 grains in pill. 

CAMBRIC. — An exquisitely fine and beau- 
tiful cloth made of flax or linen ; there is also an 
imitation of cambric made of cotton. French 
cambric, when genuine and of the best kind, 
is superior to any other; it has a singularly soft 
and silky appearance. Scotch cambric is in 
fact an imitation cambric, made of cotton or of 
cotton mixed with flax, and is much inferior in 
retaining its whiteness. French cambric hand- 
kerchiefs are of three widths, ^, ^, and }i of 
a yard. 

CAMZiLLIA. — There is one variety of the 
camellia, the single red, which will stand the win- 
ter out of doors as far north as the Middle States, 
but it is chiefly as a window plant that cam- 
ellias are so ardently cultivated. They should 
be grown in a light loam, or sandy peat and 
loam; and the pots should be filled one-third 
full of potsherds in order to secure drainage 
If the roots of the plant become sodden its 
health is gone, and years of care may fail to 
restore its beauty. When in a growing state, 
too much water can hardly be given, and fre- 
quent sprinklings and syringings are good ; this 
operation, however, must never be performed in 
sunny weather. One chief care in the culture 
of camellias is to keep them perfectly clean ; dust 
upon the foliage not only injures the beauty of 
the plant, but affects its health. Too much 
heat will also injure the plants, and the tem- 



perature of the room in which they are left 
should never be permitted to rise above sixty- 
five or seventy degrees during the day, or to 
fall below forty at night. The plants when in 
bloom should be shaded, as thus the flowers 
will remain in perfection much longer. They 
should have plenty of air at all times, but during 
the season of growth they must be protected 
from chilling draughts which would cause the 
young leaves to curl up and stunt the plants. 
During the summer, the plants should be placed 
in a shady, airy situation out of doors, with 
plenty of room between them to allow a free 
circulation of air. A common error in the cul- 
ture of camellias is too frequent re-potting. A 
vigorous plant will not require re-potting oftener 
than every three years, and the very largest 
plants will flourish in a pot ten or twelve inches 
in diameter. Camellias are by nature symmet- 
rical in growth, and by judicious pruning per- 
fect specimens may be secured. Pruning 
should be done after blooming, just as the plants 
begin their growth. To insure fine flowers, not 
more than one bud should be allowed to each 
terminal shoot; remove all others before the 
buds begin to swell. 

The florists' varieties of camellias are almost 
numberless ; but Mr. E. Rand says : " Could 
we have but one, we would choose Double 
white or Candidissinia, for white ; for blush, 
Lady Humes blush ; for crimson, Sarah Frost." 
In buying plants, select those of shrubby form; 
dark green foliage, without any places where 
leaves have been dropped. Also see that the 
plant is free from scale, red spider, and mealy 
bug. 

CAMOMILE. — A small plant, growing wild 
in some places, and very generally cultivated on 
account of its flowers, an infusion of which 
makes an excellent tonic known as camo}nile 
tea. Though the double-flowered kind is most, 
raised by gardeners, the single is the best and 
strongest medicine. The active principle of 
camomile is piperina, a resinous substance, and 
it is sometimes used instead of hops in making 
bitter beers. Camomile tea, which is made by 
steeping the flowers in boiling water, is good 
for allaying nausea or arresting vomiting ; and, 
sometimes improves the appetite. 

CAMPHOR. — A pure resinous substance 
found in many plants, but in large quantities in 
only two, which grow in China and Japan and 
the island of Formosa. Nearly all the cam- 
phor of commerce is brought from China, 
where its manufacture is the chief industry of 
several entire districts. It is easily dissolvable 
in alcohol, though scarcely so in water. Cam- 
phor evaporates rapidly when exposed to the 
air, and as its vapor is poisonous to insects it is 
very useful in defending clothes, carpets, and 
the like from moths. It is poisonous to all 
animals when taken into the stomach in large 
quantities ; though in small doses it will allay 
nervousness and produce quietude. The odor 
of camphor, if breathed for a long time, is ener- 
vating. Spirits ofcatnphor is a solution of the 
gum in alcohol. 



CANARY BIRD 



CANCER 



71 



Camphor Oil. — This is a product of the same 
tree which produces camphor. It is a pale, 
yellowish, limpid fluid, stimulating when ap- 
plied externally, and excellent as a liniment. 

CANARY BIRD. — Canary birds are natives 
of the Canary Islands, and hence their name. 
There are many varieties of them to be had of 
the bird fanciers. Those having the upper part 
of the body of a dusky green, and the under 
part a yellowish green, with dark brown eyes, 
are the strongest ; the choicest, however, or at 
least the most admired, are those in which the 
body is white or yellow, and the head, wings, 
and tail yellowish dun. It is very important 
that their treatment should conform to the 
season of the year. They require to be kept 
in rooms of an even temperature ; if exposed to 
cold they are likely to sicken and die, while if 
the room is too warm they will moult before 
the proper time, which it is important to avoid. 
The cage, which should be provided with three 
cross-sticks, must be kept clean and have a 
little fine sand scattered over the bottom of it. 
Beside seed, canaries may be supplied often 
with a little green stuff, such as chickweed, 
water-cress, lettuce, etc., in summer, and thin 
slices of sweet apple in winter. As they like 
to wash their feathers, a cup of clean water 
should be put into the cage frequently for that 
purpose. Never give them sweet cake or any 
other rich food. 

The best time for pairing canaries is about 
the middle of April. Birds which are to be 
paired should be previously kept in the same 
cage for several days to become acquainted 
with each other. The pairing cage should be 
divided into two compartments, with communi- 
cation between them by a sliding door, so that 
a separation may be effected when required. 
For their nest-building, they should be sujDplied 
with straw, paper-shavings, moss, wool, or other 
soft materials, strewed over the bottom of the 
cage. The female generally lays six eggs, on 
alternate days ; and in about thirteen days after 
the last one is laid the young birds will make 
their appearance. As soon as the young ones 
are hatched, a portion of an egg boiled hard, 
and chopped very fine, white and yolk together, 
and mixed with crumbs of white bread, should 
be put into the cage, and, in another vessel, 
some rape-seed, well boiled and washed in 
fresh water. This should be repeated often 
and great care taken that the food is not al- 
lowed to remain in the cage till sour. When 
about fourteen days old the young birds are 
able to feed alone ; the males should then be 
placed in a cage, each by himself, in order that 
his education may not be interrupted. His 
education is best accomplished by whistling to 
him the air most desired to be sung. Many 
canaries have been taught to sing several airs 
quite correctly. A good education will require 
from three to six months, and must be care- 
fully followed up. 

CANCER. — All that modern surgery has 
hitherto done with regard to cancer is to define it, 
its structure, kinds, and history. Nothing sat- 



isfactory has been proved as to its causes : 
neither individuality, locality, mode of life, or 
conditions. Domestic animals are equally sub- 
ject to it with man, and pathologists have but 
slight grounds for suggesting its predisposing 
causes, such as its being in a small percentage 
apparently hereditary, and its existence more 
frequently in the female sex and in the aged. 
Cancer is a disease of itself, and one of the 
class of new growths. It is unHke all other 
tumors, being an infiltration amongst the natural 
tissues of the body, and its peculiar structure is 
only to be discerned by the microscope. It is 
ineradicable : if cut out it returns, if not at the 
place of operation in some other part or tissue. 
There are, however, cases where a cancerous 
tumor has been removed at its first appear- 
ance, and the patient has enjoyed immunity 
from any return for ten, fifteen, or even 
twenty years. Cancer possesses all the char- 
acteristics of a malignant growth, as defined 
by pathologists, namely, constitutional origin, 
rapid growth, constant increase, pain, returning 
if cut out, infiltrating every tissue in its vicinity, 
and invading the lymphatic glands ; "it resists 
all treatment, softens inwardly, ulcerates out- 
wardly, resembles no tissue naturally formed in 
the body, and ultimately proves fatal." 

There are several forms of cancer: i. Scir- 
rhus ; 2. Medullary; 3. Melanotic; 4. Epithe- 
lial ; 5. Osteoid ; 6. Colloid ; 7. Villous. The 
last two forms, however, are by some scarcely 
held as cancer. Sch-r/iiis Caficer is the most 
frequent, at least in this country, and most 
commonly affects the female breast, though it 
is also found in the rectum, eye, testicle, womb, 
shin, bones, and salivary glands. Its chief 
feature is its stony hardness, which is due to 
an abundance of fibrous tissue ; it is nodulated, 
becomes adherent to the overlying skin, and it 
has the singular property, not possessed in a 
like degree by any other tumor, of drawing into 
it adjoining structures, is subject to severe 
stabbing or lancinating pain, and to ultimate 
ulceration. Medullary, or brain-like cancer, so 
called from its resemblance to the substance of 
the brain, or stiff blanc-mange ; encephaloid, or 
soft cancer, are its synonymous terms. This 
form of cancer differs from the preceding in 
possessing none of that peculiar characteristic 
of drawing towards itself neighboring struc- 
tures, but rather' that of a disposition to dis- 
tend and thrust them aside by the rapidity 
of its growth, and by the great accumulation 
of cancer material in its bulk. It produces 
greater constitutional disturbance, and is more 
speedily fatal. It is most^frequent in the 
limbs and breast. It is excessively vascular 
and as it nears the surface throws out fun- 
gous masses which bleed at the slightest touch. 
Melanotic Cancer: The distinctive feature of 
this form of cancer is the presence df pig- 
ment or coloring cells, which give it a black or 
dark appearance. The most frequent situa- 
tion is the skin or the eye, and it is more 
common in the horse or dog than in man. It 
derives its color as a general rule, from the 



72 



CANDLES 



CANDY 



structures in which pigment naturally exists. 
Epithelial Cancer, termed also epithelioma or 
cancroid, so termed because the microscopic 
cells found in it differ less from the cells of the 
part in or near which they grow, than those of 
the foregoing kinds, and from their analogy to 
the natural epithelial structures. Its chief 
situation is in the skin, in or near a mucous 
orifice, e. g., lip, nose, anus, prepuce, scrotum, 
or tongue. When it exists on the scrotum it 
forms the so-called chimney-sweeper's cancer, 
Osteoid Cancer, a form of cancer occurring 
usually in bones, and more commonly in the 
lower end of the femur apparently than else- 
where. It is very rapid and painful in its 
growth. In this form of cancer the stroma is 
converted into a very dense fibrous tissue, and 
then into a peculiar bone, which is rough and 
porous, and very brittle, readily reducible to a 
chalky powder after maceration of specimen. It 
seems to be singularly interchangeable with 
encephaloid. Colloid Cancer, a form of the 
disease not regarded by some writers as in- 
cludable under the term cancer. In appearance 
it is jelly-like, about the consistence of thin 
glue or tapioca pudding, of rapid growth, and 
frequently attaining enormous bulk. It is most 
frequently found in the intestinal canal. Vil- 
lous Cancer^ a vascular growth, composed of 
dehcate papillje, each containing a vascular 
loop, generally in connection with cancer or 
epithehum. 

Treatment. — All that can be done in the way 
of treatment is to check the disease as far as 
possible, and thus endeavor to alleviate suffer- 
ing and prolong life. Active treatment of can- 
cerous growths can only tend to one point, and 
that is removal in all cases on their earliest de- 
tection. In advanced stages of the disease, 
palliative treatment, both local and constitu- 
tional, must be resorted to, but death will sooner 
or later supervene, and all that can be done is 
to rnake the end as easy as possible. Medical 
advice is absolutely necessary. 

CANDLES. — Kerosene oil and the various 
kinds of lamps in the country, and gas in the 
city, have very nearly superseded the use of 
candles as illuminators ; yet they are cleaner 
than lamps, less troublesome, less dangerous, 
and more easily carried about. They also, when 
properly made, give a peculiarly pleasant and 
cheerful light at very small cost. Candles 
are made of various substances such as sper- 
maceti, stearine, tallow, wax and various com- 
binations of these ; but the last two are the 
only substances used in domestic manufactures, 
and they are mad« in two ways — by dipping 
and by moulding. 

Dipped Candles. — To make dipped candles, 
pull the wicks out straight and smooth, cut 
into the right length, and then put them on 
broaches or rods about half an inch in diameter 
and three feet long. First dip the wicks in 
lime-water or vinegar and dry them ; then 
double them over the rods and twist them. 
Melt the tallow in a large kettle, and when 
it is melted, fill the kettle to the top with hot 



water and add wax and powdered alum to 
harden the candles. Keep the tallow hot over 
a portable furnace, and fill the kettle with 
hot water as fast as the tallow is used up. 
When the tallow is boiling hot take several 
rods at once and wet the wicks in it ; straighten 
and smooth them when cool. Then dip them 
as fast as they cool until they become of the 
proper size ; plunge them in obliquely and not 
perpendicularly, and when the bottoms are too 
large, hold them in the hot grease till a part 
melts off. Let them remain over night to cool ; 
then cut off the bottoms and keep in a • dry, 
cool place. 

Mould Candles. — These are made in regu- 
lar candle-moulds or tin or pewter cylinders, 
of which the inside diameter is the size of the 
candles desired. To make, melt together ten 
ounces of good tallow (at least half should be 
mutton tallow), a quarter of a pound of white 
wax, a quarter of an ounce of camphor, and 
two ounces of powdered alum. Soak the 
wicks in lime-water and saltpetre, and when 
dry fix them in the moulds and pour in the 
melted tallow. Let them stand one night to 
cool ; then warm them, draw out carefully, 
and put them in a box in a dry, cool place. 
Candles made thus are extremely nice and will 
keep for two years ; they are better for being 
kept several months. When laid up for store, 
it is well to cover them with bran, as light turns 
them yellow. 

Rush Lights. — These are made by dipping 
rushes in tallow in the same way as for dipped 
candles. The rushes should first be stripped 
of nearly all the hard, outer covering, the pith 
alone being retained with just enough of the 
tough bark to keep it stiff. They require no 
snuffing as the burned wick falls off as the 
tallow consumes ; but small cotton wicks an- 
swer the same purpose and are less liable to go 
out. 

Wax Candles. — These are much superior 
both in appearance and in illuminating power 
to any others. They burn with a steady, mel- 
low light, emit no smell, and require no snuff- 
ing. They are made by pouring melted white 
wax down the wick till sufficient has adhered 
to it, then rolling the candle on a smooth board 
or marble slab till it is even, and then polishing 
it with a cloth. They may also be made like 
tallow candles in moulds. Exposure to the 
light whitens wax candles, but they should 
always be kept in a cool, dry place. 

CANDY.*— In order to understand the phil- 
osophy of candy-making, take a little crushed 
sugar in a clean brass or tinned kettle, with a 
little water, over a brisk fire, and note the 
changes which heat will cause. At first the 
lumps of sugar soften and break up, and as the 
heat increases entirely disappear, the result 
being a transparent solution, more or less thick 
according to the proportions of sugar and water. 
If heat be increased so that the syrup boils. 



* Most of this article, and of two or three short paragraphs 
on allied topics, are taken from an excellent little book, " How 
to Make Candy." Hartford, Ct.; Dustin, Gilman & Co. 



CANDY 



73 



the remaining liquid becomes more dense until 
it reaches a point where not enough water 
remains to hold the sugar in perfect solution. 
If it now be set aside and allowed to cool 
gradually, the excess of sugar will deposit itself 
in large transparent crystals on the sides and 
bottom of the vessel, and we shall have it in 
the form usually known as rock-candy. If 
instead of setting the solution aside for the 
crystals to form, we continue the boiling, nearly 
all the water will soon evaporate, and the sugar 
will manifest a tendency to assume a granular 
condition, especially upon the sides of the 
vessel. A few degrees more of heat beyond 
this point, and we have the sugar in a melted 
form, of a thick, pasty consistence, but clear 
and transparent still. If we dip a spoon into 
the mass and withdraw it, a long thread of 
melted sugar will follow, and if the portion be 
dropped into cold water, it will at once become 
hard and brittle. It is from sugar in this 
state that the greatest number of our candies 
are produced. But just here we must be very 
careful in the management of our heat. If that 
is now allowed to increase but a little, the mass 
becomes very dark colored, froths, acquires a 
bitter taste and is not fit for use. It is above 
260° that the sugar is thus changed and the 
greatest skill is required to push the heat of 
the boiling sugar just as near the point of this 
change as possible without quite reaching it. 
The greater part of hard boiled candies are 
made at about 250* of heat. If made at a 
degree much less than this they soften or 
change in structure, while the nearer the heat 
can be carried to 260" the longer do they retain 
their hardness and transparency. At the present 
day hardly a kitchen will be found without some 
cooking utensil which may be conveniently used 
for making candy. A sauce-pan of tinned iron 
with a handle and flaring sides, and a lip to 
facilitate the pouring of the contents will be 
found best adapted for such use or a small 
brass kettle will do very well if kept quite clean 
and bright. 

General directions for Candies of any 
flavor from Boiled sugar : — Take three and 
one-half pounds of refined sugar, one and 
one-half pints of water, and one teaspoonful of 
cream of tartar. Mix in a vessel sufficiently 
large to allow for the expansion of the boiling 
candy. Boil over a brisk fire, taking care, 
however, that the sugar does not burn. The 
heat should be applied to the bottom only, and 
not to the sides of the vessel. After boiling 
for about fifteen minutes, a small portion of the 
melted sugar may be removed with a spoon and 
cooled by placing in a saucer surrounded by 
cold water. If when cooled it forms a viscid, 
tenacious mass, and if a portion taken between 
the thumb and finger forms a long adherent 
thread when the thumb and finger are separated, 
the process of boiling is nearly completed, and 
great care must be used in the further mana^-e- 
ment of the heat, enough being supplied "to 
keep up the boiling without allowing the sugar 
to be burned. It must now be tested every 



few minutes by dropping a small portion" into 
some cold water standing conveniently near. 
When the portion so dropped becomes at once 
hard and brittle, snapping apart like a pipe- 
stem when bent, the process is completed, and 
the vessel should at once be lifted from the 
heat. Any desired flavoring or coloring " ex- 
tract " can now be stirred in according 
to taste. It is next poured into shallow 
earthen dishes, which have previously been 
slightly greased, and allowed to cool to a degree 
at which it can be handled without discom- 
fort. It is then to be "pulled," and after 
pulling rolled into " sticks " like those ordi- 
narily sold, or made into any other desired 
shape. 

Below are given some recipes for candies not 
included in these general directions. 

Chocolate Caramel. — {See Caramel.) 

Cough Candy. — Boil three and one-half 
pounds of ordinary brown sugar with one and 
a half pints of water until it hardens when 
tested in the usual way. To this add, just 
prior to removal from the fire, a tincture pre- 
pared thus : To one-half ounce of strong 
alcohol add one dram of camphor gum, when 
dissolved and two drams oil of anise, four drams 
strong tincture of capsicum, one dram of benzoic 
acid. Another very popular form of cough 
candy is prepared by making a decoction, by 
boiling two ounces of boneset and one half ounce 
of ground bloodroot in a pint and a half of 
water, and using this decoction with three and 
one-half pounds of brown sugar, in the same 
manner as directed for horehound candy. When 
about to be poured out in trays or worked, it 
may be flavored with oil of anise. 

Fig Paste. — {See Fig.) 

Ginger Candy. — Put into a preserving ket- 
tle one ounce of finely grated ginger, one pound 
of sifted loaf sugar, and enough water to dis- 
solve the sugar ; put the kettle on a slow' fire 
till the sugar begins to boil ; add another pound 
of finely sifted sugar, stirring it in till it thick- 
ens ; then drop it in cakes on plates and dry 
them in a slow oven. They will be hard, brit- 
tle, white, and very palatable. 

Gum Drops. — Take one pound of gum 
arable, dissolve it in 1% pts. of water, strain 
and add one pound of refined sugar. Heat 
until the sugar is entirely dissolved. Any 
flavor may be obtained by using enough of 
the desired flavoring extract to suit the taste, 
and a little color may be added if wanted. 
These should be added while the mixture 
is warm. The mixture should be evaporated 
until of the consistence of honey, so thick 
that it will flow only very slowly from the lip 
or spout of the vessel containing it. Next fill 
a shallow box with fine starch, and^ having 
smoothed the surface, proceed with a stick, hav- 
ing a rounded end, of the size desired in the 
finished gum drop, to make indentations in the 
starch, as thickly together as can be done with- 
out disturbing the shape of one by the formation 
of another. Round buttons of wood may be 
fastened to a flat board, if desired, and the entire 



74 



CANDY 



set of indentations prepared at once by press- 
ing the board on the surface of the starch. 
The mixture of gum and sugar should now be 
placed in a vessel having a long lip or spout, 
and as the liquid is poured slowly out, a por- 
tion just sufficient to iiU eacli indentation 
should be stroked off with a wire and allowed 
to drop therein. When the mould is filled it 
■ must be set in a warm place for several days, 
until the drops are sufficiently hardened on 
the outside to bear handling without break- 
ing. 

Horehound Candy. — Prepare a strong 
decoction by boiling two ounces of the dried 
herb in a pint and a half of water for about half 
an hour. This decoction is then strained and 
added to three and one-half pounds of brown 
sugar. Boil over a hot fire until it reaches the 
requisite degree of hardnes.s, when it may be 
poured out in flat tin trays, previously well 
greased and marked into sticks or small squares 
with a knife, as it becomes cool enough to re- 
tain its shape. 

Jujube Paste. — Take of gum arable one 
pound ; dissolve in a pint and a half of water 
and add one pound of sugar. Evaporate to a 
very thick consistence, and when cooled a lit- 
tle, but while still warm enough to run, turn 
into shallow tin pans which have previously 
been oiled. Any flavor may be added before 
turning it out. 

Lemon Candy. — Into a bright tinned kettle, 
thoroughly cleansed to free it from grease or 
odor of vegetables if a kitchen utensil is employ- 
ed, put three and one-half pounds of sugar, one 
and one-half pints of water, and a full teaspoon- 
ful of cream of tartar. Place over a hot fire 
and stir until the lumps disa^jpear. Boil briskly, 
until the candy becomes hard and brittle, when 
a little of it is thrown into cold water ; remove 
the vessel from the fire and pour the contents 
on a large earthen platter, previously greased 
with a little butter. After the candy has cooled 
sufficiently to be handled, and has reached the 
consistency of ordinary dough, add about a 
teaspoonful of finely-powdered tartaric acid, 
and the same quantity of extract of lemon, and 
work them into the mass. The acid should be 
very fine and free from lumps. The mass 
should be worked enough to distribute the acid 
and lemon extract evenly, but no more, as too 
much handling would tend to destroy its trans- 
parency. It may now be formed into sticks or 
drops or spread out flat in thin sheets, which 
will easily break as required when cold. Some 
makers add a few drops of tincture of saffron 
just before removing from the fire, which gives 
a bright yellow color, without diminishing its 
clearness. 

Molasses Candy (I). — Into a kettle holding at 
least four times the amount of molasses to be 
used, pour a convenient quantity of good Porto 
Rico molasses. Place over a slow fire and 
boil for a half hour, stirring all the time. Be 
very careful not to let the candy burn, especi- 
ally near the close of the boiling. When a 
little dropped in cold water becomes quickly 



hard and snaps apart like a pipe-stem, add a 
teaspoonful of carbonate of soda, free from 
lumps, to every two quarts, stir quickly to mix, 
and pour on greased platters to cool. When 
the candy is sufficiently cool to handle without 
burning the hands, it is pulled back and forth, 
the hands being rubbed with a little butter to 
prevent the candy from sticking to them. Flour 
is sometimes used for this purpose^ but it gives 
an unpleasant taste to the candy. The more 
the candy is worked, the lighter it will be in 
color. Frequently some flavor is added, as 
vanilla or lemon, but the natural flavor of the 
boiled molasses is generally preferred. 

Molasses Candy, (II) (White). — Take two 
pounds of refined sugar of the grade termed 
by the grocers " Coffee C," one pint of 
pure sugar-house syrup, and one pint best 
Porto Rico or New Orleans molasses. Boil 
together until it hardens, as before de- 
scribed, when dropped in cold water, add 
one teaspoonful of carbonate of soda, and 
work in the usual manner. This style of 
molasses candy is that made by the large 
confectioners, and is, in fact, a sugar candy 
flavored a little with molasses. 

Nut Candy. — If the meats of the nuts are 
covered with a thick skin, like those of 
almonds or peanuts, remove it ; with walnuts, 
pecan nuts, etc., this is not necessary. Pour 
over them the hot molasses candy made as 
above directed, stirring the meats that each 
one may be covered. A little less candy should 
be used than will suffice to entirely cover the 
mass of meats, though each separate one should 
be coated. Thus will be formed a large cake, 
which when nearly cold may be divided 
in squares or bars with a sharp knife. The 
meats of any nuts may be used in this man- 
ner. 

Sugar Candy. — Take three cupfuls of fine 
sugar half a cupful of vinegar, and two cup- 
fuls of water, and boil pretty fast till the water 
all boils away ; in fifteen or twentv mmutes 
afterwards it will candy (test by dropping some 
in cold water and tryingif it will "string " when 
pulled). Then pour into a buttered dish, and 
when it cools sufficiently to be handled, pull in 
the same way as molasses candy. This makes 
a very white and pleasant candy ; but great 
care must be taken not to 7nove or shake it ivhile 
boiling. If this happens it will re-crystalize 
into sugar. 

Taffy (Plain). — Either kind of molasses candy, 
if poured from the kettle into tin trays without 
working, will produce a fine, plain taffy. .It 
may be" left in one sheet, the size of the tray in 
which it is poured, or, when slightly cooled, 
may be marked off in squares. 

Taffy (Everton) Take three pounds of 

best brown sugar, and boil with one and one- 
half pints of water, until the candy hardens in 
cold water. Then add one-half pound of sweet- 
flavored fresh butter, which will soften the 
candy. Boil a few minutes until it again har- 
dens, and pour into trays. Flavor with lemon 
if desired. • . _ 



CANDYING FRUITS 



CANNING FRUITS 



75 



Walnut Candy.— The meats of hickory nuts, 
English walnuts, or black walnuts may be 
used, according to preference in that regard. 
After removal from the shells in as large pieces 
as practicable, they are to be placed on the bot- 
toms of tins, previously greased, to the depth 
of about a half-inch. Next boil two pounds of 
brown sugar, a half-pint of water, and one gill 
of good molasses until a portion of the mass 
hardens when cooled. Pour the hot candy on 
the meats and allow it to remain until hard. 

Cheap Candy. — A great deal of candy 
has of late been offered at extremely low rates, 
from twenty to twenty-five cents per pound 
below the usual retail price. It is generally 
composed of many varieties, principally, how- 
ever, of those which offer the largest opportuni- 
ties for adulteration. The bonbons and 
similar candies of this kind are composed of 
a mixture of terra alba and cheap sugar, the 
gum drops of cornstarch, and the stick candies 
of starch sugar. The nuts and fruits used in 
the cheaper varieties are of poor quality, worm- 
eaten, old or damaged. It will be much the 
better way, if economy is an object, to prepare 
the simpler varieties at home. 

CANDYING FRUITS.— Fruits of every kind 
may be candied by first boiling them in syrup, 
and then taking them out and drying them in a 
pan on the stove or before the fire ; then boil the 
syrup to a candy, dip the fruit into it once more 
and again set the fruit on the stove to dry; then 
put it into boxes or patented jars and keep in a 
dry place. If put into the patent jars the fruit 
will keep a long time. Grapes, currants, and 
the various kinds of berries may be candied 
by simply dipping them into the candy and 
drying them carefully. 

CANDY-TUFT.— A fine, hardy, freely-bloom- 
ing annual, with pretty bush, and white, red, and 
purple flowers. Plant the seed in open border 
or in beds, as soon as the frost is out of the 
ground ; they will bloom earlier if they are 
sown in the autumn, and the frost and snow 
will not injure them. They are in flower from 
June to September, and may be kept over to 
next season by cutting off the flowers, not al- 
lowing the seed-pods to form, and keeping 
them housed during the winter. 

CANNEL COAL. — A variety of bituminous 
coal which burns with such a brilliant white flame 
that it is used for affording light by the poorer 
people of the north of England ; hence its name, 
" cannel " being the local pronunciation for 
"candle." It does not soil the fingers, is 
heavier than other coal, and is peculiarly 
pleasant for burning in open grates. As it is 
apt to split and fly out when put into the fire, it 
is best to mix it with common coal in use. 
Cannel coal is brought from England and sold 
at about three times the price of anthracite ; 
there is an American variety which is nearly as 
good and costs less. It is mined in several 
places in Kentucky, and from the Leavenworth 
bed in Kansas. It is more variable than any 
other kind, often changing in the same bed 
from very coarse and earthy to the finest. 



CANNELONS.— Roll out very thin and 
evenly some fine puff-paste into a long strip of 
from three to four inches wide, moisten the 
surface with a feather dipped in white of egg, 
and cut it into bands of nearly two inches wide ; 
lay some apricot or peach marmalade equally 
along these, and fold the paste twice over it, 
close the ends carefully, and when all are ready, 
slide them gently into a pan of boiling lard ; as 
soon as they begin to brown, raise the pan from 
the fire that they may not take too much color 
before the paste is done quite through. Five 
minutes will fry them. Drain them well, and 
dry them on a soft cloth before the fire ; dish 




Cannelons. 

them on a napkin, and place one layer crossing 
another, or merely pile them high in the centre. 
If well made, and served of a light brown and 
very dry, these cannelons are excellent : when 
lard is objected to, dripping may be used in- 
stead, but the paste will then be somewhat 
less light. Only lard of the purest quality will 
answer for the purpose. 

CANNING FRUITS. — Canned fruit of 
every kind, preserved by various patented pro- 
cesses, can be bought in the shops ; but they may 
also be put up at home without difficulty. The 
principle involved in preserving by canning is 
the entire expulsion of the air; this is usually 
effected by heat suflicient to cook the fruit. 
The best "cans" for family use are the patent 
glass jars with cover and india-rubber band, 
which may be had now of every size and at low 
prices ; those are best in which the rubber en- 
circles the outside of the jar's mouth without 
coming in contact with the fruit. For the 
smaller fruits, which break easily by handling 
when cooked, it is best to put them into the 
jars before cooking ; fill up with water, and set 
them in a wash-boiler containing water enough 
to come up about three-fourths of the height of 
the jars. The jars must not rest directly on 
the bottom of the boiler, as they are liable to 
break. Bring the water gradually to a boihng 
point and let it boil steadily but not violently 
from five to ten minutes. Then take the cans 
out, place them on a cloth or board, and shake 
them well to loosen the bubbles ; fill them up 
to the brim with boiling water, and adjust the 
cover. The amount of air under the cover 
should be so slight that it will be expelled by 
the steam from the hot fruit in the act of sealing. 

If there is no desire to preserve the fruit 
whole, the process may be much simplified by 



76 



CANTALOUPE 



CAPES 



cooking the fruit in the ordinary way and dip- 
ping it hot into the jars. In this case the jars 
must be prepared by heating them gradually 
with hot water, or they will break when the hot 
fruit is put in. Plenty of juice should be dip- 
ped in at first, so as to leave no vacancies for 
the air, then the jars may be sealed as soon as 
they are filled; but if there are bubbles, let 
them out with a fork or spoon, fill with hot 
juice and seal. When cooled an hour or so, 
screw the covers tighter, if possible, or see that 
they are on firmly. Let the fruit stand in sight 
for a week or two, and if it does not ferment in 
that time put away in a dark, dry closet, and it 
will keep for years. If in cooling, the fruit set- 
tles, leaving a vacant space at the top, that is 
not necessarily air, and the jars must not be 
opened unless signs of fermentation are seen. 
Then open promptly, fill up with boiling water 
and reseal ; or, better still, eat it up, and use 
the jar for other fruit. 

CANTALOUPE. {See Musk-melon.) 
CANVAS. — The ordinary canvas is the 
coarsest cloth made of flax, and the rough, un- 
bleached varieties are made of hemp. It is 
used chiefly in manufacturing sails for ships, 
tents, and the Hke, but is also very useful in 
the household for making large bags or any- 
thing else for which exceptionally strong cloth 
is required. There is also a light kind of can- 
vas, woven with the warp and woof at intervals, 
which ladies use for tapestry and Berlin wool 
work. That which is flexible is best. 

CANVAS-BACK.— One of the family of 
sea ducks, and celebrated as the most delicious 
of all water fowl. They are in season from 
about the middle of November to January ; and 
then, provided they have been killed in the 
neighborhood of Chesapeake Bay, where alone 
they can find the wild celery which is their pe- 
culiar food, they are very fat and tender, and 
with that delicious flavor so much admired. If 
taken at any other season and place, they are 
but little better than some of the common sea- 
ducks. The bill of the canvas-back is black, 
about three inches long, and nearly in a straight 
line with the head •, the head and neck are red, 
the tail is short, and the back partly white and 
partly black. In choosing, select those which 
are heavy ; if on feeling behind their legs they 
are found to be plump and full, they are fat 
and in good condition. For directions for 
cooking, see DuCK. 

CAOUTCHOUC. {See India-Rubber.) 
CAPERS. — The unopened buds of a low, 
trailing bush which grows wild in Greece and 
the Levant, and is extensively cultivated in the 
south of Europe. They are pickled in salt and 
vinegar, and come to us from Italy, Sicily, and 
France ; the best are the Toulon capers. 
Capers are much used in cookery for making 
sauces. {See Sauce.) 

CAPES. — Under this head are included ber- 
thas, canezous, fichus, mantillas, chemisettes, 
etc. The measures required are : * i. That of 

♦ For explanation of Roman numerals, see Cutting and 
Fitting, 



the length desired ; 2. The size of neck (XV.) ; 
3. The length of' shoulder (XIV.); 4. The 
breadth of shoulders (XVI.) To prepare the 
pattern, draw the vertical line a b (Fig. 1), 




Fig. I. 

which marks th^ middle of the front ; the third 
of the neck measure (XV.) is allowed for the 
distance between the points a and c ; at c apply 
one end of the measure of the shoulder length 
(XIV.) and mark at the other end the point d, 
which is to be distant from the opposite point 
^, in the vertical line a b, by a space equal to 
one-fourth of the measure of the breadth of the 
shoulders (XVI.). The baclv is designed in 
the same way, with the exception that for the 
neck, one-sixth of the neck-measure is taken, 
instead of one-third (Fig. 2). 




Fig 2. 

The pattern represents the simple pelerine 
or cape suitable for a morning dress, or the 
wrapper of an invalid or an old lady, the inside 
lines being the length suitable for a bertha, 
which may also be cut out in the neck, and 
adapted to a low-necked dress. The outline of 
the pelerine and of the bertha may be varied 
on the lower edge, being cut round, square, 
pointed, longer in the back or front, or pro- 
longed in front in square tabs, as a mantilla. 
The fichu requires the fronts lengthened in 
such a manner as to cross on the breast, be 
fastened at the waist, or made long enough to 



CAPILLAIRE 



CAPS 



77 



meet in the back and be knotted together or 
fastened with a pin. 

Capes of this description have a seam upon 
the shoulder, but the garment may also be cut 
after the pattern of the circular {see Circu- 
lar), in which case it is made in one 
piece ; either way, however, the material from 
which the cape is to be cut should be folded 
double lengthwise, and the middle of the back 
of the pattern laid upon the fold. 

CAPILLAIRE.— A kind of syrup which may 
be made thus : Put six pounds of loaf sugar 
and two of brown, and three eggs well-beaten, 
into three pints of water ; boil it up twice, skim 
it carefully, and then add half a gill of orange- 
water ; strain it through a piece of fine muslin, 
and put it into bottles for use. A spoonful or 
two of this syrup put into a glass of warm or 
cold water will make a very agreeable drink. 

CAPON. — A young male fowl which has 
been castrated and fattened for the table. 
Caponed fowls are considered great delicacies, 
and always command the highest market price ; 
they are said to combine the strength of flavor 
of the male bird with much of the delicacy of 
the female, and never to get tough like the or- 
dinary fowl. The best fowls for the purpose 
are the large, square, heavy-bodied kinds that 
have a rapid growth. The signs of a capon are 
a small head, comb quite pale, short and with- 
ered, the neck-feathers, if left on, longer than 
usual, and, if quite young, smooth legs and 
short, soft spurs. The body is larger, fatter, 
more plump and round than that of the common 
fowl. Capons are cooked and served in the 
same way as ordinary Chicken. 

CAPS. — To design a pattern for a cap the 
only measure required is taken around the 
head, in a straight line, meeting upon the 
forehead. This measure we now divide, and 
cut a square of paper of the dimensions of half 
the measure, as is seen underlying the various 
patterns outlined in Figs, i and 2. This we 
divide in the middle by the line a b, one-half 
representing the front, the other the crown of 
the cap. 

The front is to be cut out, following the 
inner line c dj more or less, according as the 
cap is to be worn more or less forward upon 
the head ; and between the points d b, to give 
room for the neck. At the point d, we may en- 
large at will, forming tabs to float or tie under 
the chin, or may cut the corners off, and attach 
ribbons. Also the front may be much less than 
half the cap, and in this case, the crown must 
be correspondingly more than half, that the 
proper proportion may be preserved. 

In Fig. I, many models are represented. 
No. I. By rounding the upper corner ^ of the 
crown, in accordance with the dotted line, 
which marks the outline of this first pattern, 
we have a very simple cap, which is left some- 
times quite square except the curves c d and d 
b. To make up this pattern the material is cut 
in two pieces, which are obtained by laying the 
pattern upon the material folded double, the 
straight way. The two halves are now united, 



following the dotted line. The front, c d, and 
neck, b d, are hemmed or faced with a narrow 
strip, and the lower edge of the crown is gath- 




Fig. I. 

ered, and a little bias strip, hemmed on the 
lower edge, is added as a frill. This cap, cut 
out and made plainly, is the simplest form of a 
night-cap. On the other hand, made in delicate 
material, trimmed with lace or ribbon ruches, 
with lengthened tabs, it is an extremely quaint 
and pretty morning cap. The spme pattern 
made up in silk or velvet becomes'the Alsatian 
cap, suitable for children or for fancy dress. It 
is, however, very much cut out in front, and is 
nearly all crown ; these caps are lined, and the 
gathering at the edge of the crown is concealed 
under two lengths of very broad ribbon, which 
cross on the top of the head and are tied in an 
enormous butterfly bow. 

No. 2. The crown in this pattern is enlarged 
to nearly twice the original size, and is rounded 
from g to the point b. This cap is cut in one 
piece, the pattern being laid on the double fold 
of the material, straight way, the line c g on the 
fold. The edges of the front are hemmed 
from c to d znd to b; the edge of the crown is 
gathered and secured or held by a drawing- 
string, which may be tightened or loosened at 
will. The capeline is made after this pattern 
by enlarging the front on the top, and if it be 
desired to turn it back from the front, it must 
be still more enlarged. 

A very simple way of making a capelhte and 
a cape in one piece is to take a square of the 
desired material, fold it bias, making two tri- 
angular pieces, then gather it along this diago- 
nal, and raise one-half over the head, the point 
coming upon the forehead, while the other is 
drawn around the neck as a pointed cape. 

No. 3. This pattern is the same as No. 2, 
except that it is cut bias, and the crown is 
smaller in the lower part. 

No. 4. This is a pattern much used for chil- 
dren's caps. It is cut in two pieces, and the front 
is half the breadth of the cap. The crown, cut 
the straight way of the material, follows the 
line from g, and is gathered into the front, 



78 



CARAMEL 



CARBUNCLE 



being much more full below than near the 
top. 

(Fig. 2.) The first of these patterns repre- 
sents the crown very large, and the front cor- 
respondingly reduced. The front may almost 
disappear and become only a sort of binding to 
retain the gathers of the crown. The latter is 
cut rounding, and the double line marked 
'''■gathering'''' in the pattern is left for the back 
of the neck, while the rest of the crown is gath- 




Fig. 2. 

ered into tlie front and must have a third more 
length than the space of the front upon which 
it is to be gathered. The second pattern, in- 
dicated by the scalloped edge, represents 
simply a fanchon, having no crown what- 
ever. 

In the construction of these caps, manv va- 
rieties may be introduced in the size of the 
crown and of the front, beside those we have 
indicated. When the cap is made in one piece, 
a front may be simulated by ruches of lace or 
ribbon. Again, the crown and front may be 
separated half way up, the crown be cut some- 
what longer than the front and gathered upon 
it, and the seam be hid by lace arranged in ac- 
cordance with the general style of the cap. As 
a rule, it should be remembered, that the 
trimmings of a cap should be always more and 
more simple as the wearer grows older; and 
that thread lace and blonde are more suited to 
almost any complexion than artificial flowers, 
or glittering bead-trimming. 

CARAMEL. — A dark brown substance pro- 
duced by the action of a high temperature upon 
melted sugar, and sometimes called "burnt 
sugar." It is used to color broth, sauces, gra- 
vies, etc., and may be made thus ; Heat half a 
pound of brown sugar in a small iron kettle 
and stir until it is a smooth, dark-brown batter, 
but be careful that it does not burn; add' 
gradually a pint of hot water, let it simmer 
while the sugar which is scraped from the ket- 
tle dissolves ; then bottle and cork. 

Chocolate Caramels. — Boil one quart of 
good New Orleans molasses until it hardens 
when tested by cooling a little of it in water. 
Just before removal from the fire add four 



ounces of chocolate finely and uniformly grated. 
Pour a thin layer into tin trays, slightly greased, 
and when the surface of the candy hardens a lit- 
tle, work with a knife into squares. They may 
be flavored with vanilla or almond if desired, 
but the natural flavor of the chocolate and mo- 
lasses is generally preferred without addition. 

CARAWAY. — This plant grows wild in 
England and throughout the north of Europe, 
and is cultivated here on account of its seeds, 
which are much used in confectionery, cakes, 
biscuits, and the like. The seeds have a 
pleasant, aromatic odor, and a sweetish, warm, 
pungent taste ; and, besides cookery, are em- 
ployed in medicine to stimulate the action of 
the digestive organs. The under leaves, when 
young and tender, are sometimes used for fla- 
voring soups ; the roots were formerly eaten 
as parsnips, and by some are tliought to be not 
inferior. Caraway is cultivated exactly like 
the parsnip. The seeds mature the second 
year of the growth of the plant, and ripen in 
autumn. 

CARBOLIC ACID. — A substance ex- 
tracted from coal tar, and now much employed 
in medicine and the arts. It is one of the best 
of disinfectants, and being very volatile it is 
readily diffused through the air and neutralizes 
any excretions or gases that may be present. 
In using as a disinfectant for sinks, water- 
closets, night-stools, or for wetting a sheet to 
hang in the doorway, mix a wineglassful with 
a half a pint of warm water. For washing 
walls, furniture, etc., mix a wineglassful with 
a pint and a half of warm water. Owing to its 
antiseptic qualities, carbolic acid is a valuable 
lotion for wounds which discharge purulent or 
other offensive matter. When dissolved in 
230 parts of water it is used as a gargle ; or in 
25 parts of water for painting the throat in 
bronchial affections ; or in 50 parts for a car- 
bolic spray. Mixed with olive or other oils, or 
with glycerine in the proportion of i part to 25 
it makes an excellent dressing for cuts and 
sores. Carbolic acid paper, which is much 
used for packing fresh meats, is made by melt- 
ing five parts of stearine at a gentle heat, then 
mixing with it thoroughly two parts of carbolic 
acid, and subsequently adding five parts of 
melted paraffine ; when melted apply it to the 
paper with a brush. Pieces of card-board satu- 
rated with the acid will kill flies more surely 
than anvthing else. 

Carbolic acid is a violent poison, and must 
be handled with care. In case of poisoning by 
it, send at once to the druggist for saccharate 
of lime, and while waiting for it give castor oil 
and olive oil freely. 

CARBUNCLE.— Carbuncles proceed from 
the same causes as boils, from which they only 
differ in being much larger and more deeply 
seated. They generally appear in the back of 
the neck, and are so extremely sensitive that 
the slightest touch or even breathing upon 
them causes intense pain. A carbuncle may 
be treated in the same way as a boil {see 
Boils) ; but as under certain circumstances it 



CARCEL LAMP 



CARNATION 



79 




Carcel Lamp. 



may endanger life, medical advice should in 
all cases be taken. In the absence of medical 
aid, the best local treatment is to lance the tu- 
mor freel}^, to let out the festered matter; and 
then to apply warm poultices. It is to be rec- 
ollected that boils and carbuncles alike indi- 
cate a bad condition of the blood which should 
be rectified by a Hberal but not rich diet, bit- 
ters, and by taking tincture of iron — fifteen 
drops in a little water three times a day. Acid 
fruits, such as sour apples, grapes, limes and 
lemons, may be eaten freely. 

CARCEL LAMP. — A mechanical lamp in 
which the oil is raised through the tubes by 
clockwork, so as to continually overflow at the 
bottom of the burning wick, thus keeping it 
thoroughly saturated while the 
excess of oil drops back into 
the cistern, situated so far below 
as to cast no shade. It is 
wound up like a clock, and runs 
from six to eight hours, main- 
taining a constant flow of oil and 
giving out a clear, brilliant, and 
pleasant light. The cut shows 
the mechanism; a is the spring 
which forces the oil p p \x^ lo 
the wick, by pressure on the 
cylinder gj d regulates the 
amount of light. These lamps 
are excellent but expensive, costing from 
fifteen to seventy-five dollars, and requiring 
great care in the handhng of them. If 
they get seriously out of order it may be nec- 
essary to send them back to the constructor in 
Paris. 

CARDOON. — A species of the artichoke but 
much larger and taller; cultivated in the same 
way. The stalk part of the leaf, when properly 
blanched, is crisp and tender. Cardoons are 
used for soups, stews, salads, etc. To cook, 
cut the solid stalks of the leaves into pieces 
about six inches long and boil them in pure 
water till they are tender ; when done cleanse 
them carefully of the slime and strings that 
will be found to cover them, and then put them 
in cold water and let them remain till wanted 
for the table. Then take them out and heat 
them with drawn butter or marrow. If this 
process is not followed they will be bitter and 
black. Cardoons are in season from September 
to March. 

CARMINE. — The coloring matter of cochi- 
neal, used for dyeing fabrics, for making red 
ink, as a pigment in painting, and as a cosmetic. 
It is a beautiful crimson, blood-red color, the 
most expensive used in painting, and is gen- 
erally sold already prepared. It is cheapest in 
the end to buy the best, as the cheaper kinds 
are frequently adulterated with extract of Bra- 
zil wood and cheaper vermilion. Carmine 
may be made in this way : Put two pounds of 
the cochineal powder into a pot containing 
ten gallons of boiling soft water; let it boil 
three hours, and then add three ounces of 
saltpetre, and soon after four ounces of binox- 
alate of potash. After ten minutes remove 



the pot from the fire, and let it stand for 
four hours. Then draw off the liquor with a 
siphon into flat glazed dishes, and let it stand 
in them three weeks. A coating of mould 
forms upon the surface, which is to be nicely 
removed in one piece ; or if any fragments 
remain they must be taken out with the great- 
est care. Dry this cake in a clean shady 
place, and it will then be pure carmine ready 
for use. 

CARNATION. — Carnations range next to 
roses perhaps as the favorite flower for garden 
culture, and whether in beauty or in fragrance 
are unsurpassed. Florists divide them into 
three classes-^^^'^^'j-, bizart-es, and picotees. 
Flakes, on a pure yellow or white ground, have 
only one color, disposed in broad stripes and 
extending the whole length of the petal. The 
bizarres, on a white or yellow ground, have two 
or more colors in irregular stripes of pink, or 
scarlet and purple, sometimes running the full 
length of the petal, and sometimes broken into 
spots. The picotee has a white or yellow 
ground with the colorings confined to a border- 
ing of each petal. In cultivation, carnations 
require a good rich soil : the best is composed 
of one-half rotten horse manure, one-quarter 
fresh loam, and one-quarter coarse sand, well 
mixed together. The compost sold by florists 
is also excellent for the purpose. They may 
be raised either from seed or cuttings. The 
seed should be sown in April or May, in pots 
filled with the above-described soil or compost, 
and a little fine sand, barely sufficient to cover 
them, sprinkled over the seeds. As soon as 
the young plants are three inches high, plant 
them out into a bed of rich soil. They will 
not bloom until the summer following, but the 
plants can be protected in cold climates by 
la3ing sods of grass over them, or by keeping 
them in the cellar in boxes. In raising carna- 
tions from cuttings, good healthy shoots should 
be selected about July or August; they should 
be cut off close to the old stem and planted in 
a box of sand, or sand slightly mixed with 
river soil, which should be kept constantly 
moist. In about three weeks the roots will 
begin to form and the cuttings may then be 
transplanted carefully to the garden. This is 
the surest way of propagating the choicer 
varieties. When the flower stems are ten or 
more inches high, they should be supported 
with stakes ; and when the flowers appear, if 
there is danger of their bursting the calyx 
and thus spoiling their symmetry, it is well 
to tie a piece of colored worsted yarn around 
them. 

Monthly carnations are the most desirable, 
as they bloom during the winter. These are 
some of the choicer varieties: Admirable, 
creamy white ; Astoria, yellow, flaked with 
scarlet ; Betsey, brilliant scarlet ; BloJidin, buff 
and rose ; DonadVs Pride, white, edged with 
pink ; Grant, rich ' crimson, striped with slate 
color; Grand Conde, white, blotched with 
rose ; La Purite, bright rosy pink ; Ma Gloire, 
sulphur yellow, striped scarlet; Queen of 



80 



CARP 



CARPETS 



Whites, purest white ; Radetzky, rose color, 
with broad purple stripes ; Star, carmine, 
splashed with white ; Von Moltke, orange sal- 
mon, flaked with scarlet ; Rosaline, bright buff, 
blotched with crimson ; Vaillaftte, scarlet 
fringed; Welcome, brightest red, and of per- 
fect shape. 

CARP. — A fine and beautiful fresh-water 
fish, taken chiefly in the Hudson River, and 
especially abundant in the New York markets. 
They are in season from October to April. 




Carp. 

Their general color on the back is olive brown, 
with yellowish white under the belly, their fins 
are dark brown, and they have a small mouth 
like the sucker. They usually weigh from half 
a pound to three pounds, occasionally as high 
as twelve pounds, but the average is about one 
pound. The small fish are best for broiling 
and frying, and the larger ones for baking or 
boiling. Cook same as Blue-fish, and serve 
with anchovy, caper, or tomato sauce, or with 
parsley and butter. 

CARPETS. — Before describing the various 
kinds of carpets there are one or two points to 
be considered. And first the material, colors, 
and pattern of the carpet must be adapted to 
the room into which it is to be put and the 
other furniture of the room. Large patterns 
will not look well in small rooms, nor will very 
small patterns look well in large ones ; an ex- 
pensive carpet renders it necessary to have 
expensive furniture ; and every bit of color in 
the room, from the carpet to the ceiling, must 
have some harmony with every other. At the 
same time it must be borne in mind that there is 
harmony in contrasted colors as well as in those 
which are similar, and if the furniture is either 
very dark or very gay, the carpet should be 
either gay or neutral, in order to relieve the 
general effect. The large patterns which used 
to prevail have been discarded of late years ; 
and patterns as small as the roorh will bear are 
considered most desirable. Medallion carpets, 
or those with figures of animals, bouquets of 
flowers, baskets of roses, or stripes, should 
never be chosen ; the most pleasing figures 
are simple geometrical designs, a tracery of 
vines, arabesques, or an almost solid neutral 
groundwork of broken lines. A carpet with 
much white in it is objectionable anywhere 
unless the furniture is very dark, but it should 
never be laid in a room that is much used ; on 
the other hand, a very dark carpet is almost as 
hard to keep clean. Carpets with blue or 
green, or any " delicate " color, fades on ex- 
posure to sunlight. A bordered carpet makes 
a room look smaller than it is ; and a small 



room will look larger if the floor is covered 
with a carpet of neutral tint and small figures. 
{See Carpets under DECORATION.) 

Cutting. — To determine the available 
length in making the carpet, unroll the 
equivalent of about twice the length of the 
room, double this in the middle, lay the edges 
side by side and pull the end to and fro until 
the patterns match at the length next greater 
than that of the room. Of this exact length, 
cut the requisite number of strips. It may be 
more economical to cut the lengths in the 
short direction of the floor. As there is car- 
pet wasted it will be necessary to get more 
than the room would seem to require. This 
waste may be used for making rugs, ottomans, 
etc., or filling in recesses. 

Sewing — The strongest stitch for sewing 
carpets is the through-and-through stitch, and 
they should be put very close together; great 
care must be taken in sewing that the carpet 
does not pucker, and that the figures down the 
two widths are exactly matched. Binding is 
not generally used except in the case of In- 
grain, or a close fit. 

Before laying a carpet the floor should be 
made smooth, as boards warped upward at the 
ends or cracks wear the carpet through. Then 
it should be covered with a layer of news- 
papers, or better still, with a lining made espe- 
cially for the purpose and consisting of cotton 
laid between two sheets of paper. This latter 
is moth proof, and a carpet put down with it 
will last much longer and be more easily kept 
clean. It is customary to fit carpets into all 
the recesses of the room, but this is most ex- 
pensive and not really necessary. Where 
economy is an object, the carpet may be 
square or oblong, according to the shape of 
the room, but not fitted into the recesses ; and 
the boards round the sides may be left bare or 
painted in oil, or covered with oil-cloth, baize, 
or drugget. As a still more economical mode, 
there may be a border only of carpet around 
the room, and the middle part may be covered 
with a drugget ; this has the advantages, es- 
pecially for dining-rooms and bedrooms, that 
it can be easily taken up to be dusted and 
shaken. It is somewhat the fashion now to 
dispense with carpets altogether in the sitting 
and reception rooms ; and to have gay Persian- 
or Turkish rugs distributed here and there over 
the bare floor, which is either stained or waxed 
and polished. 

It is not desirable to have carpets on the 
floor in summer; tliey should be taken up and 
the floor either left bare or covered with Can- 
ton matting. Carpets get filled with dust, they 
add greatly to the warmth of a room, and if 
there is any taint in the air they are almost 
sure to catch and hold it. Moreover, they will 
last just twice as long if when warm weather 
comes on they are beaten, sewed up in coarse 
linen, and packed away in a dry place with 
some moth-repellant till the autumn. 

To Clean. — Carpets should be taken up 
and beaten well (but not violently) at least once 



CARPETS 



81 



a year. If they are much soiled they may 
be brightened up by scouring them in one 
of the following ways. No. II. is, perhaps, 
unnecessarily complicated. It is recom- 
mended, however, by an experienced Eng- 
lish dyer and manufacturer, who some years 
ago published a valuable manual on the sub- 
ject : 

I Mix an oxgall with double its bulk of 
water, and apply it to the carpet with a sponge. 
Rub gently till a lather is produced, then wash 
oft with clean water and dry with a linen rag. 

II. Have the carpet taken up and well 
beaten, brushed, laid flat on the floor, and the 
spots taken out by rubbing a piece of hard soap 
on the greasy spot, and rubbing it out with a 
brush and clean cold water, well drying each 
spot as it is done, with a cloth before you leave 
it. Cut a bar of the best mottled (castile) 
soap into two gallons of water, and put it on the 
fire to dissolve. Take two pails of luke-warm 
water, and put in one of them two quarts of the 
melted soap. The other pail of warm water is 
to rinse out the carpet, which must be 
done at not less than one square yard at a time. 
Now dip a scrubbing-brush into the pail with 
the soap in it, and scour about a square yard 
while on the knees, and do it so as not to 
let it go through to the back of the carpet ; 
when this yard is cleaned well with soap and 
a brush, rub the soap well out with a flannel 
or coarse sponge, and suck up in the 
sponge or flannel the wet and dirt that was 
made on the carpet by the scouring-brush, 
repeatedly rinsing the flannel in the pail of clean 
water. Have a pail of clean water with a little 
common soda. Rub a clean sponge, dampened 
with this, into the spot you have first cleaned and 
rinsed. Dry with a clean coarse cotton cloth, 
before you proceed with another yard. 

III. Carpets may be cleaned without taking 
up, by sprinkling over moist tea-leaves and 
sweeping well ; then grate potter's clay very 
thickly over the grease spots, cover them with 
a sheet of brown paper, and place a warm 
smoothing iron over them. Repeat till the 
grease is out. 

IV. Corn meal sprinkled over and swept off 
with a slightly moistened broom will remove 
soot or other powdery dirt. 

Moths will work in warm rooms in winter 
as well as in summer. A sure preventive is to 
pour strong alum water on the floor half a 
yard around the edges before laying the car- 
pets, and once or twice during the season 
sprinkle dry salt over the carpet before 
sweeping. Sufficient will adhere to prevent in- 
sects alighting. 

Axminster Carpet is expensive, but wears 
almost well enough to make up for it. There are 
French, English and American Axminsters in 
the market ; they do not differ much from each 
other in cost, the price being from $3 to $5 a 
yard. 

Brussels Carpet, on account of its dura- 
bility, is probably the cheapest for general use. 
The basis is a warp and woof of linen thread ; 
6 



worsted threads are also interwoven, which are 
formed into loops by means of wires and form 
the patterns, the linen threads not being visible 
on the surface. When well made they are 
very durable, and, being at the same time ele- 
gant, are among the most desirable of all car- 
pets. Good English Brussels is worth about 
$2.00 to $2.25 per yard, three quarters of a 
yard wide. American about $1.75 to $2.00. 
{See Tapestry Carpet.) 

Dutch Carpet. — A cheap carpet woven in 
pieces about a yard wide. The warp is of wool 
and the filling of wool, hemp or cotton ; and 
the only patterns are stripes and checks. This 
is very good for stairs. 

Ingrain Carpet is, perhaps, most fre- 
quently vised in bedrooms and the like. It is 
made of two threads only, and the colors are 
reversed on either side ; in the best both threads 
are wool, in the cheaper kinds the warp is of 
cotton. The English Ingrain costs about $1.60 
per yard; the American from $1.00 to $1.10. 
Yard wide. 

Kidderminster Carpet. — This is made of 
two woollen webs which intersect each other at 
various points to produce the pattern, which is 
the same on both sides with the color reversed. 
They are woven in large squares to fit the room, 
and are of various qualities. A good article 
is worth about $2 per square yard. 

Moquette Carpet is a very rich and beauti- 
ful French carpet made on same principle as 
Wilton. 

Persian and Turkish Carpets. — These are 
unequalled for richness of fabric and patterns ; 
they are woven with a soft pile like that of 
velvet, and some of the costliest of the Per- 
sian have floss silk mixed with the wool. The 
colors are indescribably rich and brilliant, and 
one of them spread upon the floor brightens 
up the most cheerless room. They are woven 
in one piece, and are from five to ten yards 
long, and from five to six wide. They are very 
expensive, and the finer qualities are appro- 
priate only in elaborately furnished rooms. 

Printed Felt is made of coarse wools 
brought together by the process of felting, and 
the patterns are imprinted in colors by means 
of the rollers on which they are cut. It is 
bright-colored but rather flimsy, and only 
appropriate for rugs, druggets, or table covers. 
It is of various widths. Price about $1 per 
square yard. 

Rag Carpet is the lowest in price of all, 
and can readily be made at home on a hand 
loom. Use a warp of strong cotton threads, and 
weave in any kind of rags by twisting them up 
into small rolls. It is thick, and serviceable to 
spread over kitchen floors in winter. Price in 
the shops, about 50 cts. a yard— yard wide. 

Tapestry Carpet is an imitation of Brus- 
sels, but only one woollen thread is used instead 
of four or five different colors. The warp is of 
coarse linen threads, and the pattern appears 
only on one side. Tapestry is very pretty, and 
in the best patterns is hard to distinguish from 
Brussels ; but it is not durable and is liable to 



82 



CARROT 



CARVING 



fade. It is woven in pieces three-fourths of a 
yard wide, and costs about $1.25 per yard. 
Brussels is cheaper at twice the price. 

Three-ply Carpets are the same as Ingrain, 
except that a third thread is added and this 
makes the pattern on the right side. It is the 
prettiest of the cheaper all-wool carpets; but 
as the single layer of threads on the surface is 
liable to wear off it is not so durable as Ingrain, 
and cannot be turned like the latter. Price 
about $1.30 per yard — yard wide. 

Velvet Carpet is an English material in 
which the weaving is the same as tapestry ; only 
the loops are cut, thus giving it a high pile like 
velvet. It has a rich and soft effect, and 
wears better than tapestry. Price about $2.50 
per yard }( vard wide. 

Wilton Carpet differs from Brussels just 
as velvet differs from tapestry ; after weaving, 
the loops are cut with a sharp knife, and a 
pile like that of velvet produced. Wilton is 
perhaps the most beautiful and durable of all 
carpets. Price about $3.50 per yard |4' wide. 
In Royal Wilton the pile is raised higher 
than in the common kind. 

Wood Carpet. — This is a late invention. It 
is made of well-seasoned and kiln-dried hard 
woods, cut into strips one and one-eighth to one 
and three-eighth inches wide, and a quarter of 
an inch thick, and glued on to heavy cotton 
drill. The wood is then planed smooth and 
oiled. It rolls up like an oil-cloth, can be sent 
anywhere, and can be put down by any good 
carpenter. It can be laid to look like ordinary 
flooring of one kind of wood, or in fancy 
designs, centre-pieces, etc. That of one kind 
of wood, or of alternate strips of different 
kinds, is a yard wide and costs $2.00 a yard. 
The fancy styles cost from 50 cents to $1.25 
per square foot. It is claimed for this carpet- 
ing that it is insect proof, that dust cannot 
ipenetrate it, that it is so thin as not to interfere 
with door-sills, etc., and that it is very durable ; 
but it needs to be more thoroughly tested. 

CARRIAGE (To Clean).— 6"^.? Cleaning. 

CARROT. — For garden purposes there are 
'three different varieties of carrot, namely, the 
Early Horn, a small kind used for the earliest 
crops ; long orange, or Altringhatn, a very 
large kind for ordinary summer and winter use ; 
and Purple carrot, a French variety, of deep 
purple color and unusual sweetness. No veg- 
etable is easier to cultivate than the carrot. 
The soil should be light and free from stones, 
and well broken up. Sow the seeds at inter- 
vals from the beginning of February to the end 
of August ; press them down lightly with the 
feet, and then rake them in. When they have 
come up they require no further attention than 
to be hoed out to the distance of six inches 
apart, and kept free from weeds. 

Young carrots appear in the Southern markets 
and are thence brought North about the ist of 
May, and from that time on until November 
new crops continue to come in. They may 
easily be kept all winter, by burying them in 
sand out of the reach of the frost. 



Boiled Carrots. — If the carrots are large, 
scrape them well and boil them in salt and 
water till soft; if old they will require" from an 
hour and a half to two hours. When done, 
slice them lengthwise, butter well, and serve hot. 

Stevred Carrots. — Scrape and boil till near- 
ly done ; then take them off, cut them into 
small squares, and put them into a sauce-pan 
with two small onions minced, a little chopped 
parsley, pepper and salt to taste, and half a 
teacupful of drawn butter. Let them simmer 
half an hour, then mash, dish and serve hot. 

With Sugar. — Clean about a quart of carrots, 
slice them, set them on to boil for five minutes, 
and then remove and drain them. Put two 
ounces of butter into a sauce-pan, and set it on 
a good fire ; when the butter melts, lay the 
carrots in, season with pepper and salt and a 
piece of grated nutmeg, and add about half a 
pint of broth (if you have no broth use half a 
pint of water with another ounce of butter) ; 
sprinkle in while stirring about a teaspoonful of 
flour, and boil gently till cooked. Remove 
from fire, mix a heaping tablespoonful of white 
sugar with the yolks of two eggs ; add this to 
the rest, stir together, and serve hot. 

CARVING. — The 
first essential of good 
carving is a proper 
kind of knife and fork. 
The former should be 
very sharp, not too 
heavy, and of a size 
convenient to handle ; 
the fork for carving 
meat and game should 
be two-pronged and 
have a finger-guard. 
The knife for fowls, 
game, saddles of meat, 
or anything requiring 
careful dissection (as 
distinct from slicing) 
should have a short 
blade that will not 
spring, and have its 
length keed out in the 
handle. A slicing knife 
for roasts, haunches, 
etc., should have a long, 
thin blade. For fish 
there is a special kind 
of knife and fork, made 
of silver or plated-ware, 
with a large, massive 
blade for the knife, and 
the fork also large, with 
five prongs, so as to 

raise a large flake of the fish without break- 
ing it. The article to be carved should 
be placed in a dish sufficiently large to 
allow the joint to be turned ; it should also 
be set firmly on the table, so near to the 
carver as to allow the free movements of the 
arms. Loins, breasts, and necks of mutton, 
lamb, and veal should be properly jointed by 
the butcher before they are dressed, else the 




CARVING 



83 



most adroit carver will be baffled. In carving 
and helping a joint, do not load a person's 
plate. If the meat attached to a bone be too 
much a small slice may be taken out between 
each two bones in carving. There are choice 
cuts or delicacies, with which a good carver has 
to become acquainted by experience. In helping 
fish, take care not to break the flakes, which 
in cod and fresh salmon are very large and con- 
tribute much to the beauty of their appear- 
ance. Help a part of the roe, milt, or liver, to 
each person. The heads of carp, part of those 
of cod and salmon, sounds of cod, and fins of 
turbot, are likewise esteemed dehcacies, and 
should be served accordingly. Have your 
sauces or gravies passed separately, or, if that 
is impracticable, inquire the preference of each 
person. People lose much of the pleasure of 
a meal if their plates contain distasteful gravies. 

Beef Tongue. — When sent to table with- 
out rolling, beef tongue is carved by cutting it 
nearly through the middle at thick part, leaving 
a small portion at the bottom to keep the two 
ends together. Many people like a little fat 
served with the lean, but others do not like its 
flavor. When the tongue is rolled and pressed, 
the knife is carried horizontally as in carving a 
fillet of veal. 

Breast of Veal. — Cut from right to left parallel 



die. The palate, another much esteemed part, 
is found on the under side of the roof of the 
mouth — a thick, white skin which is easily cut 
away from the bone. On the under side, cov- 




Breast of Veal, 

with the lines d, c, then cross from c to the most 
distant a. The several lines marked a, d, 
represent the directions in which the brisket 
or gristly part should be divided ; d, c, show 
the course of the ribs, and e is the sweet- 
bread. 

Brisket of Beef. — A brisket of beef should 
be carved in thin slices quite across the bone. 

Calf's Head. — In boiled calf's head there 
are many choice parts. The first cut, c 
b, is along the fleshy part of the cheek bone. 
At the end of the cheek bone lies the throat 
sweetbread, which is considered the choicest 
part of the head ; it is to be cut out in the di- 
rection c d. The eye part, also a delicacy, is 
cut out from its socket (a) by driving, the point 
of the knife down to the bottom on one edge 
of the socket and cutting quite round, keeping 
the point of the knife slanting towards the mid- 




Calf's Head, 

ering the jaw and near the ear, is some good 
meat and fat. 

Chicken Fix the fork firmly into the 

breast, and on each side of it make a cut the 
whole length of the fowl, and parallel with the 
legs and wings. The wings are taken off in 
the direction a b, by dividing the joint with the 
knife and drawing it away with the fork. The 
legs may easily be removed by cutting the liga- 
ment at the joint c, and twisting the bone out 
of the socket. The wings and legs being thus 
separated from the rest of the fowl, the knife 
must be entered at the breast, in the direction 
d, by which the merrythought may be displaced, 
after the knife has been slipped under it and 




Chicken. 

the bone lifted up and pressed backwards to- 
wards the dish. The collar-bones, e e, lie on 
each side of the merrythought, and must also 
be lifted up by the knife at the broad end and 
forced towards the breast bone till the part 
breaks off to which they were fastened. The 
breast is cut off by cutting through the ribs on 
both sides. The backbone is then turned upn 
ward and the knife passed firmly across it near 
the middle, the fork being at the same time 
employed in raising up the lower end towards 
the knife, and thus breaking the back almost 
in the centre. The lower end of the back is 
then turned from the carver, that the bones on 
each side may be taken off ; the exact place in 
which these side bones are joined to the back- 
bone will be easily found by the point of the 
knife. The choicest parts of the fowl are the 
side-bones, wings, breast, and merrythought; 



84 



CARVING 



the legs, except of young fowls, are considered 
coarse. The thigh, when separated from the 
drumstick, is sometimes preferred by those who 
consider the white meat of a fowl insipid. 

Cod's Head and Shoulders.— This is the 
choicest portion of the cod, but very difficult 
to carve. The first piece should be taken off 
in the direction a b, by putting in the trowel at 
the back oi the thick part of the fish; other 
slices may be cut in a similar direction. A 

b- 




Cod's Head and Shoulders. 

small portion of the sound should be given 
with each shce ; it will be found lying close to 
the backbone on raising the thin flake d, and 
may be recognized by being transparent and 
of a darker color than other parts of the fish. 
There is also a part on the head, behind the 
eye, which is called the cheek, and much 
relished, as are also the palate, tongue, and 
jellied parts immediately around the jaws and 
bones of the head. 

Duck. — Ducks when they are large, should 
be cut in slices like a goose (which see); 
when small they should be disjointed like fowls. 
If they are dressed with seasoning, this should 
not be distributed on the plates without first 
ascertaining that it is agreeable to the person 
to be served, as its flavor is not always liked. 

Eels. — Cut into pieces through the bones ; 
the thicker portions are considered choicest. 

Fillet of Veal. — A fillet merely requires 
successive horizontal slices of meat to be taken 
off with a sharp knife, serving with each a 
small portion of fat and forcemeat. 

Goose. — This is considered the most trying 
task of the carver. Plant the fork firmly in the 
centre of the breast, turn the neck of the goose 
towards you, and cut the whole breast in slices 
on both sides of the bird. If more slices are 
required than the breast furnishes, turn the 
goose on one side and take off the leg by put- 
ting the fork into the small end of the leg bone, 
pressing it close to the body, and then, having 




Goose. 



passed the knife in the line e b, turn the leg 
back; if a young bird it will easily separate. 
To take oft the wing, put the fork into the 



small end of the pinion and press it close to the 
body; then put in the knife at c and divide the 
joint, taking it down in the direction c d. When 
the leg and wing of one side are separated, go 
to the other. Cutoff the apron in the Wnef e g; 
then take off the merrythought in the line o i. 
The neck bones are next to be separated as in 
a chicken, and all other parts divided in the 
same way. 

Ham. — A ham may be carved in three 
ways. 1st, it may be commenced at the knuckle 
and gradually worked up to the other end; 




Ham. 

2d, it may be cut in the middle and each side 
taken from until exhausted, taking care to carry 
the knife down to the bone in a perpendicular 
direction, as in b c; or 3d, a hole may be 
scooped out in the middle (^), and thin circular 
slices removed from around it. In any case, 
the slices ought to be thin and regular, which 
requires some practice ; for the third method 
great skill is demanded. 

Haunch of Mutton or Venison. — 
These are sent to table with the outside of the 
leg uppermost, and are both carved alike, be- 
ing cut down to the bone in the direction of the 
line a, b, c, by which means the gravy escapes 
into the dish. The broad end should then be 
turned towards the carver, and deep cuts made 




Haunch of Mutton. 

from b to d; this gives with each slice a due 
proportion of fat, which lies chiefly on the left 
side of the line b, d. There is a delicious mine 
of kidney-fat in the loin of mutton under the 
flank, which is often too " high " in venison ; 
but if fresh enough is even more rich and 
palatable in that meat than in mutton. 

Knuckle of Veal. — A knuckle of veal 
cuts in neat slices in only one direction, name- 
ly, from a to b. The line d c divides two bones 
which it is necessary to separate in order to 
get at the best marrowy fat portion ; also cut 
asunder the knucklebones. 

Leg of Mutton. — The first slice should 
be taken out as at a, between the knuckle b and 



CARVING 



85 



the thick end. Other slices may be cut in the 
same direction till the knife is stopped by the 




Knuckle of Veal. 

cramp bone c. The leg is then turned round 
and slices are taken lengthwise from the thick 
end towards the knuckle from c to d. The 
best slices from a leg of mutton are from the 




Leg of Mutton. 

upper end, though the parts about the knuckle 
are occasionally preferred. 

Iioiu of Veal. — The loin is divided into 
the <://?^w^-^«^and the kidney-end. The latter 
should be cut across into portions, every other 
one of which contains a bone, the intermediate 
one being of meat only ; the fat on the under 
side and the kidney should be served with each 
portion. The chump-end is served in slices, 
the bone being all in one piece. 

Mackerel. — These are split at the tail, 
and the upper half raised at that part from the 
bones, after which the bone is removed from 
the lower half, and that in turn is served either 
in one piece or divided according to size. 

Most other small fish are carved in the same 
way, that is either by taking out the back bone 
and serving whole, or dividing with the knife 
into sections according to size. 

Partridge. — Cut up in the same way as a 
chicken. The choicest parts are the wings, 
breast, and merrythought ; but the bird being 
small the two latter are not often divided. The 
wing is considered the best, and the tip is 
reckoned the most delicate morsel of the 
whole. 

Pigeons, Quails, Woodcock, etc. — These 
are usually cut in half, either lengthwise down 
the back, or across just at the wings. The 
lower part is considered the best. All the 
smaller birds, if too large to serve whole, are 
cut up in the same way. 

Ribs of Beef.— Carve in the same man- 
ner as the sirloin ; this gives a due proportion 



of fat and lean to each slice, which should be 
thin and clean cut. 

Round of Beef. — This is cut in the same 
way as a fillet of veal (which see). A deep slice 
should be taken off before beginning to help. 
When helping the fat be careful not to break it, 
but cut it smooth. 

Saddle of Mutton is carved in three 
different ways: 1st, in longitudinal slices along 
each side of the backbone, by which the lean 
and fat do not come in the same slice ; 2d, by 
transverse slices, taking in the bones, and 




Saddle of Mutton. 

which therefore must be thick and clumsy ; 
and 3d, by oblique slices, slightly curved, 
which is by far the best plan. The knife be- 
gins at the bone near the tail, and after cutting 
off the outside, takes a series of parallel slices 
all through the joint, as marked in accompany- 
ing cut. 

Salmon. — In carving salmon it is only 
necessary to avoid breaking the flakes, and this 
can best be done by carving lengthwise of the 
piece. The upper or thin part is considered 
choicest, but as some prefer the thickest por- 
tions it is well to ask each person which he 
prefers, and cut accordingly, making the slices 
rather thick. Or a thin slice of each may be 
served without inquiry. 

Shad. — Cut in slices crosswise of the 
fish, breaking the flakes as little as possible. 
The thicker portions are considered choicest, 
as they have fewer small bones. 

Shoulder of Mutton or Lamb. — This 
should be cut first in the hollow part, in the 
direction a, b, and the knife pressed deep to 
the bone. The best part of the fat Hes on the 




Shoulder of Mutton. 

outer edge, and is to be cut in thin slices in 
the direction /, e. When the hollow part in 
the line a, b is eaten, some very good slices 
may be cut on each side of the ridge of the 
backbone, in the direction c, d. The line be- 
tween these two dotted lines is that in the di- 



86 



CARVING 



CASTOR OIL 



rection of which the ridge of the backbone lies, 
and cannot be cut across. 

Shoulder of Veal. — This is carved lilce 
the shoulder of mutton by some ; but the best 
plan is to begin on the under side, and cut 
slices from the thick edge opposite the bone 
and parallel with it. When stuffed, a portion 
of the forcemeat must be served on each 
plate. 

Sirloin of Beef. — This is usually carved 
by cutting the upper side in slices parallel with 
the bone and commencing at the edge, the 
brown of which forms the first slice. On the 




Sirloin of Beef, 

ander side the knife is sometimes very unwise- 
ly cut into the grain, that is across the bone, 
by cutting through the middle down to the 
bone and removing the slices on each side. 
This part, however, tastes much better if cut 
on the same plan as the upper side, that is by 
commencing at the edge; but in this way the 
slices are small and do not look so handsome. 

Sucking-Pig. — This requires very little 
carving, as the knife may be carried through 
any of its bones without much trouble. It is 
usual to divide it into sections, about two 
inches broad and including about three ribs in 
the middle, and a part only of the fore and hind 
quarters at each end. 

Turbot. — The turbot requires peculiar 
carving, because, unlike other fish, its skin 
and fins are considered great delicacies. It is 
only necessary to carry the blade of the knife 
down to the bone along the middle of the back 
and then to make similar deep and clean cuts 
at right angles to this each way to the fins, a 
portion of which should be separated and kept 
with each square of fish, so as to avoid the 
breaking of the fins into pieces afterwards, 
which is by no means sightly. 

Turkey. — The art of carving a turkey lies 
in cutting the largest possible number of slices. 
The best way is to pass a short knife clear 
down to the bone, close to the wing, and then 
take a thin slice out from between this and the 
breast, continuing the same plan until the 
whole is exhausted, after which the other side 
may be carved in the same way. In serving, a 
portion of the stuffing should be placed in each 
plate, and if there are sausages or balls, a part 
of each of them. When both sides of the 
breast are used up without all being helped, 
the legs must be taken off by carrying the knife 
backwards between them and the body, until it 
is stopped by the joint, when by means of the 



fork stuck in the leg it is severed from the 
body, the knife completing the removal by its 
edge. In dividing the leg into its two portions, 
the knife should be used against the inside of 
the joint, where it enters with much less diffi- 
culty than on the outside. If the bird is too 
small to be carved in this way, disjoint in the 
manner suggested for chickens. 

CASEIN. — The principal constituent of 
cheese. It is easily obtained by taking the 
curd from milk and washing it repeatedly in 
pure cold water; it is employed in making 
cheese cakes and other agreeable dishes. 
When dried the composition resembles albu- 
men and gelatin; and is very wholesome and 
nutritious. 

CASHEW NUT.— This is a native of the 
West Indies, whence it is brought to our mar- 
kets. It resembles the walnut in appearance, 
and has an agreeable, slightly acid taste. The 
eatable kernel is contained within two shells, 
and between the shells there is a thick rust- 
colored liquid, extremely inflammable, and 
so caustic that it will blister the skin. For 
this reason, the shell should be burned off 
before the nut is eaten ; if it is incautiously 
crushed by the teeth or hands the caustic 
oil will blister the lips or skin wherever 
it touches. The kernel is of a very fine 
flavor, superior to that of the almond, and 
abounds in a delicious milky juice when fresh ; 
it may be eaten raw, roasted, or pickled. Some 
also grind it with cocoa in making chocolate, 
the flavor of which it is said to improve. 

CASHMERE. (See Shawl.) 

CASSAVA. (See Tapioca.) 

CASSIMERE. — This is commonly called 
kersey7Here. It is a twilled woollen cloth, light 
of texture and more pliable than plain cloth, 
and especially suitable for vests and light coats. 
It is either single or double milled, the latter 
being the stoutest. It is usually woven of the 
width of thirty-four or thirty-six inches, and is 
reduced by milling to twenty-seven inches. 
From their twilled structure.cassimeres are more 
durable than plain cloth of equal lightness. 
There are French, English and American cas- 
simeres ; French is the best. Cassimere should 
always be carefully shrunk before cutting. 

CAST. {See Plaster.) 

CASTOR OIL. — A mild purgative obtained 
from the nuts of the castor-oil plant by subject- 
ing them to a high pressure. To make it, the 
fresh seeds are first bruised and then put into 
a cold press ; the oil is then pressed out and 
allowed to stand some time for the albumen, 
mucilage, and other matters to settle, after which 
it is strained off. That of good quality is a 
thickish fluid of a very pale yellow color, the 
best being almost limpid, with a slightly nau- 
seous odor and an oily taste. Bad oil is rancid 
and muddy yellow. Castor oil is a mild ca- 
thartic or laxative, operating without much 
griping or cramps, and generally within a few 
hours after it is taken. It is considered a 
suitable laxative in certain inflammatory states 
of the bowels, and is used to a considerable 



CAT 



CATAWBA WINE 



87 



extent in dysenteric affections when the pas- 
sages are bloody and attended with straining. 
Mixed with turpentine (half a teaspoonful of 
turpentine to one tablespoonful of the oil) it is 
very effective in expelling worms. The chief 
objection to castor oil is its nauseating taste ; 
if, however, it is put into half a cup of strong 
coffee and drunk off rapidly, it is rendered 
more endurable. An ounce of castor oil, 
mixed with fifteen to twenty drops of pure 
liquor potassae, an ounce of distilled water, and 
a drachm of spirit of pimento or of nutmeg, will 
make an emulsion which is equally effective 
and not unpleasant to take. The most agree- 
able way, however, to take castor oil is to place 
it in the foam of ale or porter, which pre- 
vents its adhering to the mouth and throat. 
The usual dose is about two tablespoonfuls for 
adults and from a teaspoonful upward for 
children. 

CAT. — There are many varieties of the do- 
mestic cat, among the most remarkable of 
which are the Maltese or Chartreuse cat, of a 
bluish gray color ; the Persian cat, with long 
white or gray hair; the Angora cat, with very 
long silky hair, generally of a brownish white 
color; and the tortoise-shell or Spanish cat, 
the most beautiful of all. These are all fairly 
good mousers ; but for this purpose none of the 
pet breeds are equal to the common white, and 
yellow, and spotted kind. The cat is probably 
the cleanliest of animals, avoiding to step in 
any kind of filth, concealing its excrement in 
the earth witli great care, and keeping its fur 
in very neat condition notwithstanding an in- 
vincible repugnance for water. It is very easy 
to raise, and is extremely prolific, producing 
from three to six at a litter. If a male is cas- 
trated while young (the best time is when he is 
about six weeks old) he will attain larger size 
and be more gentle and domestic ; it makes 
him unsociable, however, and intolerant of 
the presence of any other cat. If cats are al- 
lowed to run at large, especially if any open 
fields or woods are near at hand, they are 
never subject to disease. Those kept too 
closely confined frequently have fits, for which 
a bucket of cold water dashed over them is a 
good remedy, but which can only be cured by 
cutting off the end of the tail — an operation 
which causes only slight pain if skilfully done 
with a sharp knife or when the cat is in a fit. 
Although capable of showing considerable 
fondness for an individual, cats seem to have 
an affection for places rather than persons, 
and it is very hard to wean them from any 
home to which they have grown accustomed. 
The only way to induce them to remain in a 
new place is to carry them to it blindfolded, 
and to keep them shut in for several days until 
they have grown accustomed to the new sur- 
roundings and to seeing the familiar faces 
around. 

CATALEPSY. — A disease in which there 
is a sudden suspension of volition and of the 
action of the senses ; the limbs and body pre- 
serving the different positions given them, and 



even the face the expression which it had when 
the paroxysm commenced. The circulation 
and respiration are in most cases but little 
affected ; but occasionally they are greatly de- 
pressed and even imperceptible. This disease 
bears a great resemblance to the mesmeric 
state, and is so often feigned that many have 
doubted and denied its existence. There can 
be no serious doubt, however, that it is some- 
times though not often a real disease. The 
hysterical and melancholic are most disposed to 
it, and it occurs most often in young females of 
a nervous habit; the paroxysm is generally 
brought on by some strong mental emotion, 
such as religious excitement, or by some dis- 
order of the digestive or secretive organs. The 
duration of the attack is variable ; sometimes it 
is over in a few minutes, sometimes it lasts 
twelve or fourteen hours, and cases are record- 
ed in which it has been prolonged to twenty and 
even thirty days. During all this time the un- 
varying motionless attitude and fixed expression 
give a strange and corpse-like look to the suf- 
ferer. In a case of catalepsy a physician must 
be summoned at once ; and the only treatment 
that can be ventured on in his absence is to 
loose all the clothes, to immerse the feet in a 
hot mustard foot-bath, and to make cold appli- 
cations to the head. In the intervals between 
the fits, means should be employed to improve 
the general health and to give tone to the ner- 
vous system. As a rule cataleptic patients re- 
cover from the attack much sooner when left 
entirely alone than when subjected to active 
treatment. 
CATAMENIA. {See Menstruation.) 
CATAPLASM.— A plaster or poultice ap- 
plied externally to some part of the body. It 
is used generally either to check inflammation 
and allay pain, or to promote suppuration and 
at the same time lessen the pain which accom- 
panies it. For the former purpose it is applied 
cold ; and cotton-wool, steeped in water, and 
bound to the part with a tight bandage, is a sim- 
ple and effective application for the purpose. 
When intended to hasten the progress of in- 
flammation to suppuration, poultices should be 
as hot as the parts will bear. {See Poultices.) 
CATARRH. {See Colds and Influenza.) 
CATAWBA WINE.— One of the best 
and most popular of the native American wines, 
considered by many to be superior to most of 
the French and German wines, at least such 
of them as are to be had in our markets. It is 
made from the Catawba grapes, which grow- 
abundantly in the valley of the Ohio and in 
other parts of the country. It is a sweet wine, 
containing in its pure state from ten to twelve 
per cent, of alcohol, and is made either into 
still or sparkling wine; the latter, which is 
most in demand, contains an addition of alco- 
hol and consequently is stronger. Catawba 
wine is mostly white, though some red wine is 
made. It is fit for use two years from the time 
the grapes are pressed, but reaches perfection, 
according to Mr. Longworth when about seven 
years old. The still wine should be drunk at 



88 



CATERPILLAR 



CATSUP 



a temperature about the same as that of the 
room. 

CATERPILLAR, — The common name ap- 
plied to the larvae of the lepidopterous insects, 
such as butterflies, moths, hawk-moths, etc. 
The varieties of caterpillars are practically 
innumerable, there being over six hundred in 
New England alone. Many of them feed on 
leaves, some species being restricted to a 
single kind of plant; some feed on flowers, 
some on seeds, some on roots, and some even 
on the woody portions of the stems; others 
on wool, hides, furs, and other aniinal substan- 
ces, such as lard and fat. The common cater- 
pillar is very destructive to trees, stripping 
them of their foliage in an incredibly short 
time, and unless vigorously dealt with, they 
will ruin an orchard of fruit-trees in a single 
season. The surest protection is to plant 
tansy around the roots, and when this is not 
practicable, whitewash the trunk from the 
ground up to the height of six feet. When 
they build their nests in a tree (their nests are 
a silky web like that of the spider, but much 
more compact and closely woven), they must 
be cut down on a damp day and destroyed ; or 
else burned out by fixing cotton to the end of a 
long pole and dipping it in pitch. Care must 
be taken in the latter case not to injure the 
tree. Boring a hole in apple-trees infested 
with caterpillars and filling it with sulphur will 
often drive them away immediately. The 
caterpillars which infest flowers and garden- 
plants, can only be kept away by watering the 
plants frequently and copiously, and by ex- 
amining them often during the Spring and 
Summer. Several drugs are recommended for 
driving them off, but these are nearly always 
injurious to the plants. 

CATFISH. — Found in the markets from 
February to May, and again in October and 
November. They weigh from a quarter to 




three-quarters of a pound each, and have large 
flat heads, a smooth slimy brown skin, with no 
scales on the back, and a whitish belly. The 
smaller fish are best, and all of them should 
be skinned before cooking. 

Fried Catfish. — Select small fish, skin them, 
clean, and remove the heads ; then sprinkle 
them with salt and lay them aside in a cool 
place for an hour or so. Fry them in lard or 
drippings over a brisk fire, and serve as soon 
as done. They may also be prepared by 
dipping them first into eggs beaten to a froth 
and then rolling them in powdered cracker; fry 
as before. 

Stewed Catfish. — Prepare as for frying, not 
omitting to let them stand in salt lor an hour. 
Put them into a sauce-pan over a moderate 
fire, pour in enough cold water to cover them, 



and stew slowly for half an hour or till they 
are done. Add one teaspoonful of butter, one 
of flour mixed to a paste with a little cold water, 
a minced onion, a little parsley chopped fine, 
and pepper. Let it boil a minute or so, then 
dish and serve with the gravy. 

CATHARTICS. — A class of medicines that 
act strongly on the bowels as purgatives. Their 
number is very large, and they may be divided 
into several classes : mechanical, including 
unbolted meal of various kinds, fruits, and 
mustard seed ; oily, as castor and croton oil : 
saline, as magnesia and its carbonate, sul- 
phate, and citrate, sulphate and phosphate of 
soda, etc. ; acid or bitter, as rhubarb, senna, 
colocynth, and aloes ; resinous, as jalap, gam- 
boge, scammony ; and mercurial, as calomel 
and blue pill. Their action varies greatly, from 
the mild and almost natural effect of magnesia 
and aloes, to the violent purging of jalap and 
gamboge. Cathartics are very commonly used 
in domestic medicine, and probably no class of 
drugs is so frequently abused; a resort to them 
being so easy as to lead in many instances to 
the neglect of highly important hygienic rules. 
A due attention to diet, exercise, and bathing 
would be a far more effective remedy than any 
cathartics for a majority of the difficulties for 
which the latter are used. In many cases, 
however, their use is necessary, and directions 
for them are given under the various diseases. 
Castor oil, epsom salts, magnesia, aloes, rhu- 
barb, and senna, are the only cathartics 
that should be used without medical advice; 
the most violent ones may produce serious 
results. No cathartics, however, either should 
or can be relied upon to cure constipation, to 
" work off a cold," or to relieve dyspepsia; in 
all such cases a cure can be looked for only in 
a due observance of hygienic laws. 

CATNIP or CATMINT, a plant which 
grows wild in the fields throughout the United 
States, the leaves of which are much employed 
as a domestic remedy. The leaves, which are 
the only part of the plant used, are aromatic, 
and pungent and somewhat bitter to the taste. 
Cats are very fond of them, and are said to 
use them medicinally. Catnip tea, the form in 
which catnip is administered, is an infusion 
made by pouring hot water on the leaves and 
allowing them to steep. It acts as a tonic and 
excitant, and possibly is an antispasmodic; ina 
much diluted form, with a little sugar in it, it is 
often given to very young infants to soothe 
them and to expel the wind from their stomachs. 
Chewing the leaves is said to be good for the 
toothache. The leaves may be preserved by dry- 
ing them in the sun and keeping them in a dry 
place. They are best when the plant is in bloom. 

CATSUP.— The catsups sold in stores are 
generally poor stuff, made of dubious ingre- 
dients, and the fruitful source of indigestion 
and other disorders of the stomach. At their 
best they seldom equal the home made ; and it 
is so easily made that every family should 
provide its own supplies. In making catsup 
never use a copper or brass kettle. 



CAUDLE 



CAULIFLOWER 



89 



Mushroom Catsup. — Take : - Mushrooms, 
salt, pepper and allspice. 

Select mushrooms full grown, and with large 
flaps ; put a layer of these at the bottom of a 
pan, and sprinkle them with salt: then an- 
other layer of mushrooms and salt ; and so on 
alternating the layers till the desired quantity 
is prepared : let them stand two or three 
hours ; then pound them in a mortar, or mash 
them with the hands, and let them remain two 
days (no longer), stirring them up and pressing 
them well each day. Now pour them into a 
stone jar, and for each quart add an ounce and 
a half of whole black pepper, and half an 
ounce of allspice ; cover the jar closely, set in 
a pan of boiling water, and boil it for two 
hours. Strain the juice off without pressing 
the mushrooms, into a clean stew-pan, and 
boil it very gently for half an hour. Skim 
it well, pour it into a clean jar, and let it stand 
till cold ; then strain it through a flannel bag, 
bottle it, seal uptight, and keep in a cool place. 
Examine it from time to time by putting a 
strong light behind the neck of the bottle, and 
if any scum appears about it, boil it up again 
with a few peppercorns. 

Tomato Catsup. — Take .--Tomatoes, i gal. ; 
salt, 4 tablespoonfuls ; black pepper, 4 table- 
spoonfuls ; mustard, 3 tablespoonfuls ; allspice, 
I tablespoonful ; cloves, i tablespoonful ; cay- 
enne pepper, i teaspoonful ; vinegar or white 
wine, I pt. 

Take one gallon of nice ripe tomatoes, cut 
them in half, sprinkle four even tablespoonfuls 
of salt over them and put them in the preserv- 
ing kettle with one pint of good vinegar ; let 
them simmer slowly for three hours, stirring 
often ; then strain to avoid the skin and seeds ; 
add four tablespoonfuls of ground black pepper, 
three of mustard, one of allspice, one of cloves, 
one teaspoonful of cayenne pepper, or two or 
three pods of red pepper; boil until reduced to 
two quarts, then bottle and seal. 

Walnut Catsup. — Take -.-YoViVLg walnuts, 
10 dozen; vinegar, 21^ pts ; salt, 3^ lb; whole 
black pepper, i j^ oz ; nutmegs, >^ oz ; 40 cloves ; 
ginger, j^ oz ; mace, % oz. 

Bruise ten dozen young and tender walnuts, 
add to them three quarters of a pound of salt 
and a quart of good vinegar ; let them stand 
two weeks, stirring them every day : then strain 
them through a cloth and squeeze them, and 
set the juice aside ; add to the husks half a 
pint of vinegar, and let it stand over night : 
then strain and squeeze as before, and add" the 
liquor thus obtained to that set aside the day 
before. Add one ounce and a quarter of 
whole black pepper, half an ounce of nutmegs 
bruised or sliced, 40 cloves, half an ounce of gin- 
ger, and a quarter of an ounce of mace ; boil it 
half an hour, then strain and bottle it for use. 

CAUDLE. — This is a preparation very use- 
ful in the sick-room. 

Ale Caudle. — To a quart of thick rice or 
water-gruel add a pint of ale and enough of 
allspice to flavor, and of sugar to sweeten it. 
Boil for five minutes, stirring constantly : then 



strain it, and put in a cool place till wanted. 
This is very nourishing and palatable. 

Flour Caudle. — Put into a pudding basin a 
pound of flour, cover the basin over, and set 
it in a kettle of boiling water ; keep it boiling 
two hours : the flour will then be converted 
into a hard ball with a brown crust, which 
must be removed : then grate the flour, and 
set away in a jar for use. To make into a cau- 
dle, rub a dessertspoonful of it into five table- 
spoonfuls of cold water ; set over the fire five 
tablespoonfuls of new milk and two teaspoon- 
fuls of sugar, and ju-t when it boils add the 
flour and water. Stir the whole over a slow 
fire for twenty minutes : it is then ready for 
use. This caudle is good for young children 
whose bowels are too loose. 

Rice Caudle.; — Mix one tablespoonful of 
ground rice in half a teacupful of cold water, 
and pour it into a quart of boiling water. 
Let it boil till it thickens, stirring all the 
time : when it begins to thicken, add a wine- 
glass of brandy, sweeten to taste, and flavor with 
grated nutmeg and lemon peel. Boil it a little 
longer until perfectly smooth, and then strain 
it. This is a strong and highly nutritious food. 

CAULIFLOWER.— A plant of the cabbage 
tribe, differing from broccoli only in being 
whiter and less hardy. It has a compact, 
rounded head of very delicate flavor, stand- 
ing on a stock eighteen inches to two feet in 
height, surrounded by long leaves. Two 
crops of the cauliflower may be raised in one 
season. For the early crop, seed should be 
sown in September in good rich soil, and in 
about four weeks transplanted to a cold frame, 
set two or three inches apart, and carefully 
protected by glass during the winter. In Feb- 
ruary, set tliem in another frame, eight to 
twelve inches apart, to prevent a spindling 
growth ; and transplant to the garden as early 
in spring as possible. Set them three feet 
from each other, and water them well and hoe 
them during dry weather. In transplanting 
lift a ball of earth with the roots to secure 
continuous growth. For the second crop, sow 
the seed in an open bed in May, and transplant 
to the garden in July. Those plants which do 
not head before frost may be removed to a dry 
cellar or shed, covered with litter, and allowed 
to head during early winter. 

Boiled Cauliflower. — White cauliflowers are 
the best. Take off the outside leaves, cut the 
stalk off close to the head, and let them lie in 
salt and water for half an hour before cooking. 
Boil them fifteen or twenty minutes, according 
to size, adding a little salt to the water. Dish 
carefully to avoid breaking the leaves, and serve 
at once with drawn butter. 

Pickled Cauliflower.— Separate the stems, 
wash them carefully and sprinkle with salt, 
using half a pint for a peck. In twelve hours 
shake off the salt, lay the pieces in jars and 
pour over them boiling vinegar, which has boded 
for five minutes, with these ingredients :— To 
one gallon of vinegar add half a pint of sugar, 
twelve blades of mace, twenty four white pep- 



90 



CAVIARE 



CEMENTS 



percorns ; of mustard and celery seed, a table- 
spoonful each, and some bits of red pepper pods. 
The jars or cans must be closed at once. 

Scalloped Cauliflower. — Boil as above, 
and pack them, stems downward, in a buttered 
pudding dish. Make a sauce with a cupful of 
laread-crumbs beaten to a froth with two table- 
spoonfuls of melted butter and three of cream 
or milk, one well-beaten egg, and pepper and 
salt to taste. Pour this over the cauliflower, 
cover the dish tightly, and bake six minutes in 
a quick oven, browning them nicely. Serve 
hot in the dish they were cooked in. 

Stewed Cauliflower. — Common heads will 
do for this. Boil them till about half done ; 
drain them, place them in a stew-pan stems 
downwards, and set on a slow fire with a 
spoonful of fat. Stir gently so as not to break 
them, and in about five minutes add half a gill 
of broth (or half a teacupful of milk thickened 
with a tablespoonful of flour or rice), and sea- 
son with salt or pepper ; simmer till done, 
stirring now and then, dish them, turn the 
sauce over them, and serve hot. 

CAVIARE. — A kind of food made of the 
roes of large fish such as the sturgeon, cod, 
and salmon. It is made chiefly in Russia, 
whence it is exported to this country in kegs. 
It makes an excellent breakfast dish, served 
between slices of toast ; and is also good on 
bread with a drop or two of oil and vinegar. 
The caviare which is made up in thin cakes is 
of an inferior quality. 

CAYENNE. — A pepper made of the several 
varieties of the capsicum plant, which grows 
in the East and West Indies, in South Amer- 
ica, and to some extent in this country. It is 
the most powerful of the spices, has an acrid 
taste, produces a fiery sensation in the mouth 
if taken in any but the smallest quantities, and 
is said to promote the digestion of many kinds 
of food and especially of fish. It does not 
leave the irritating and weakening effect upon 
the stomach which black pepper produces if 
constantly used. The cayenne of commerce is 
in the form of a powder, and it is subject to 
gross adulterations. Red lead and vermilion 
are sometimes added to it to preserve its color 
which fades with age, and cases of poisoning 
have been traced to this cause ; ground rice, 
salt, and turmeric, are more harmless ad- 
ditions, — salt is nearly always added to in- 
crease the weight and prevent the powder from 
rising into the air too readily in the form of 
dust. Guinea cayenne is the hottest and 
strongest, but that which comes from the West 
Indies is best. Cayenne pepper makes an ex- 
cellent gargle (a teaspoonful steeped in a pint 
of water) in scarlet fever ; and it is also said to 
relieve the nausea of sea-sickness. Great care 
must be taken in handling not to let it get into 
the eyes, as it is not only very painful but 
dangerous. 

CELERY. — An umbelliferous plant which 
in its wild state is said to be poisonous, but 
which when brought under cultivation becomes 
an agreeable and wholesome vegetable. It 



requires a deep, rich, mellow soil. Some of 
the best celery is obtained from swamp land, 
and it is a semi-aquatic plant. Plant the seed 
in a well-prepared bed from the end of March 
to the beginning of May ; when the plants are 
two or three inches high, transplant them to 
another bed similarly prepared. Let them 
grow here until they are from six to ten inches 
high, and then transfer them to the final bed; 
plant in rows three feet apart, and at regular 
intervals, in the row, of eight inches. As they 
advance in size and become a foot or so in 
height the earth must be heaped up about them 
frequently, and nearly to the leaves. This lat- 
ter process is called " blanching." The surface 
soil must not be too moist, but a wet subsoil is 
not so injurious as to most other plants. The 
season for celery begins about the middle of 
August, but it is always slightly bitter till frost 
has touched it ; it is found in the markets till 
about the first of April. In choosing for salad, 
select the solid, close, clean, and white stalks, 
with a large, close heart. For soups, inferior 
stalks, the leaves, and even the seeds, answer 
every purpose. Before sending to the table cut 
off the roots and scrape the stalks, rejecting any 
that are green and tough ; let the white, tender 
leaves nearest the heart remain. Keep it in 
cold water until it is sent to the table. 

Salad. — Clean the celery, and wipe it dry ; 
split the stalks and cut into pieces about an 
inch long, put into a salad dish with salt, vine- 
gar and a little mustard ; stir and let it stand 
an hour, then add pepper and oil, stir again, and 
serve. Or use Mayonnaise sauce. 

Sauce (for Poultry) Cut up four or five 

celery heads into small pieces, and boil them in 
half a pint of water till tender; mix two tea- 
spoonfuls of flour with half a teacupful of milk 
and add it to the celery, with half a teaspoon- 
ful of salt, and a teaspoonful of butter; boil 
it once and serve. 

CEMENTS.— It would require several pages 
merely to enumerate the different kinds of 
cement, and the different purposes to which 
they are applied ; but we shall only include 
here such of those as will prove most useful in 
the household. 

Alabaster Cement.— Trtt/t-?. -Beeswax, I lb; 
rosin, i lb; alabaster (powdered), f lb. 

This is for mending broken alabaster orna- 
ments, and is extremely strong. Take a pound 
of white beeswax and one of rosin, melt them, 
and add three quarters of a pound of finely 
powdered alabaster. Stir the whole well to- 
gether; then knead the mass in warm water in 
order to incorporate the alabaster with the 
other ingredients. The alabaster to be mend- 
ed must be perfectly dry and heated; the 
cement must also be heated. Cover the frac- 
tured parts with the cement, join them together, 
bind them tightly, and let them remain undis- 
turbed for a week. 

Bottle Cement.— TTiyt^ .--Sealing-wax, \ lb; 
rosin, \ lb; beeswax, 2 oz. 

This is for sealing the corks of bottles. 
Melt together a quarter of a pound of sealing 



CENTURY PLANT 



CHAMPAGNE 



91 



wax, a quarter of a pound of rosin, and a couple 
of ounces of beeswax ; when it froths stir it 
with a tallow candle. As soon as it is melted, 
dip the mouths of the corked bottles into it, and 
set them away to cool. This is an excellent 
cement for excluding air from all such things 
as are injured by exposure. 

Cheese Cement. — Take .-Cheese ; quick- 
lime ; white of egg. 

This is very durable for mending coarse 
china or earthen-ware. Take some fresh cheese, 
pound it, and wash it through warm water till 
all the soluble matter is extracted ; then strain 
dry and it will crumble. By drying it upon 
blotting paper, it may be kept a long time. 
For use, mix the cheese with quicklime (in the 
proportions of one ounce of cheese to half an 
ounce of quicklime), and add enough white of 
^^^^ to make it into a paste. When ready it 
must be applied immediately, as it dries quickly, 
and cannot be melted a second time. 

China Cement. — Take .--Gum-arabic ; plaster 
of Paris. 

A very white trement for mending fine china. 
Take a very thick solution of gum-arabic in 
water, and stir into it plaster of Paris till it is 
of the consistency of thick paste. Apply it 
with a brush to the fractured edges of the 
china, stick them together, and bind them. In 
three days the article cannot be broken in the 
same place. 

Diamond Cement. — 7h:/&^.--Isinglass ; proof 
spirit ; resin, or gum ammoniac ; alcohol. 

This is very good for mending broken glass. 
It is made by steeping isinglass in water till it 
swells, and then dissolving it in proof spirit, to 
which must be added a little gum resin or gum, 
ammoniac dissolved in the smallest possible 
quantity of alcohol. It should be heated before 
it is applied. It will only partially resist moist- 
ure. 

Iron-ware Cement. — Take. --Iron file dust; 
quicklime ; whites of eggs. 

Beat the whites of eggs to a froth ; then stir 
into them enough finely powdered quicklime to 
make a thin paste ; then add enough iron file 
dust to make a thick paste. Fill the cracks in 
iron-ware with this cement, and let it remain sev- 
eral weeks before using. 

Japanese Cement. — Mix rice flour with cold 
water to a smooth paste, and boil it gently for 
twenty minutes. It answers all the purposes 
of wheat flour paste, while it is much superior 
both in transparency and in smoothness. 

"Wax Cement. — Ta^^ , --Yellow wax ; turpen- 
tine ; Venetian red. 

Melt yellow wax, mix with its weight of tur- 
pentine, and add a little Venitian red to color 
it. This, when cold, is as hard as soap, but it 
can be softened by the warmth of the hand. 
It is useful to stop up cracks ; and is better 
than the hard cement for covering the corks of 
bottles that are not going to be kept very long. 

CENTURY PLANT. (See Ac AVE.) 

CESSPOOL. {See Drainage.) 

CHABLIS. — A sweetish white wine, similar 
to Burgundy, which is raised near the town of 



Chablis, in the south of France. It is very 
fine, and much esteemed by epicures as an 
accompaniment to oysters. The best brands 
are Boiiguereau, Mont dii Millieii, Valnnir, 
and Vajtdesir. It should be drunk at a 
temperature a little lower than that of the 
room. 

CHALK. — Mineral substance, consisting 
principally of carbonate of lime derived from 
the shells of myriads of minute marine animals. 
It is of friable texture, and easily rubbed to a 
powder. In a powdered state it is sold as 
the prepared chalk., so useful for polishing 
brass, tin, and glass. French chalk is a pure 
variety of steatite or talc, used by tailors for 
marking their cloth : it is also mixed with 
cosmetics to give them body. Whiting or 
Spanish white., is chalk finely ground and pu- 
rified by washing and separating the hard par- 
ticles. It is highly useful for cleaning the 
finer metals. 

Camphorated Chalk. {See ToOTH Pow- 
ders.) 

CHAMOIS-SKIN.— The skin of the cham- 
ois, a species of goat or antelope which runs 
wild in the fastnesses of the Swiss Alps. The 
skin, when properly tanned, is extremely soft 
and pliable, more so than even that of the kid, 
and can be put to many uses in the household. 
It is unequalled for polishing smooth and highly 
finished surfaces, such as jewellery, silver-ware, 
glass, pianos, and other furniture. It is also 
excellent for packing away choice articles of 
jewellery or table-ware, as it is comparatively 
impervious to dampness. In selecting, choose 
that which is pliable and free from lumpy spots. 
If it is once wetted it becomes harsh and can 
afterwards be used only for the coarser kinds 
of cleaning ; when used as a duster it should 
be carefully shaken out each time or it will 
hold the coarser grains of dust and scratch 
the furniture. 

CHAMOMILE. {See Camomile.) 

CHAMPAGNE.— The most celebrated of 
the French wines, chiefly produced in the 
province of that name. It is generally under- 
stood in this country to be a brisk, efferves- 
cing, sparkling white wine of a peculiar flavor ; 
but this is only one of several varieties. There 
are both red and white champagnes, and both of 
them may be either sparkling or still : the spark- 
ling wines are called mousseux, and the still 
non-mousseux. The sparkling are most highly 
esteemed, on account of their delicate flavor, 
and the agreeable pungency which is given 
them by the carbonic acid they contain. There 
is a great difference in the quality of champagne 
wines, according to the particular vineyards at 
which they have been made. The finest are 
produced in the sloping grounds on the north 
bank of the river Marne ; and they are mostly 
white wines. Dry champagnes {i.e., not sweet) 
are growing in favor, especially among those 
with whom sugar disagrees. There is no 
wine, with the possible exception of sherry, 
that is more extensively adulterated and imi- 
tated by artificial combinations than sparkling 



92 



CHAPPED HANDS 



CHARLOTTE DE RUSSE 



champagne. The sparkling of champagne is 
properly caused by the fermentation of rock 
candy introduced into still wine. Inferior 
wines have carbonic acid pumped in ; in either 
case the sparkle cannot be depended upon for 
more than two years. The red champagnes 
are not used much in this country ; they seldom 
equal Burgundy which they much resemble. 
That. of Clos de St. Thierry is considered the 
best. 

In selecting champagne, many consider the 
briskness and effervescence as a test of their 
excellence ; but a good judge will prefer a 
liquor of moderate briskness, as much of the 
aroma evaporates with the froth. Champagne 
must be kept in an equable temperature, and 
cooled by ice, outside of the bottle, never in 
the wine. It intoxicates quickly and the ex- 
citement it produces is of a more vivacious and 
agreeable character than that which comes 
from any other wine, but its duration is 
shorter, and the reaction less. For this rea- 
son it is an admirable tonic for invalids and for 
all who are suffering from a low state of the 
system. The best brands are : Pomery and 
Greno, Roederer, Mumm, Due de Montebello, 
Krug, Giesler, and Heidsick. Veuve Clicquot 
is highly prized as one of the best of the sweet 
wines. 

Champagne Prappee. — This is made by 
freezing the champagne in salt and ice until it 
has the consistence of snow. When served in 
tills way it is very delicate and refreshing. 

CHAPPED HANDS.— An excellent appli- 
cation for chapped hands or lips may be made 
as follows : First dissolve one drachm of borax 
in one ounce of rose-water, and add it to half an 
ounce of glycerine ; melt one drachm of sperm- 
aceti in the same quantity of olive oil, and ten 
drachms of pure lard ; add the solution to that, 
little by little, stirring all the time, and continue 
to stir until it is nearly cold. Warm it slightly 
before applying ; it will restore the skin to its 
softness and smoothness without parching it 
as pure glycerine does. A simple remedy is 
this : Take common starch, and grind it with 
a knife until it is reduced to the smoothest 
powder, put it in a clean tin box, so as to have 
it continually at hand for use. Then, every 
time that the hands are taken from the suds or 
dish-water, rinse them thoroughly in clear 
water wipe them, and while they are yet 
damp rub a pinch of the starch thoroughly over 
them, covering the whole surface. If care is 
taken to wipe the hands perfectly dry after 
washing, chapping is not likely to occur. 

CHARCOAL — That part of wood which re- 
mains after the other elements, oxygen and 
hydrogen, have been extracted by partial com- 
bustion. Next to the diamond, charcoal is the 
purest form of carbon known to us. As it ig- 
nites very readily it is very useful in starting 
fires of other fuel, and as it gives out no smoke 
or flame in burning it can be used under cir- 
cumstances where no other fuel would be en- 
durable. It is also useful in the kitchen when 
a sudden accession of heat is required, or when 



a steady fire is wanted for a limited time. In 
this country, however, charcoal is not much 
used for domestic purposes ; it is more expen- 
sive than wood or coal, it requires constant 
attention, and its use, especially in close rooms, 
is highly dangerous. In burning, it throws off 
large quantities of carbonic acid gas ; and, as 
this gas is invisible and odorless, suffocation 
from it is peculiarly liable to ensue. Many 
fatal accidents have resulted from burning 
charcoal in close rooms, or in stoves where 
draughts are imperfect. The first sensation 
when it has become dangerous is a slight sense 
of weakness ; the limbs feel powerless and the 
head heavy. A slight giddiness, accompanied 
by a distinct feeling of flush or glow on the 
face and neck, succeeds. Soon after, the per- 
son becomes drowsy, wishes to sit down, but 
commonly falls insensible to the floor, snoring 
heavily as in apoplexy. When any of these 
symptoms are felt, the person should at once 
seek the open air. The proper treatment for 
a person suffocated by charcoal, is to remove 
him immediatfily to the open air; then drop 
cold Avater over his head and chest, and if 
breathing has ceased, imitate respiration by 
breathing strongly into his mouth and expelling 
the air by pressing gently on his chest. When 
he has recovered sufficiently to swallow, ad- 
minister hot coffee, or brandy and water. A 
strong stimulus, such as hartshorn, apj^lied to 
the feet is also very good. 

CHARLOTTE De RUSSE.— (0^r<7/^/^). 
Take .--Cream i pt ; powdered sugar, y, teacup- 
ful ; chocolate (grated), 3 tablespoonfuls ; gela- 
tine, Yz oz. ; eggs 4; vanilla, i teaspoonful ; 
sponge cake. 

Heat a pint of cream slowly to the boiling 
point; add half a cupful of powdered sugar, 
three tablespoonfuls of grated chocolate stirred 
into a little milk, and half an ounce of gelatine, 
soaked in 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water : when 
these are dissolved, add the mixture by spoon- 
fuls to the beaten yolks of four eggs. Set the 
whole into a sauce-pan of boiling water, and 
stir until it becomes very hot, but do not let it 
boil ; then remove, flavor with a teaspoonful of 
vanilla, and whip it to a high froth, adding at 
the last the beaten whites of the four eggs. 
Line a mould with sponge cake, fill with the 
mixture, and set upon the ice until ready to be 
served. 

n. Whip stiff one and a half pints of cream 
and put it aside until it is set; now run off 
the thin cream that has settled to the bottom 
of the vessel; add to it half an ounce of gela- 
tin which has been steeped in cold water for 
two hours, five ounces of sugar, and a half 
inch of vanilla bean. Set it on a slow fire 
until it is thoroughly dissolved; then remove 
the vanilla bean, and whip into the mixture 
two raw yolks of eggs; when it is about to 
set, gently incorporate it with the whipped 
cream. Pour it into a mould carefully lined 
with lady-fingers or thin pieces of sponge-cake, 
and set it in a cold place to become firm, when 
it will be ready for use. 



CHECK (BANK) 



CHEESE 



93 



CHECK (BANK.) — A check is a written 
order addressed to a banker, by a person hav- 
ing money on deposit with him, directing him 
to pay on presentment lo a person named 
therein, or to his order, or to bearer, a certain 
sum of money. 

The following is the form of a check payable 
to bearer : 

No. 26. New York, May i, 1876. 

National Park Bank, 

Pay to John Doe, or bearer, 
One hundred and seventy-one 50-100 dollars. 
$171.50. Richard Roe. 

If the foregoing were written " to John Doe 
or order " (instead of bearer), no person could 
get the money but the one to whose order the 
check is drawn, unless the check is endorsed. 
See Endorseinent under Promissory Notes. 

In filling out checks it is advisable to begin 
to write the amount as near the left hand mar- 
gin of the blank as possible, so as not to leave 
room for inserting a larger sum. While it is a 
general rule that negotiable paper is vitiated by 
an alteration, even when it comes into the 
hands of an innocent third party, it has recently 
been decided that the maker is liable on an al- 
tered note, bill, or check to a bona fide holder, 
who takes it in the usual course of his business, 
before maturity, if he issues it in such a condi- 
tion that it may be easily altered without de- 
tection. 

Checks closely resemble bills of exchange, 
but differ in the following particulars : They 
are always drawn on a bank or banker ; they 
are payable immediately on presentment, and 
are not allowed days of grace ; they are not 
presented for acceptance merely, although they 
sometimes are for certification ; the drawer is 
not discharged by delay in presentment, unless 
he is prejudiced thereby, as by the intermedi- 
ate failure of the banker. 

Checks are governed by the same rules with 
regard to negotiability, transfer, endorsement, 
presentment, and notice of non-payment as 
promissory notes, which see. 

A certified check is one which is marked as 
" good " on its face by the cashier, or other 
proper officer of the bank on which it is drawn. 
The bank thereby becomes liable as acceptor, 
and is bound to pay the check when presented 
by an innocent holder for value (/. e. one who 
has honestly given value for it), whether it 
has funds of the drawer on deposit or not. 

As before stated, the drawer of a check is 
not discharged by delay in presentment, unless 
he is prejudiced thereby. But in order to 
charge the endorser the holder of a check must 
exercise due diligence in presenting it for pay- 
ment. When the parties reside in the same 
town it should be presented by the close of 
business hours on the next secular day after its 
receipt. When the parties do not reside in 
the same town, and presentment is to be made 
through the post office, the holder has until 
post time of such next secular day. 

CHECKERBERRY.— A little red berry, 
much like a miniature crab-apple, which is 



found growing upon a shrub from four to six 
inches high, on low sandy soils, usually among 
pines. It is very nice to eat raw as taken from 
the bush, and it is also used in syrups and con- 
fectionery. Checkerberries are sometimes put 
in whiskey or spirits, making " tea-berry rum." 
They are found in the markets in the winter 
and spring months. The leaves of the checker- 
berry bush make the essence of wintergreen. 
See Wintergreen 

CHEESE. — Cheese is obtained exclusively 
from the milk of animals, and its quality varies 
with the class, breed, and food of the animal, 
and the process of manufacture. The most 
ordinary source of cheese is the milk of the 
cow, and there are certain varieties of cows 
which produce much cheese and little butter, 
as there are others which produce much butter 
and little cheese. The kind of food given to 
the cows is very important, for just in propor- 
tion to the richness of the milk in casein and 
cream is the richness of the cheese. The 
value of cheese as an article of diet has not 
been entirely established. If we consider its 
chemical composition it is one of the richest of 
foods in nutritive elements ; but Dr. Smith has 
found that the popular belief that it is not 
easily digested is true. This objection, how- 
ever, applies only to the new and poor cheese ; 
those that are old and rich, not only digest 
easily but promote the digestion of other food. 
That which is old and dry (but not decayed) 
may be given to children to relieve constipa- 
tion. 

To Make. — Some of the best of foreign 
cheeses are made of skimmed milk, but in 
domestic manufacture it is impossible to pro- 
duce good cheese unless the milk is put in 
whole. The utensils required for making 
cheese are the cheese tub, in which the milk is 
coagulated and the curd pressed ; a large brass 
kettle for heating it in ; the cheese press, 3. 
power obtained by lever, screw, or weight ; the 
cheese cloth, a piece of thin open linen ; a 
cheese tray or ladder ; and cheese boards, 
circular pieces of wood on which the cheeses 
are put in the cheese room. ' These should all 
be washed thoroughly, scalded, and dried in 
the air each time they are used. 

The substance used for coagulating the 
milk is rennet, from the stomach of a calf. 
It can be bought already cured, and is pre- 
pared for use by soaking it in a quart of water 
for several days with a bit of lemon-peel and 
two or three cloves ; after it has soaked long 
enough, hang the rennet up to dry, and bottle 
the water for use. The quantity of rennet to 
be used will depend altogether on its strength, 
and as this varies it is impossible to give any 
precise directions as to it. If the rennet be 
good, however, half a teacupful ought to curdle 
ten gallons of milk in from an hour to an hour 
and a half. 

When all is ready, strain the milk into the 
tub ; then heat a portion of it in the kettle (be 
careful not to smoke it) and add it to the cold 
till the whole is raised to f)^'' to 98° Fahren- 



94 



CHEESE 



heit. Then stir in the rennet, and if the curd 
has not formed in an hour, add a little more. 
When the curd has become firm take a long 
knife and cut it into small checks to the bottom 
of the tub; great care must be taken, or part 
of the curd will run off into the whey and the 
cheese be injured. When the whey is of a 
greenish color the curd has been well formed. 
After the curd has sunk to the bottom, dip out 
some of the whey, and cut the curd up into 
still smaller pieces; then let it stand for a half 
or three quarters of an hour to settle thor- 
oughly. It is now time to separate the curd 
from the whey. Tilt up the tub slightly; col- 
lect the curd at the upper side; place upon it 
a semicircular board fitting the tub loosely; on 
this board place a heavy weight, and as the 
whey drains to the lower side of the tub ladle 
•it out. This operation of putting the curd 
under the weighted board must be repeated 
several times; then cut it up again into small 
pieces, turn the mass upside down, and press 
again until every particle of the whey has been 
extracted. Close attention is required in this 
part of the operation. The whey being all 
pressed out, the curd must now be scalded. 
Cut or break it into extremely small pieces, put 
it into the linen cloth, immerse it in the brass 
kettle containing warm water enough to cover 
it, and raise the temperature to 105°, and let it 
remain half an hour or till heated through; 
then add cold water gradually till the temper- 
ature is reduced to about 90°. Then drain 
the curd thoroughly as before, and salt it, 
allowing four ounces of fine salt for every ten 
pounds of curd, and mixing it in thoroughly. 
Put it into, the linen cloth, place it in the 
cheese hoops, spreading the cloth out smoothly, 
and then set it into the cheese-press and let it 
remain two days. When taken from the press 
grease it all over with common butter or butter 
made of whey-cream and set it away to ripen. 
It should be turned and greased every day till 
firm, and afterwards should be turned and 
greased at least once a week for six months. 

Good cheese does not require to be colored; 
but, if it is desired, dip a piece of arnotto (or 
anatto) into a bowl of milk and rub it around 
the side till the milk assumes a deep red color. 
Add this to the milk of which cheese is to be 
made in sufficient quantity to impart a bright 
orange color to the latter. This in no way 
affects the taste or smell of the cheese, but 
only makes it a rich orange yellow which 
deepens with age. Arnotto is adulterated with 
red lead, however, which is poisonous, and it 
should therefore be used carefully. Sage cheese 
is made by putting in sage juice along with the 
rennet. 

The cheese-room in which cheese is put to 
ripen may be a loft, and should be airy and dry. 
It should be kept of an equable temperature : 
too much warmth will make the cheese sweat 
and lose its oily parts, and too much air, or the 
rays of the sun, will dry it too fast and make it 
crack; a moderate ventilation with a temper- 
ature of about 650 to 70» is best. Cheese is 



liable to a kind of blistering, called heaving ; 
it is caused by a slight fermentation and the 
formation of air in the interior. The air may 
be released by pricking the cheese deep in the 
blistered places, and removing it for a time to 
a cooler situation. 

Cheese should be kept in a dry cool place ; 
and after it is cut, it should be wrapped in a linen 
cloth and put in a tight tin box till again 
required for use. 

Cottage Cheese. — This is not cheese prop- 
erly speaking, but it is a very pleasant prepar- 
ation of milk. Turn the milk by adding a 
little rennet or setting in a warm (but not hot) 
place. When the curd has formed, put it into 
a bag of coarse linen, and hang it up to dry till 
not another drop of whey can "be squeezed out 
of it. Then crumble it up fine, salt it to taste, 
and thin it to the consistency of paste with 
sweet cream. Cottage cheese is very nice 
eaten with sugar or preserves ; it is best when 
fresh. 

Cream Cheese. — Take sour cream, salt it 
to taste, and hang it up in a linen bag to drain 
until dry ; this will take two or three days. 
Then put it in a deep dish, still in the bag, and 
let it stay two weeks to ripen, sprinkling salt 
over it every day. If wanted to ripen quickly, 
cover it with mint or nettle leaves. Cream 
cheese is more digestible than ordinary cheese 
both because it is softer and more readily 
masticated, and has a smaller proportion of 
casein. 

The best cheese is not cofored, but many 
cheeses are colored by saffron, marigold leaves, 
sage grass, and, as already explained, by an- 
natto. 

Cows not exceeding 4 years old yield the 
best milk for cheese. The proportion of 
cheese obtained from milk varies according to 
the quality of the milk, the weather and season. 
In summer a gallon often makes a pound of 
cheese, while at other times 3 may be required. 

Milk often tastes of the food on which the 
cows are fed. The milk of turnip-fed cows 
has a disagreeable flavor which can be eradi- 
cated by a small quantity of saltpetre added to 
the milic while warm from the cow. 

Cheese is frequently infested by maggots. 
To prevent these, rub, brush and keep the 
cheese dry, well aired and each kind by itself. 
In Holland, where hydrochloric acid is used 
instead of rennet, the cheeses are reported 
never to have worms. But Holland cheeses are 
rather hard because of the use of this acid. 

Wine added to curd rapidly ripens cheese. 

If cheese aids digestion, it is the kind in which 
the process of decay has begun, which by induc- 
ing decomposition in the food alread}^ taken, 
acts as sour leaven does when incorporated 
with dough. 

Cheese is made from the milk of goats, sheep, 
and asses, as well as cows. The Tartars get 
their cheese from mares' milk, the Bedouins of 
the desert from camels'. In tropical climates 
buffalo's milk is used, and the Laplander makes 
a delicious cheese from reindeer's milk. The 



CHEESE 



CHERRY 



95 



Chinese have made cheese from peas and 
beans. In parts of Germany potatoes are 
boiled, mashed and mixed with the curd. In 
Arabia and the East a most unpalatable cheese 
is made by drying butter-milk curds into 
cheese, which is powdered for use. 

Cheese-making is more than 4000 years old. 
In the book of Job (chap. x. 10) is found, 
"Hast thou not poured me out as milk and 
curdled me like cheese." 

Homer (900 B. C.) in the Odyssey, makes 
Ulysses, in the cave of the Cyclops, admire 
"the bending shelves with loads of cheeses 
prest." 

Euripides, (407 B. C.) Theocritus, and the 
early poets, frequently allude to it. It was a 
common species of food in ancient Rome. 

Varieties in Market. 

The following cheeses can generally be 
found in the New York stores. It is best to 
take the advice of a reliable dealer, regarding 
the quantity of any cheese that it is wise to 
lay in at a time. 

Strong, in this list, means of a high flavor 
and odor, but not necessarily sharp. Most 
new cheeses are relatively mild, and develope 
their characteristics, especially sharpness, 
with age. 

American Cheeses — Pine Apple, — English 
Dairy (imitations of). Factory, and the home- 
made Cottage cheese, like the Schmeer Kase 
of the Germans. 

None of the American cheeses are classed 
among strong cheeses. They are good all 
the year around, but the Cottage is best in 
summer. 

English Cheeses (Of variable strength, 
sometimes sharp). — Stilton comes first in 
fame and price. It is so named from the 
place where it was first sold. The cheeses 
are mostly manufactured in Leicestershire. It 
takes two years to properly mature the cheese 
for use; then it becomes decayed, blue, and 
moist. It is a common trick to hasten its 
maturity by putting each separate cheese in a 
bucket and covering it with horse dung. This 
rapidly gives the required appearance of matur- 
ity. 

In a district of Ross-shire they ripen their 
cheeses to make them like Stilton, by burying 
them below high-water mark. 

Cottenhani. — A strong kind of Stilton. 

Cheddar (Mild). — Made from new milk, 
retaining its natural cream. 

English Dairy (Medium). 

Dutch Cheese. — Dtitchnian^s Head or 
Edam (Medium). — Not equal to the best 
cheeses of England, being hard. 

French Cheeses are generally for winter 
consumption, and come to us only from October 
to May. 

Brie Cheeses (Mild). — Are made from cream. 

Camembert (Strong). — A little like the Swiss. 

Mottt d^Or (Mild). — From central France. 
Made from goats' milk. 



Pont de Salu (Very strong). 

Pont d''Eveque (Mild). — A very pleasant 
cheese. More flavor than Brie. 

Roqiiefort (Medium and sharp)7-Made from 
the milk of goats and sheep, and ripened with 
great care in caverns 

Solferitio (Strong). 

German Cheeses.— Limburger (very strong). 
— Not considered ready for consumption until 
partly putrified. 

Schabzieger or Sap^ Sago — Which gets its 
green color from melitot leaves. 

Italian Cheeses. — Livarno (Strong). Par- 
mesan (Medium — slightly sharp). — From the 
most fertile Milanese territory, it is so full of 
oil that it has been erroneously supposed that 
oil was added to the curd. It was formerly 
supposed to be made from goat's milk, but 
it is made merely of skimmed cow's milk 
manipulated in a peculiar way. The best Par- 
mesan is kept three or four years, and none is 
sent to market until it is at least six months 
old. 

Scotch Cheese. — (Dunlop.)—\^\{\c\\ gets 
its flavor from lovage leaves, is the only one 
known here. 

Svriss Cheeses. — Gruyere is the best of 
the Swiss cheeses, many of which are cele- 
brated. It is made in the canton of Fribourg. 
Its peculiar flavor is said to be owing to the 
herbage of the mountain pastures on which 
the cows feed. 

Neufchatel (Variable). — Is sold in small 
rolls, covered with tin-foil; it is simply a cream 
cheese such as is described above. 

CHERRY. — This is one of the most de- 
licious of the summer fruits. Among the many 
varieties which appear in the markets the 
Ox-hearts and White-hearts are the best ; but 
besides these are the Black-hearts, May-dukes, 
Dikemans, Black-mazzards, Black-eagle, Honey, 
and Kentish or common sour cherries. They 
ripen at the South as early as the middle of 
May, and thence find their way to northern 
markets ; and from this time till August they 
are abundant in favorable seasons. Cherries 
make an excellent and refreshing dessert, and 
their flavor is much improved by putting them 
on ice an hour or two before serving them. 
The Kentish or common sour cherries are 
much used for pies, tarts, puddings, and the 
like. Wild cherries are a little purplish-black 
berry growing in long bunches and looking 
more like currants than the cultivated varieties. 
They have a sweetish, pungent, and slightly 
insipid taste ; and are considered wholesome as 
long as the seeds are not swallowed or cracked 
in the mouth. Cultivation has improved the 
wild cherry much, both in taste and size, and 
no doubt more could be done in this direction. 
Bounce (Cherry). — Take ten pounds of cher- 
ries — half of sour and half of sweet — and beat 
them to a pulp in a deep wooden tub ; then 
put them into an earthen-ware jar, stir in three 
pounds of white sugar, and add five quarts of 
good whiskey. Stir together thoroughly and 
decant it into a demijohn, where it can be 



96 



CHESTNUT 



CHICKEN 



corked up tightly. Shake every day for four 
weeks ; then let it stand four weeks without 
shaking. Then strain and bottle for use. 
Cherry bounce improves as it grows older. 

Brandy (C5herry). — This is made by simply 
dropping ripe wild cherries into good brandy, 
corking it up tightly and leaving them to soak 
for at least two months. It is pleasant, but 
highly intoxicating, and should not be drunk 
often nor in large quantities. 

CHESTNUT. — The chestnut is the most 
farinaceous and least oily of all the nuts and is 
consequently very easy of digestion. The 
American variety grows very abundant in the 
Middle States, Virginia, the Carolinas, and the 
upper part of Georgia. It ripens with the first 
frost and continues in season throughout the 
winter. The European or Spanish chestnut is 
a much larger variety, but is not so sweet nor so 
daintily flavored. In Italy, Spain and the south 
of France they are a staple article of food and 
are prepared in a variety of ways. A well-known 
English writer on food says : " Chestnuts 
stewed with cream make a much admired dish, 
and many families prefer them to all other stuf- 
fings for turkeys : they make an excellent soup, 
and I have no doubt that chestnuts might be 
advantageously used in cooking so as to make 
many agreeable and wholesome dishes. I have 
had them stewed and brought to the table with 
salt fish, when they have been much admired ; 
but it is exceedingly difficult to introduce any 
article of food that has not been sanctioned by 
long custom." In boiling them, add enough 
salt to give the water a strong flavor. In roast- 
ing cut a slice in the rind before putting them 
in the fire. In keeping them, occasionally pick 
out the wormy ones. 

CHEST-PROTECTOR.— A pad of flannel, 
or other suitable material, to be suspended over 
the chest. Of special use when gentlemen 
change temporarily in cold weather from high 
vest and scarf to low vest and neck-tie. Its use 
in such changes can not be too strongly urged . 

CHICKEN (For instructions as to raising 
see Poultry. Also see Birds). — The term 
" chicken " is commonly applied by poulterers 
to all fowls under a year old; but properly 
speaking it includes only the female fowls un- 
der four months old and the males that are 
less than three months. From four months to 
twelve months the females are p^illets and 
after that hens ; the males are cocks after the 
age of seven or eight months, and are only fit 
for soup or boiling when more than a year old. 
When very young the males and females are 
equally dehcateand tender. {See Capon.) In 
the opinion of physicians the flesh of the 
chicken at three months old is the most deli- 
cate and easy to digest of all animal food ; 
hence it is peculiarly adapted for the stomach 
of invalids or the constitutionally weak. 

The best mode of killing chickens is by 
wringing the neck, but if this is not done skil- 
fully so as to break the spinal cord at the start 
it causes much suffering. The practice of 
killing them by sticking a knife through the 



upper jaw into the brain and picking them 
while they bleed slowly to death is inexcusably 
cruel. 

In selecting chickens (for purposes of 
convenience we shall include all we have to 
say about fowls under this head) choose those 
in which the eyes are full and bright, and the 
feet moist, soft, and limber. When stale the 
eyes will be dry and sunken, and the feet and 
legs dry and stiff; if very stale the body or 
some parts of it will be dark-colored, and 
sometimes green. To distinguish a chicken 
from an old fowl, see that the lower end of the 
breast-bone is soft like gristle, and that the 
spurs (of the male) are soft, loose, and short ; 
when old the comb and legs are rough, the 
spurs hard and firmly fixed, and both cock and 
hen have a hard breast bone. The very young 
broiling chickens are about the size of a quail 
or partridge ; of these select the plumpest. 
Never take chickens of any kind which have 
been brought to market dead and with the en- 
trails in ; and never eat them until they have 
been dead at least eight hours. Before cook- 
ing chickens wash them out well in two waters, 
then if there is any odor in the cavity add a 
little soda to the water and wash them out 
again. 

Boiled Chicken.— Prepare the fowl as above. 
Make stuffing of one cupful of bread-crumbs, 
one tablespoonful of butter, one egg, half a 
teaspoonful of salt, and one tablespoonful of 
sweet marjoram ; mix them well together, and 




Chicken for Boiling. 

Stuff in as much as the fowl will hold. Put 
the fowl into a pot of water in which a piece 
of salt pork has been boiling for some time, 
and boil steadily from one to two hours accord- 
ing to size. Pork is not absolutely necessary 
in boiling chickens, but it greatly improves it; 
if not used add some salt to the boiling water. 
A chicken should never be boiled unless it is 
old and tough. 

Broiled Chicken. — Chickens for broiling 
should be young and tender ; if at all tough 
suspend them for half an hour over the vapor 
of a steaming kettle. Split them down the 
breast; salt both sides and butter them slightly; 
then lay them inside downward on a buttered 
gridiron and broil till brown, turning them 
several times. It will take from a half to 
three-quarters of an hour. When done, butter 
them well and serve s-moking hot. 

Broth (Chicken). — Boil a chicken until the 
flesh separates from the bones, then skim and 
season with a little salt. A little rice may be 
added, and if desired a sprig of parsley may be 



CHICKEN 



CHICKEN POX 



97 



used to flavor it. This is an excellent food for' 
invalids and will be relished when the stomach 
rejects almost everything else. 

Croquettes, (Chicken.) See Croquettes. 

Fricassee (Chicken.) — Joint the fowls, wash 
and put them in a sauce-pan with hardly enough 
cold water to cover them ; add half a dozen thin 
sHces of salt pork and one or two grated onions ; 
heat slowly and boil very gently until the chick- 
ens are tender ; then season with pepper, add half 
a pint of milk, two well beaten eggs and two 
tablespoonfuls of flour mixed to a smooth cream 
with a little of the milk; stir slowly while it 
simmers for a few moments, then serve hot, 
having placed the breasts across the centre of 
the platter and arranged the legs and wings 
around them ; garnish with rice boiled dry. 

If it is desired to have the chicken brown, 
stew it without the pork, meanwhile fry the 
pork, and when the chicken is tender take it 
out of the pot, and fry it in the pork fat until it 
is a light brown, adding a little minced parsley; 
then dish and pour the gravy over it. 

Fried Chicken. — Chickens for frying must 
be young and tender. Joint them, wash and 
wipe them dry. sprinkle pepper over them, and 
roll them in flour. Fry some salt pork until 
all the grease is extracted ; and in this fat fry 
the chicken until each piece is a rich brown on 
both sides. Dish (in a hot dish), and make a 
gravy by adding to the fat and a teacupful of 
milk, a tablespoonful of flour ; pour this gravy 
over the chicken and serve hot. Or the chick- 
en may be served without gravy. 

Pot-pie (Chicken). — Cut a large chicken 
into six or eight pieces, and also half a pound 
of salt pork ; put a pint of hot water into a pot, 
lay in some of the pork, then a layer of the 
chicken, then some paste dumplings, and above 
these some boiled potatoes sliced : cover with 
a thick pie-crust, slit this crust across the top, 
heat slowly and boil for an hour and a half or 
two hours. Brown the crust by putting a hot 
oven-lid over the pot for some minutes ; remove 
this crust without breaking ; empty the chicken 
into a dish and place the crust over it. 

Roast Chicken. — Wash the chicken clean ; 
stuff as directed for boiling ; baste thoroughly 
with butter or lard ; and roast about an hour, 




Chicken for Roasting. 



turning it frequently. Stew the inwards till 
tender, and till only a litde water remains ; cut 
them up fine ; mix in gravy from dripping-pan, 
thicken with browned flour, and season with 
butter, salt, and pepper. Crab-apple or cran- 
berry sauce is excellent to eat with it. 
7 



Salad (Chicken). — This is made of cold 
chicken. Take the meat from the bones and 
cut it up into very small pieces ; cut the white 
parts of celery into pieces about half an inch 
long, and mix about as much with the chicken 
as there is of the latter. Just before it is sent 
to the table, pour over it a dressing, made as 
follows: — Mix one even teaspoonful of dry 
mustard, two of salt, one and a half of vinegar; 
and a pinch of cayenne ; add a raw egg, beat it 
well, and then beat in thoroughly half a pint of 
sweet oil, as it is added in a thread-like stream; 
flavor with vinegar or lemon juice. Arrange 
the delicate leaves of the celery around the 
edges of the dish. Crisp and tender lettuce 
may be used in the salad instead of celery. It 
is customary to eat bread and butter or crack- 
ers with chicken salad. 

Ste^wed Chicken. — i. Cut the chicken into 
pieces as for frying. Put them in a sauce-pan 
with a tablespoonful of butter, and let them 
remain until slightly browned ; then take the 
chicken off, and stir into the gravy two tea- 
spoonfuls of flour, one onion minced fine, 
halfa dozen sprigs of minced parsley, and 
half a teaspoonful of salt. Add a pint of 
broth (or half a pint of broth and half a pint 
of wine), put the chicken back into the pan, 
stew gently till tender, and serve with the 
sauce. 

2. (With Celery.) — Select a tender chicken 
of medium size, stuff as for boiling, and put it 
in a sauce-pan or pot. Cut a large head of 
celery into small bits, mix it with an onion 
minced fine, and season with white pepper, 
salt, and a teaspoonful of mace ; put this all 
around the chicken, cover the whole with boil- 
ing water and set it where it will simmer for 
two hours or until done. Dish the chicken, 
and prepare a gravy for it as follows : mix 
together three ounces of butter and two table- 
spoonfuls of flour, and stir it into the gravy 
in the sauce-pan ; add a teacupful of cream, let 
the whole come to a boil, and pour it over the 
chicken. 

CHICKEN POX. — A disease of a very 
mild character to which infants and young 
children are liable. It is usually preceded by 
a slight feverishness, and after two or three 
days a few reddish spots, small oval blisters 
like pearls, appear about the shoulders, chest 
and arms, and sometimes on the face and head. 
These blisters are accompanied by consider- 
able itching, which causes them to be soon 
broken ; an'd about the fifth day they begin to 
dry up into scales, which fall off in a few days, 
leaving a slight discoloration and occasionally 
a slight pitting of the skin. Sometimes, in 
delicate children, the blisters become pustular, 
and are accompanied by high fever; but in 
general the disease is unattended with danger, 
and requires no other treatment than attention 
to diet, laxative medicines and cooling drinks. 
Care must be taken, however, lest the child 
catch cold during this trifling disease, or se- 
rious lung disease may result. Chicken pox is 
contagious 



98 



CHICORY 



CHILDREN 



CHICORY, or Succory, or Wild Endive, 

is a plant belonging to the dandelion family, 
and grows wild in many portions of the United 
States, and in most parts of Europe. It 
blossoms here in August and September, and 
may be easily recognized by its bright blue 
flowers. In its wild state, chicory sends up a 
stem from one to three feet in height, though 
under cultivation it often attains si.x feet. The 
young shoots and leaves are very generally 
used in France for salads, sauces, and the 
like, and the green root is said to equal pars- 
nips when cooked in the same way ; but at 
present the root only is employed to adulterate 
coffee or to make a separate beverage ; proba- 
bly half the ground coffee sold in this country 
contains fifty per cent, of chicory. Large 
crops of it are raised for the acknowledged 
purpose of adulterating coffee. The roots 
are dried, cut into bits, and roasted ; when 
ground it is of the same color as coffee, but it 
has neither the essential oil nor the aromatic 
flavor of coffee. In fact it has been found by 
chemical analysis that chicory possesses but 
few elements in common with coffee, and con- 
tains very little of the nutritive properties so 
often claimed for it. It cases where it is used 
for a long time its effects are often deleterious, 
especially upon the nervous system. For this 
reason, notwithstanding its cheapness, and its 
agreeable taste, it cannot be recommended as a 
beverage. {See Endive.) 

CHILBLAINS.— These are simply a mild 
, form of frost bite ; though not dangerous they 
are troublesome, and if neglected, may produce 
sores which may last all winter. ' As they 
usually appear, the skin (generally of the toes, 
heel, or ball of the foot) is reddened and 
somewhat swelled, painful on pressure, with 
considerable tingling and itching ; if severe they 
sometimes proceed to ulceration. When they 
are formed but not broken, rub them well two 
or three times a day with a lotion made of 
equal parts or turpentine and laudanum ; or 
sweet oil and spirits of turpentine ; or make an 
ointment of dry mustard and lard (a teaspoonful 
of mustard to an ounce of lard). The opiate 
liniment of the Pharmacopa^ia is an excellent ap- 
plication. If the skin is broken none of the above 
must be used. Make an ointment of pure mut- 
ton suet and powdered chalk, by stirring the 
chalk into the melted suet ; or mix warm suet 
with whiting to a stiff paste. Spread on a 
piece of linen, and apply to the sore, wrapping 
it up in a bandage, or still better get a drachm 
or two of red precipitate ointment from the 
apothecar}'. Chilblains, when once they have 
formed lodgment, have a tendency to return 
every winter ; persons liable to them should 
avoid sudden alternations of heat and cold, and 
may bathe the threatened parts in alcohol, or 
stimulating lotions. When their feet are cold 
and damp, they should at once put on dry 
stockings. 

CHILDREN. — Medical writers have found 
it convenient to divide childhood into two 
distinct periods : first, that of infancy, which 



extends, to put it in round numbers, to the end 
of the second year ; and second, that of child- 
hood proper, which ends only when the chil- 
dren have reached maturity. The rules to be 
laid down are so different in the two stages 
that they can very well be separated from each 
other, and we shall treat here only of children 
who have entered upon the second period ; 
for what we have to say of very young children 
see Infants. 

Of course there are many suggestions which 
apply equally in both stages ; it is always im- 
portant, for instance, that the nursery should 
be thoroughly ventilated, that the most scru- 
pulous cleanliness should be preserved in it, 
and that the daily bath for each child should be 
considered not a luxury but a necessity. This 
latter is often neglected, but it is really essen- 
tial to perfect health. Vital processes are much 
more rapid in children than in adults, they 
throw off a larger portion of refuse matter pro- 
portionately in a day, and enough of this 
refuse is discharged through the skin to ren- 
der a complete bath each day necessary to 
cleanliness. If this is given rightly, children 
will soon learn to enjoy, and even demand it ; 
but there are one or two facts which must be 
borne in mind. Some children have a nervous 
horror of cold baths who will take kindly to a 
tepid one ; and others seem to have a hearty 
preference for the cold. It is safe in such 
cases to consult the child's wishes, though 
after the period of infancy it is desirable to 
accustom them to baths not warmer than luke- 
warm, — frequent warm baths have a debilitating 
effect. It is not necessary to use soap every 
time children are bathed, and when it is used 
it should be purified white or castile soap. 
(See Soap.) Care must be taken that the child 
is wiped dry, and a gentle friction is excellent 
for the skin. 

Diet. — The time of weaning is the most 
critical period in a child's early hfe, and great 
caution must be observed in introducing it to 
new food. Even if it has been " raised on the 
bottle" the time has now come when the diet 
must be amplified, and this is a matter of such 
importance that the mother should keep a con- 
stant oversight over it and put a stop at once 
to the use of any article that is found to be 
injurious. " The rule should be scrupulously 
adhered to, and only the simplest and most 
easily digested food is to be used. Spiced 
dishes ; those which are commonly called very 
rich, that is, in which there is a great deal of 
butter or fatty substance ; pickles of all sorts ; 
most fruits preserved in thick syrup ; — all this 
class of substances are to be absolutely forbid- 
den. Milk may still be freely allowed, and should 
constitute at least a large part of at least one 
meal every day. The ordinary simple vege- 
tables may generally be used if well cooked, 
except cabbages, green corn and beans, whether 
green or dry. The vegetables which are eaten 
uncooked should be forbidden, as they are, 
without exception, difficult of digestion. Most 
nuts and dried fruits are injurious ; boiled 



CHILDREN 



99 



chestnuts ought to be prohibited. Sugar is 
often blamed for much that it does not do. 
When given at meal times, and in moderate 
quantities, I do not remember to have seen 
it do any harm. Candies, however, I do 
not include in this remark. These are 
often injurious from the effect of -other 
ingredients than the sugar; those which 
are painted are especially to be avoided, the 
paint often containing very poisonous com- 
pounds of lead, arsenic, and other metals." * 
A white potato, roasted, not boiled, should 
be the first vegetable given to a child ; but 
in the summer time its effect should be 
carefully watched, and if the stomach is de- 
ranged it must be discontinued. One of the 
most fruitful sources of sickness with young 
children is giving them animal food indis- 
criminately, and too often. Beef, mutton, and 
chicken are the only articles fit for children ; 
duck, goose, and poultry in general ought to be 
avoided. 

There is probably no practice more injurious 
than that of allowing children to eat at short 
intervals through the day. It is necessary that 
the stomach should rest between m^ls. 
"After a certain amount of food has been 
taken into it," to quote again from Dr. Parker, 
"digestion commences, and if no more than 
proper is eaten, or it be not too unmanageable, 
it is all dissolved and passed into the intestines. 
After the stomach has thus disposed of a meal, 
it ought to have time to rest, for it is no more 
possible for the stomach to keep digesting all 
the time, than it is for the legs to keep walking 
all the time. If it is attemped to make it do 
so, it becomes exhausted and weakened, and 
then cannot digest even proper quantities of 
simple food. This produces what is generally 
known as dyspepsia, and is attended by sour 
stomach and many other inconveniences." The 
rule should be that children, as well as grown 
people, should have regular hours for their 
meals, and not be allowed to eat between them. 
They will usually be willing to go three or 
four hours, and they can be allowed to eat 
oftener than adults, provided it is at regular 
times. 

Dress. — The human body, like any other 
thing of greater warmth than the surrounding 
air, has a constant tendency to part with its 
excess of heat by radiation, of course the 
greater the_ surface exposed the more readily 
will radiation occur ; and yet, in compliance 
with a reckless and ignorant fashion, we con- 
stantly see children with arms, chest, and legs 
bared in the coldest weather. Of the danger 
involved in this, a distinguished Paris physi- 
cian says : — " I believe that during the twenty 
years I have practised my profession in this 
city, 20,000 children have been carried to the 
cemeteries, a sacrfice to the custom of ex- 
posing their arms naked. Put the bulb of 
a thermometer in a baby's mouth, the mer- 
cury rises to 99°. Now carry the same to its 

• The Hand-book for Mothers; a guide to the care of young 
children, by Edward H. Parker, M. D., New York. 



little hand ; if the arm be bare, and the even- 
ing cool, the mercury will sink to 50°. Of 
course all the blood that flows through these 
arms must fall from 10*^ to 40° degrees be- 
low the temperature of the heart Need I say, 
when these currents of blood flow back into 
the chest, the child's vitality must be more 
or less compromised ? And need I add 
that we ought not to be surprised at the fre- 
quent recurring affections of the tongue, throat, 
and stomach ? I have seen more than one 
child with habitual cough and hoarseness, 
choking with mucus, entirely and permanent- 
ly relieved by simply keeping the hands and 
arms warm." Children should not only be 
warmly clad, but every part of the body should 
have equal protection. The low-necked, short, 
and sleeveless dresses in which mothers are 
so fond of showing off young children, is a 
vanity which cannot be indulged with safety 
in all latitudes and seasons. During the 
severe winters in the northern portions of 
our country, there should be no portion of 
the surface of a child's body exposed to the 
external air. It is ■folly to attempt to "hard- 
en " it by exposure ; the skin in a healthy con- 
dition is always soft, and open, and always 
retains its sensibility to changes of tempera- 
ture. Our houses are so warm, however, that 
it is well to make a marked difference between 
indoor and outdoor clothing ; this is best done 
by relying for extra warmth upon coats, cloaks, 
furs and such exterior garments as can easily 
be put on and off. If the ordinary clothing 
be too heavy, that worn on going out is apt 
to be too light to protect the body against the 
difference in temperature, a danger which is 
especially to be avoided. Children's clothing 
should be made so as to fit loosely and easily, 
and to give free play to every kind of exercise 
of body and limb. Especially should no por- 
tion of it be allowed to bind tightly any por- 
tion of the frame. Not only will the tight- 
ening of the dress cause permanent distor- 
tion, and thus defeat the very ends for which 
such dresses are used, but will so interfere 
with the regular circulation of the blood and 
action of the various organs as to produce 
functional derangement, and often fatal dis- 
ease. As the children grow up, the clothing 
of the boy is generahy sensible enough; 
but in the case of girls the pernicious prac- 
tice of wearing corsets and tight belts is too 
often permitted by mothers in weak def- 
erence to a fashion which is not only very un- 
healthy but perverted in taste. " The proper 
way to dress a young girl," says Miss Beecher, 
in her " American Woman's Home " " is to 
have a cotton or flannel close-fitting jacket ne.xt 
the body, to which the drawers should be but- 
toned. Over this place the chemise; and over 
that such a jacket as the one here drawn, to 
which should be buttoned the hoops and other 
skirts. Thus every article of dress will be sup- 
ported by the shoulders. The sleeves of the 
jacket can be omitted, and in that case a strong 



100 



CHILDREN 




Under Jacket for Girls. 

lining, and also a tape binding, must surround 
the arm hole, which should be loose." 

Concerning their night dress, i£ the child 
should be in the habit of constantly kick- 
ing off the covering it is well to substitute 
for the ordinary night-gown, a pair of drawers 
with a body reaching up to the neck and 
with legs long enough to cover the feet. It 
can open either behind or in front, and has 
the advantage for the child, that if it does 
kick off the coverings it is not entirely ex- 
posed. The thinness of the material of which 
it is made should vary with the season; 
red flannel is excellent in winter. For direc- 
tions for cutting children's clothes, see Chil- 
dren's Clothing. 

Signs of disease. — To those who are not 
accustomed to the care of children it seems a 
difficult matter to ascertain when they are sick, 
or this being known, to tell what is the matter. 
There is not, however, as much difficulty as 
might be anticipated; but in order that the 
physician may form a right judgment it is ne- 
cessary for the mother to observe carefully any 
peculiarities which the child presents. Even 
before children talk, or learn the sign language 
which precedes speech, they give very certain 
indications of sickness; and these must form 
the basis of any intelligent treatment. The 
healthy child is usually very active ; its eye is 
bright, and it is almost constantly running 
about or occupied with its toys. When the 
child becomes sick this ceases. The eyes 
become either dull and heavy or else extremely 
bright ; it lies still, or if it runs about, it is 
languidly and with difficulty, and but for a few 
moments. When this is observed, the child 
should be watched for further symptoms. 
Some of the earliest and most common signs 
of disease are derived from the heat of the 
body, which changes both generally and 
locally. 

In health the skin of the child is warm, and 



the surface feels smooth and soft. In a great 
many diseases it becomes very hot throughout 
its whole extent, giving to the hands and head 
especially a sensation of burning, while the 
skin seems rough and hard. This dry, burn- 
ing, general heat does not imply the existence 
of any special disease, but it shows that there 
is some disturbance of economy, the cause of 
which should be looked for and if possible 
removed. The palms of the hands in partic- 
ular are often found to be unusually hot, and 
by the early observance of this symptom the 
physician or the parent may obtain a clue to the 
existence of other disturbances. Still the child 
is not to be considered sick for this reason 
only. Generally it only indicates the necessity 
of providing less fatiguing sports, or longer 
periods of rest for the child ; or else of guard- 
ing against any undue excitement to which it 
may be subject. The head is another part of 
the body which is frequently too hot. This is 
perceptible to the touch of the hand, and is 
sometimes greater on the forehead and again 
in the back of the head. When this is slight 
it is not necessary to take much notice of it ; 
but ascertain, if possible, whether or not there 
is any apparent cause for it. When it becomes 
very marked, if there is no vomiting, or twitch- 
ing of the arms or face, or any other indications 
of illness, it can be allayed by bathing the 
head with cool (not very cold) water. If the 
child is constipated, a mild purgative may be 
used, say half a teaspoonful of spiced syrup of 
rhubarb, sufficient to produce a single move- 
ment. If, however, the heat of the head in- 
creases and becomes very great, the child 
tossing its head from side to side, or rolling it 
unceasingly ; or if there are any twitchings of 
the face, eyelids, or mouth ; or if the child 
cries with pain, putting its hands to its head, 
starting suddenly in its sleep, or waking with 
a frightened air, then a physician should be 
called in without delay. Excessive heat of 
the chest and abdomen also frequently ac- 
companies diseases of the bowels, or indicates 
the approach of a fever. Here it is not neces- 
sarily a serious sign, though, when a child is 
ailing, it is well to notice whether or not it 
exists. 

The head and face also give by their posi- 
tion, indications of importance, which should 
not be overlooked. Rolling the head from side 
to side is a common accompaniment of brain 
disease, but it is not a certain indication of it, 
as is thought by some. It should lead to 
increased care and attention, a more minute 
observation of the condition of the child, but 
it need not be regarded as a sign of disease 
beyond relief. The general expression of the 
face may be that of pain or of hstlessness, 
of suffering or of that indifference to every- 
thing which is scarcely less pitiable in a child. 
A heavy, dull look is among the earliest indica- 
tions of ill-health. Most of the ordinary 
disturbances are accompanied by this change 
in the expression, which experienced mothers 
learn to interpret by saying that the child does 



CHILDREN'S CLOTHING 



CHIMNEYS 



101 



not look well. The cause of it should be 
sought, and, if possible, removed ; it may be 
the only indication which is apparent of a 
headache, or it may be the first announcement 
of a fever. 

Languor and approaching fever are often 
made known by the mode in which the eyelids 
are raised ; great heaviness of the eyes is a 
sign not to be neglected at any time, and in- 
ability to raise the lid should be at once made 
known to the physician. This is perhaps the 
best place to add that to see a sick child shed 
tears is always a good sign. When it occurs 
after a protracted or a severe illness, it may be 
looked upon almost as a crisis, furnishing de- 
cided evidence of improvement. 

Dr. Parker, to whom, together with Drs. 
Combe and Jacobi, we are indebted for most 
of these suggestions, says : — " When a child 
gives any indications of being unwell, it is 
wise to notice, especially if there is excessive 
heat of the head, whether or not light and noise 
trouble it. If on being carried towards the 
window it shuts its eyes, wholly or in part, 
wrinkling them with that expression that adults 
have when they have a headache and shun the 
light, it should be reported to the physician. 
This accompanies simple headache in children, 
as well as in adults, but is sometimes of more 
importance. If noise troubles the child it 
will, if able to talk, say so; but if not, there 
will be increased restlessness, a cringing when 
the door is shut violently, and an evident effort 
to avoid every jarring sound. When this is 
noticeable, it is best to seek a physician's ad- 
vice." 

It will have been observed that we have not 
intended to enter here upon the treatment of 
special diseases, but only to point out those 
symptoms which are the preliminary stages of 
all sickness, and which in the case of children 
are especially important. In these stages the 
care and watchfulness of a mother are indis- 
pensable supplements to the physician's skill, 
and may frequently be a substitute for it ; and 
so important is a precise knowledge of their 
bearings upon health and disease that mothers 
would do well to give them careful study. For 
the special diseases, see Croup, Diarrhcea 
Measles, Scarlet Fever, etc. 
CHILDREN'S CLOTHING.— The garments 
worn by children are in almost every case adapt- 
ed from those of older people. Hence in giving 
directions about making clothing generally, we 
give all that is of importance in reference to 
children's wear. Under almost every topic we 
add suggestions of the manner in which this 
garment or that may be made suitable for a 
child, and often, it is but to make the garment 
smaller and it is at once available. For ex- 
ample, the reduced circular is the baby's 
cloak; the capeline suggests the child's "red 
riding-hood ; " various patterns of caps make 
various kinds of juvenile head-gear, while the 
directions for making different dresses, the 
Princesse, the basque, and the blouse waist, 
are easily altered a little as suggested under 



each head to produce a garment entirely suit- 
able for a little girl. The child's sacque and 
round jacket are much like that of the grown 
person ; the little child's undergarment, drawers 
and waist in one, is made from the same pattern 
as the bathing-drawers and the infant's long 
robe is an adaptation of the French chemise- 
pattern. (^See Undergarments). 

Hence it has seemed desirable not to occupy 
space with the repetition of what can be better 
explained elsewhere, and it is merely our ob- 
ject here to refer the reader, searching for 
directions in making children's garments to 
the different topics under which they will be 
found suitably explained. 

CHILLS AND FEVER. {See Ague.) 

CHIMNEYS.— The causes of smoky chim- 
neys are generally faults of construction. 
Every chimney-flue should be built of equal 
dimensions from bottom to near the top, with 
no projections or irregularities in it, with as few 
changes of direction as possible, and with the 
inside surface smooth and regular. For these 
reasons, smooth round earthen pipes make 
excellent flues. But pipes used for smoke 
flues should be unglazed, highly glazed ones 
do not absorb the acids from the smoke, but let 
them drip. At the top, however, it should be 
slightly narrowed, as this causes the smoke to 
be ejected with more force, and diminishes the 
volume of descending currents. As a general 
rule, the longer the flue the stronger the 
draught, and for this reason tall chimneys sel- 
dom smoke ; the lengthening of a flue by a few 
feet will frequently remove all tendency to 
smoke. If a flue serves for more than one 
fireplace or stove, it is in many cases impos- 
sible to secure a good draught; sometimes it 
will work well, but by far the best rule is to 
have a separate flue for each fire. The or- 
dinary size is 8 X 8, or eight-inch round pipe. 
The maker of the furnace or any other special 
heater, should be consulted regarding the size 
of the flue needed. In blocks of city buildings, 
the circular clay pot, so universally used in 
most European cities, is the best form of cap- 
ping chimneys, .especially where there are a 
number in one stock. This arrangement allows 
of a free circulation of air between each flue, 
thus preventing the escaping gas entering an 
adjoining flue. {See Cleaning.) 

The fireplace may either be too wide or too 
high in front ; or the throat may be too large 
for the smoke ; it should be only large enough 
to carry off tne heated air, and should open into 
the fireplace at as abrupt an angle as possible. 

A high building or a tree standing close to 
the chimney and overtopping it, often disturbs 
the draught. The wind passing over these 
objects, falls down like water over a dam, and 
stops the ascending current so that the smoke 
is forced back into the room, or the wind may 
strike against the higher object, and, rebound- 
ing, may form eddies, and thus beat down the 
smoke. The remedy for this is to increase the 
height of the chimney or to mount it with a 
turncap or cowl, which is so constructed that 



102 



CHINA 



CHLOROFORM 



the effect of any passing wind is to draw off 
the air and smoke from the chimney. 

It is well known that a smoky chimney is 
often relieved by opening a window or outer 
door ; when this is the case it is a sign either 
that there is not enough air to supply the 
draught for that particular chimney, or tliat 
some other fireplace in the tightly closed house 
with a strong draught and without any easy 
source of supply is being furnished with air 
for combustion by means of a downward cur- 
rent, established through the other cold flue, 
which is thus made to reverse its intended 
action, and the fire consequently parts with its 
smoke into the room instead of up the chim- 
ney. When, under these circumstances, an outer 
door or window is opened, the immediate 
supply of fresh air is so considerable, that the 
demand for down draught anywhere in the 
house no longer exists, and an ascending cur- 
rent is easily secured in any of the flues. This 
result will be a permanent one after the window 
or door is closed again just so long as all the 
fires (in the absence of special provision) can 
draw enough air for their combustion through 
door or window crevices. 

Currents of air through a room, as from door 
to door or window to window, when open, may 
counteract the chimney draught ; or a door in 
the same side of the room with the chimney 
may, when suddenly opened or shut, whisk a 
current across the fireplace to be followed by 
a puff of smoke. The remedy is obvious. When 
there are two fireplaces in the same room, or 
in rooms communicating by open doors, both 
are very likely to smoke and one is certain to 
do so unless in the first case a very large sup- 
ply of fresh air is provided ; in the second the 
door should be shut. Any hole in the flue, 
such as an opening for a stove-pipe, or a dis- 
lodged brick, will be very likely to cause a poor 
draught. Where ventilating openings are 
needed in the same chimney with smoke flues, 
they should be separated from the smoke flues. 
A simple way is to divide a large flue with a 
metal plate. The heat in the smoke part will 
thus cause a draft in the ventilating part, 

CHINA.. {See Earthenware.) 

CHINTZ. — A calico printed in a peculiar 
pattern in which flowers and other devices are 
printed in five or six different colors upon a 
white or colored ground. The only articles of 
dress for which it is used are morning wrappers 
and dressing-gowns ; but it makes very pretty 
lambrequins and bed-hangings, and is now 
much used for covering bedroom sofas and 
chairs. It comes in pieces a yard wide. 

To clean. — Take two pounds of rice, and 
boil it in eight quarts of water till soft. When 
done, pour the whole into a tub ; let it stand 
till about the warmth used for colored linens, 
then put the chintz in, and use the rice instead 
of soap ; wash it in this till the dirt is out ; 
then boil a second quantity as above, but strain 
the rice from the water, and mix it in warm 
water ; wash in this till clean ; afterwards rinse 
it in the water the rice has been boiled in, and 



this will answer the end of starch, and no dew 
will affect it. If a gown, it should be taken 
to pieces ; and when dried, be careful to hano- 
it as smooth as possible. After it is dry rub 
it with a sleek stone, but use no iron. ' 

If the chintz is very dirty it may be scoured 
with ox-gall and water, which will not injure 
the colors, 

CHITTERLINGS.— The intestines and fat 
of hogs, calves or other animals prepared in a 
special way for cooking. They are taken from 
the hog while warm ; then the entire gut is 
slit or cut open, well cleaned, and they are 
ready for use. To cook, wash them out in 
fresh water, put them in a frying-pan contain- 
ing some hot fat, and fry them till brown. 
Though not a delicate dish they are not 
disagreeable, and, like tripe, are very easily 
digested. 

CHLORAL.— Poison. Sytnptom.. Slow, 
noisy breathing, excessive drowsiness or un- 
consciousness. Treatment : Artificial respira- 
tion. See Drowning. 

A colorless dense ^iquid, of a caustic taste 
and suffocating odor, formed by the action of 
clhorine on alcohol. It has a very soothing in- 
fluence, and now enters largely into the treat- 
ment of nervous diseases. The dose is from 
ten to fifteen grains in a little water. More 
than this should never be used except as pre- 
scribed by a physician. Several lives have 
been lost lately on account of the general im- 
pression that chloral is harmless. 

CHLORIDE LIME. See Disinfectants. 

CHLORODYNE. — A recent remedy for 
neuralgia, patented by Dr. L. C. Browne, Jr., 
is supposed to consist essentially of chloro- 
form, Indian hemp, morphia, and hydrocyanic 
acid. The dose for adults is 20 to 30 drops. 

CHLOROFORM. — PoisoN. Symptoms : 
Unconsciousness, stoppage of respiration, and 
feeble action of the heart. Treatment: Draw 
out the tongue (with foroeps or pincers, if ne- 
cessary), and produce artificial respiration as 
with the drowned {see Drowning). In some 
cases it has been found efficacious to have the 
legs placed over an attendant's shoulders, and 
the body raised so that the head will be lowest. 

A mixture of alcohol, water, and chloride of 
lime rectified. It is a clear, limpid fluid with- 
out color, of an agreeable pungent odor, and 
very sweet taste. It is very volatile, evaporat- 
ing Avith great rapidity when exposed to the 
air, and soon loses its strength. Before using 
drop a few drops into water ; if the chloroform 
is pure they will fall to the bottom without 
becoming milky. When taken internally, chlo- 
roform acts as a sedative, narcotic, and anti- 
spasmodic ; it is also employed sometimes as 
an external applicat'on for relieving pain. 
By far the most important use to which it is 
put, however, is that of an anaesthetic. There 
it always a certain amount of danger in tak- 
ing chloroform, even under proper advice, and 
it should be borne in mind that no one can take 
it with safety on his own responsibility. It 
should under no circumstances be taken by 



CHOCOLATE 



CHOLERA 



103 



persons liable to epileptic attacks, congestion 
of the brain, or disease of the heart ; or by 
any one immediately after meals. {See Anaes- 
thetics.) 

CHOCOLATE. — A substance made from the 
seeds of the cacoa-tree which grows extensively 
in the West Indies and South America. The 
seeds are about the size of an almond, and when 
broken into small pieces are subjected to great 
pressure until they are reduced to a rough 
powder, after which they are mixed with sugar 
and rolled into a very thick paste, or into a 
very fine powder, called Chocolate. Chocolate 
is less exciting to the nervous system than tea 
or coffee, and at the same time it contains a 
much larger proportion of nutritive matter. 
Its flavor, moreover, is not lessened by the 
addition of milk, so that it may be boiled in 
milk only and thus produce a most agreeable 
and nutritive food. " There are, therefore," 
says Dr. Edward Smith, "many persons, 
states of system, and circumstances, in which 
its use is to be preferred to either tea or coffee." 
To prepare for the table, break five ounces 
into bits and melt over the fire with one gill of 
boiling water ; add gradually, three gills of 
water (making in all, one pint) ; and, when 
boiling, add a quart of hot milk; let it boil a 
few minutes, then serve. It may be sweet- 
ened either on the fire or at the table, {see 
Caramel.) 

The reader will probably understand the 
use of the chocolate-mill shown in the engrav- 
ing ; but it may be as well to observe, that it 
is worked quickly round between both hands 




Chocolate Mill. 

to give a fine froth to the chocolate. It also 
serves in lieu of a whisk for working creams, 
or jellies, to a froth or whip. 

Iced Chocolate — Set four ounces of grated 
chocolate over a slow fire in a tin pan with two 
tablespoonfuls of water; when dissolved take 
it from the fire ; add nearly a teacupful of warm 
water and work it thoroughly with a spoon ; 
then mix it with an equal quantity of cold 
syrup of sugar, freeze and serve. 

Broma is a preparation of chocolate and 
arrow-root. 

CHOCA. — This is made by mixing a cupful 
of chocolate (prepared for table) with a cupful 
of coffee. It is a very pleasant breakfast drink. 



CHOKING. — Get on all fours, or lean over 
the back of a chair, and cough. A violent slap 
with the open hand, between the shoulders, 
will often effect a dislodgement ; but if this 
fails after being repeated once or twice, look 
into the throat and see if there is anythino- that 
can be reached with the thumb and fino-er and 
if so pull it out. An obstruction can generally 
be carried down by swallowing pieces of bread 
or potato slightly masticated or, better still, a 
raw egg, fresh from the shell and with its orig- 
inal consistency broken as little as possible. 
Sometimes the obstruction will go down too 
far to be reached by the fingers ; in such cases 
copious draughts of water should be swallowed 
rapidly, and if this fails to remove it give 
mustard water or any other emetic. Should 
vomiting fail to bring up the obstruction, then 
mechanical means must be tried. Take a long 
spoon, bend it slightly, make the patient throw 
his head well back, and push the handle boldly 
down the throat ; if it is kept well to the back 
of the throat no harm can be done. The same 
operation may more conveniently be performed 
by a bit of sponge attached to a piece of whale- 
bone. Occasionally substances will get into 
such a position in the throat as to necessitate 
a surgical operation, but these are not usually 
the cases in which there is immediate danger 
of suffocation, and there will be time enough 
for the doctor to come. 

CHOLERA. — It is impossible to give very 
minute directions for unprofessional.treatment 
and fortunately they would be superfluous, as 
cholera very rarely occurs in this country in 
places where physicians are not to be had. In 
its first stage (the so-called stage of invasion) 
cholera is very similar to the ordinary summer 
complaints. As during the prevalence of chol- 
era, diarrhoeal troubles are likewise extremely 
common, it is not possible at the outset in any 
given case to predict the termination, but 
though some of the cases may be harmless, 
many of them do ultimately pass into cholera. 
The importance therefore of checking these 
preliminary discharges cannot be too earnestly 
impressed upon the public. The pre-eminent 
syjnpto7n of developed cholera is excessive 
watery purging, frequently though not always 
unattended with pain. The passages from the 
bowels afterwards become thin, pale, slightly 
turbid, like rice-water, without any offensive 
smell, and all control over the bowels is in a 
great measure lost. In a short time vomiting 
takes place, cramps in the limbs are developed 
and in a few hours at the longest the strength 
of the patient is gone, the body, the tongue, 
and even the breath are quite cold, and the 
nails turn blue. There is great thirst and 
usually constant vomiting; the eyes sink far 
into the head, and a change takes place in the 
voice, which becomes a small squeaking whis- 
per, so unnatural and so peculiar that certain 
physicians who have seen much of cholera, 
could distinguish it by the voice alone. 

Recoveries from cholera, after it has once 
taken hold upon the system, do occur, though 



104 



CHOLERA INFANTUM 



CHOWDER 



the prospect is not encouraging. The time 
to arrest the disease is in its early stages, and 
not a moment should be lost. During a cholera 
epidemic, with the first symptoms of diarrhoea, 
get the patient to bed, and apply mustard over 
the bowels. Thirty drops of laudanum may be 
given to a grown-up person with hot brandy and 
water, and a physician sh«uld at once be sent 
for. 

Cholera is most likely to visit damp, dirty 
places, wherethe water is not good, and people 
who are dirty and intemperate have less chance 
of recovering from it. Persons in attendance 
upon cholera patients do not appear especially 
predisposed to the disease. It is believed, 
therefore, that they may be safely nursed by 
their relatives and friends. 

It is well to take the following precautions : 
where sickness does not as yet exist, water- 
closets, drains, etc., should be disinfected, 
care should be taken that the water is pure, and 
no cabbage or other green vegetable should be 
included in the diet. The discharges should 
be mixed with dry earth and if possible buried 
at a distance from the house, the bed-pans 
should be washed with copperas, and the bed- 
clothes upon which a cholera patient has been 
lying should be subjected to prolonged boiling 
before they are used again. 

CHOLERA INFANTUM.— This disease 
usually occurs between the third and twenty- 
third months. It is caused by improper food, 
or too much food, impure air, hot weather, and 
never by teething alone. Its first symptom is 
generally a slight feverishnesB, and this is fol- 
lowed by a diarrhoea with thin watery dis- 
charges, and a little later by vomiting; some- 
times the vomiting and diarrhcea commence at 
the same time, and these are the worst cases. 
Emaciation begins very soon, or within a few 
days, the hands and feet become cold, the head 
and surface of the abdomen hot, the face pale 
and shrunken, the eyes dull and heavy, and the 
pulse irregular and quick; by degrees the 
child becomes sleepy, and finally sinks into a 
state of insensibility. 

Treatment. — At the first symptom of 
cholera infantum, a physician should be sent 
for. Put the child into a warm bath, or apply 
flannels dipped in hot water to the bowels, and 
keep in an ordinary posture. If a physician 
cannot be had, dissolve a teaspoonful of gum- 
arabic in an ounce of peppermint water and 
give a teaspoonful every half hour. A milder 
astringent may be made thus : — mix together 
three ounces of chalk mixture, half an ounce of 
tincture of kino (or catechu), and half an ounce 
of compound tincture of cardamoms. Of this 
the dose for a child eighteen months old is one 
teaspoonful every two hours if the discharges 
are frequent, and at larger intervals if not — 
care being taken to shake the bottle before 
pouring out the medicine. If there is much 
thirst, give 6 or lo drops of brandy in a teaspoon- 
ful of water, or mucilage, every 15 or 20 minutes. 
It is of the greatest importance that the 
stomach of the child be at rest. Therefore, 



for some hours no food or drink should be 
given. Further than this, nothing can be done 
without the advice of a physician. 

CHOLERA MORBUS.— This is usually 
caused by improper food, such as green or 
decayed fruit and bad vegetables. It commonly 
comes on in the night, and is marked by sudden 
and severe vomiting, followed by purging and 
accompanied by severe cramps, generally in 
the bowels and sometimes in the legs. An- 
other feature of the disease is thirst, though 
the skin is quite cool. 

Treatment. — Put the patient to bed, cover the 
bowels with a mustard plaster, and keep him on 
his back till the vomiting and purging have 
ceased for several hours. Laudanum and tinct. 
of camphor in doses of 10 to 15 minims each 
may be given, and if immediately vomited 
should be repeated. If rejected a second time, 
30 drops of laudanum may be added to a httle 
thin starch and given as an injection. The 
remedy may be repeated every hour until the 
vomiting and purging are arrested. To attain 
prompt success in the treatment, it is impor- 
tant, while vomiting continues, to withhold 
liquids, which from the intense thirst are usual- 
ly craved by the patient. Pieces of ice placed 
in the mouth assist the patient in enduring the 
necessary act of self-denial. When the patient 
begins to crave food, a cup of hot tea will 
probably throw him into a perspiration : before 
that nothing but the medicine and bits of ice 
should be given. 

CHOPS. (See Mutton.) 

CHOW CHOW.— A name given to a kind 
of mixed pickles originally brought from China, 
but now made in this country by simply taking 
equal quantities of the various kinds of pickles, 
mincing them up fine, and mixing them to- 
gether. A nice way to prepare is to make the 
chow-chow and then fill the large bell-peppers 
with it after first removing the veins and seeds. 

CHOWDER. — This popular dish is made in 
many different ways, and of several different 
kinds of fish, besides clams. The following 
receipt for clam chowder is from an old club- 
house caterer : 

Clam Chovrder. — Fry half a dozen slices 
of salt pork, chop it up into rather small pieces, 
and sprinkle them over the bottom of a pot ; 
place over this a layer of potatoes cut into 
small pieces ; over this a layer of minced 
onions ; and then a layer of clams, with some 
small crackers (split) on the top. Season with 
salt and pepper, and if desired a little thyme 
and a few cloves may be added. Pour on this 
a portion of the fat left from frying the pork, 
and then put in another course of layers as 
before. Repeat the process until the pot is 
nearly full, or until enough is in, and season 
each time. Then cover with water, set over a 
slow fire, and boil about three-quarters of an 
hour. When nearly done, stir gently, finish 
cooking, and serve hot. If it is found too thin 
when done, boil a little longer ; if too thick, add 
a little water. Whether the chowder is thick 
or not, however, will depend on the amount of 



CHROMOS 



CIDER 



105 



potatoes and crackers used. Send around wal- 
nut pickles with the chowder. 

Fish Chowder. — This is made exactly like 
clam chowder, fish cut up into small pieces, 
being substituted for clams. The best fish for 
chowder are haddock and striped bass ; but 
cat-fish make a very nice dish. Fish chowder 
may be pleasantly flavored with lemon juice. 

CHROMOS Chromos are simply engrav- 
ings printed in colors by a process which re- 
sembles lithography. In some few instances 
they are very good, but as a general thing they 
are far less desirable than steel engravings at 
the same price. Since there are so many of 
them in our houses, however, and since they 
are often framed in such a way as to be unpro- 
tected from dust and dirt, it may be well to 
know that the kind apt to be framed without 
glass can be cleaned by moistening a soft cloth 
in lukewarm water and gently washing the face 
of the picture, afterwards wiping it dry. The 
varnish protects the colors. {See Pictures.) 

CHRYSANTHEMUM.-Thisflowerblooms 
so late in the season that it is frequently 
called the " Christmas flower " ; and as it fills a 
place in this respect occupied by no other 
flower it should be cultivated in every garden. 
Chrysanthemums grow very vigorously in a 
rich light soil (a light admixture of sand is 
good for them) ; and are entirely hardy except 
at the extreme north, where they must be 
wintered under sods. They are most easily 
propagated from cuttings, taken in August, or 
from the shoots sent up by the roots after 
blooming ; they may be obtained of any florist. 
Good specimens should have but one stem 
with short, thick-set branches, which may be 
made to grow by pinching off the end shoots, 
thus encouraging the side branches. They 
should be watered Hberally, and liquid manure is 
very good just when the plants begin to bloom. 

There are three varieties of chrysanthemums : 
the large-flowered kind, most suitable for out- 
door culture ; the dwarf or Pompone, which 
blooms beautifully in-doors ; and Japan Chrys- 
anthemums. Of the large-flowering kind, 
choice varieties are : — Alarm, crimson; Annie 
Salter, canary yellow; Bottle d' Or, a. golden 
yellow ; Bozil deNeige, pure white ; Captiva- 
tion, light purple ; Cassy, orange and buff ; 
Erecta Superba, clear sulphur-yellow ; Heor- 
mine, silver white ; Prince Albert, crimson 
red ; Mount jEtna, fiery crimson ; Queen of 
England, blush ; King of Yellows, yellow ; 
and Vesta, white. Of the Pompone, or dwarf 
kind, the best are: — Acton, golden yellow; 
Andromeda, cream color ; Christiana, canary 
yellow ; Mrs. Dix, blush ; Iris, white tipped 
with rose ; Miranda, bright rose ; Riquiqui, 
violet plum; Roi de Lilliptit, maroon; Soicl- 
anges, pure rose ; Theresita, lilac ; and Trev- 
enna, pure white. Japan Chrysanthemums are 
novelties from Japan, with tasselled or quilled 
flowers. The finest are Mons Bonnet, amber ; 
and Laciniatiis, creamy white. 

CHUB. — A fish of which there are several 
varieties ; lake chub or lake dace,the blue sucker, 



and the chub of New York. They are all fresh- 
water fish, shaped like the perch, covered with 
large coarse scales, and generally small in size. 
Chub are in season during the fall and winter 
months — the latter the best. They are not 
much esteemed as food, being as a general thing 
watery, tasteless, and bony ; but occasionally 
the chub of New York in the mid-winter sea- 
son is juicy and sweet. The best way to cook 
it is to boil with the scales on ; or if it is large 
enough, stuff and roast. It is apt to turn yel- 
low in boiling. A good chowder may also be 
made of it. ( See Chowder.) 

CHURNING. {See Butter.) 

CIDER. — A fermented liquor prepared from 
the juice of apples ; although it is not usually 
reckoned among the wines, yet it belongs to 
that class of beverages as much as those made 
from currants, gooseberries, or other fruits. 
The apples from which cider is made should 
not be permitted to fall on the ground ; they 
ought to be hand-picked, or, if shaken from 
the tree, coarse cloths or straw should be 
placed under it. All prematurely ripe and un- 
sound apples should be rejected. If the 
weather is fine, the fruit may be exposed in 
the open air, if not, it should be placed in 
sheds or lofts, until it is thoroughly ripe. The 
usual way of making cider is to pound or grind 
the apples to a pulp or pomace ; this pulp is 
then placed in a properly constructed press 
and the juice pressed out. The juice should 
then be put into barrels, and then into a cellar 
where the temperature will not fall below 60° 
nor rise above 75°. An active fermentation 
will commence in a few hours, which should be 
permitted to continue with the bung open until 
the hissing sound, so readily discernible where 
carbonic acid gas is escaping, ceases. The 
cider should then be drawn off into clean 
barrels, separating it from its sediment ; these 
should be bunged up for a few days, then 
opened, and the fermentation allowed to begin 
again. This second fermentation will be of 
short duration. The cider should now be 
racked ; the bungs must be tightly closed ; 
and if intended for draught use it should be 
kept in a cool cellar. If it is intended for bot- 
tling, it should be bottled early in the spring ; 
this prevents an undue fermentation, and 
secures a proper degree of life in the bottle. 

Cider is fit for drinking as soon as fermenta- 
tion ceases, but it reaches perfection at the 
end of two years. In bottles it can be kept 
twenty or thirty years without spoiling, unless 
the cork decays. Cider is not so nutritious as 
beer or ale, but it is a very agreeable and mild- 
ly stimulating drink in hot weather — its acids 
assisting materially in quenching thirst ; and it 
is recommended as an antiseptic in cases of 
low fever. 

It is said that natural cider will not keep if 
removed in cask after it has been made, and in 
order to fortify it to bear transportation, it is 
necessary to add sugar. This so far injures 
it that it may renew fermentation ; but it tem- 
porarily masks the acid flavor, and makes the 



106 



CIRCULARS 



fluid more agreeable to 'the palate of those not 
accustomed to its use. " Newark cider " is the 
best that can be obtained in New York stores, 
and there is no better anywhere. 

CIDER, Mulled. {See Mulled Cider.) 

CINNAMON.— The inner bark of the cin- 
namon tree which grows extensively in China, 
Ceylon, and the East generally, and is also cul- 
tivated in the West Indies and South Amer- 
ica. The best comes from Ceylon, where the 
largest quantity grows. Some of the Chinese 
is very good, but inferior to that from Ceylon ; 
the Cayenne is thicker, but not so good; that from 
Brazil is the worst. Cinnamon is the most 
agreeable of the spices ; its odor is very 
fragrant, and its taste highly aromatic, hot, but 
not too pungent to be pleasant on the tongue, 
and without any bitterness. The best is 
scarcely thicker than paper, and in long pieces, 
of a light yellow color, a dark color being a 
mark of inferiority. It is safest to buy it in 
sticks, for, when ground, it is generally adul- 
terated with cassia (which is sometimes sub- 
stituted for it), and with baked wheat flour, sago 
meal, or arrow-root. 

An essential oil is made from the inferior 
qualities of cinnamon which is often much used 
in perfumery, medicine, and as a substitute for 
the spice. 

CIRCULARS. — The measures required for 
the circular are : i, the length desired for the 
garment ; 2, the size of neck (XV.).* The paper 
taken for the pattern should be four inches 
longer than the measure, and should form a 
square of these dimensions. This square should 
now be folded diagonally, in halves, which 
gives us a triangle. Next, fold this triangle in 
halves, and we have a smaller triangle (Fig. i), 




Fig I. 

the side a, d, b being open. Cut as repre- 
sented by the dotted lines, b indicating the 
neck, which should be cut out but little, leaving 
room to cut it more accurately after the pat- 
tern is opened and put together. Now unfold 
the paper, and we have half of the circular, the 
half being in two pieces and requiring to be 
pasted together. The fulness of the circular 
may be diminished at pleasure by cutting off a 
strip from the front or the back, as is indicated 
by the dotted line in the back in Fig. 2, and the 
inner line parallel to the front. In cutting the 
garment, the material should be folded double, 
the line of the back laid upon the fold. The cir- 
cular will thus be cut out whole, but if it be very 
long, the material will not be wide enough, and 
will require piecing on the corners of the front. 

♦For explauatiou of Komau uuiuerals, see Cutting 
and Fitting. 



By modifying the circular we obtain the 
talma, which is cut in the following way : The 
pattern remains the same, but instead of the 
line of the back lying the straight way of the 
cloth, either we fold the cloth bias and lay the 
pattern on it, thus cutting it bias in the back 
but without a seam ; or, leaving the cloth folded 
as for the circular, we move the pattern along 
at the lower edge, leaving the neck at the 
same place where it was, until the line of the 
back hes upon the bias, and thus cut the gar- 
ment with a seam in the back. Also the talma 
has a seam taken up on the shoulder. (Fig. 
2, a.) By prolonging this seam down the 




Fig 2. 

dotted line, we represent the fronts separate 
from the back. Thus the talma may be cut in 
four ways, that is to say, it may be whole ; it 
may have a seam in the back and thus be in 
two pieces ; it may have seams in the shoul- 
ders and none in the back, thus being in three 
pieces ; or, it may have seams in the shoulders 
and a seam in the back, thus being in four 
pieces. Which of these four ways is prefer- 
able will depend on the width of the material 
to be used. The inside line of the edge (Fig. 
2) represents the favorite shape of this gar- 
ment, although it may assume any other contour 
desired. 

In connection with the circular we have 
usually a hood, especially where the garment is 
made of waterproof. We shall therefore ex- 
plain the two forms of hood in general use. 

For the first, a little circular is to be cut, 
according to the rule given above, five or six 
inches deeper than the desired length of the 
hood. This edge will then be turned up, and 
a tape stitched along the inner side to admit a 
drawing-string or an elastic, an inch being left 
above "the tape, to make a sort of ruffle when 
the elastic is drawn up. 

The second shape of hood is made in two 
pieces, the border being cut out as a facing 
and applied externally. The hood itself will 
be cut after the pattern of the cape {see 
Cape), and the border cut by the hood, 
making the border deeper in the back than in 
front. These hoods may be cut of any length, 



CISTERN 



CLAMS 



107 



and are very stylish made long and narrow in 
the back, pointed, and trimmed with heavy cord 
and tassels. 

In using either of these shapes of hood, a 
lining may be employed, which may be quilted 
and wadded if desired ; by using bright-colored 
silk for the lining, a very pretty effect is pro- 
duced, especially where the garment is made for 
a child. 

From the circular pattern may be cut a very 
simple form of dressing-gown, to be made in 
some cotton material or in flannel. It requires 
no lining, except over the shoulders. Having 
cut the circular of sufficient length to touch the 
floor, or longer in the back if desired, do not 
reduce the fulness of the circular at all in the 
front or back, but make a seam on the shoulder 
as in the pattern for the talma (Fig. 2). Let 
the seam be as long as the shoulder length, 
(XIV.), and cut out the arm-size at the end of 
this seam in accordance with the measure 
(IX.). Cut the sleeve after the pattern {see 
Dress), and put it in, using a heavy cord to 
strengthen the arm-size. Add to the wrapper 
a square collar, and pockets stitched on to the 
front breadths ; the collar, cuffs, and pockets 
having some simple trjmming. Fasten the gar- 
ment with buttons from the neck to the bottom 
of the dress (a dozen good-sized ones will be 
sufficient), and confine it at the waist with a 
leather belt if the material be cotton, or cord 
and tassels, if it be flannel. 

CISTERN. — A reservoir for water, which it 
is sometimes necessary to construct in houses 
where there is no public supply of water. When 
sunk in the ground, cisterns differ from wells 
in receiving their watsr by artificial channels, 
and not natural springs. In dry locahties, 
where the supply of other water is uncertain, 
they frequently take the place of wells, being 
constructed of large size, and connecting with 
numerous channels for collecting the rain water 
that falls upon the surrounding surface. Cis- 
terns are usually built of brick, but a cheaper 
method is to dig a hole in the ground of the 
required size, and plaster it with hydraulic 
cement directly upon the walls. Sand and 
gravel thus cemented over stand perfectly well, 
and make durable sides and bottom to the 
cistern. Indoor cisterns should be made of 
strong slate with a perfectly smooth surface ; 
and as slate is liable to be broken by a heavy 
blow, it is advisable to have it in a wooden 
casing or at least provided with a front of wood. 
Every cistern should also have an over-flow 
waste-pipe, which is a pipe fixed either at the 
side or perpendicularly in the bottom with the 
opening at the level which the water would be 
when the cistern is sufficiently full. If by any 
accident the ball-cock should be out of order, or 
if there is no ball-cock, the superfluous water 
that would otherwise overflow will pass down 
this waste-pipe. It is also desirable to have a 
filter attached, and all water for drinking 
should be filtered. A serviceable filter can 
easily be made with merely a small sponge and 
a litUe broken charcoal. {See Water.) 



CITRIC ACID.— (5r^ Acids.) 
CITRON.— A fruit of a low evergreen tree, 
of the same species as the lemon ; larger and 




less succulent, but more acid. Its juice is a 
good substitute for lemon juice. The rind is 
best known in this country. The choicest 
comes from Leghorn and Nice. 

CIVET. — A substance taken from the civet 
cat, and having a perfume similar to that of 
musk and ambergris. It comes chiefly from 
the East and Africa. Its consistence is like 
that of honey, and for this reason it is very 
liable to adulteration by honey. Civet was 
formerly esteemed very highly as a stimulant 
and antispasmodic medicine ; but castor and 
musk, also animal secretions, have taken its 
place, and it is now used only for perfuming 
the more fragrant soaps. 

CLABBER. — Also called " bonny-clabber ;" 
milk that has become thick and nearly solid 
in the process of souring. If it stands too 
long after forming, it decomposes and runs 
off into whey ; but if taken while fresh, cov- 
ered \vith cream, and sprinkled with sugar, 
it is delicious, and said to be one of the 
most digestible forms in which milk can be 
taken. 

CLAMS. — There are several varieties, but 
only two, the hard-shell (or quahaug) and the 
soft-shell, are often met with in our markets. 
The season for clams is from May to Septem- 
ber. {See Soups.) 

Boiled Clams. — Select thin-edged ones. 
Wash them carefully and put them into a pot, 
over a hot fire, with very little water, so as to 
save their juices; when they open, leave the 
juice in the pot, take the clams from their 
shells and put them in ; add butter, pepper, and 
a very little salt, and boil them ten minutes. 
Remove and serve hot. 

Broiled Clams. — Take large, long clams ; 
treat like oysters (which see). 

Broth (Clam).— This is excellent for inva- 
lids, being the best food known for giving 
tone to a deranged stomach ; it may even 
be given in small quantities to sick children 
over six months old. Select small clams ; break 
the shells, and put the clams with the juice 
into a small boiler or stew-pan ; add enough 
water to modify the salty taste, and boil for ten 
minutes. Strain, and it is ready for use. 

Chowder (Clam) {See Chowder.) 



108 



CLARET 



CLEANING 



Fritters (Clam). — Mince a dozen clams fine. 
To the juice add one pint of milk, three eggs 
well beaten, and flour enough to make a thin 
batter; season with pepper and salt, stir in 
the minced clams, and fry quickly in hot lard. 
Unless the fritters are fried quickly they will 
be too greasy. Instead of mincing the clams, 
they can be dipped whole in the batter, and 
fried as above. 

Pickled Clams. — This is the form in which 
clams are sent to the interior, or prepared to 
be eaten raw. They can be pickled for do- 
mestic use in the same way as oysters. (^See 
Oysters.) 

Roast Clams. — i. Put them in a pan over 
a hot fire ; when they open, empty the juice 
into a sauce-pan ; and add the clams ; add some 
butter, and season with pepper and very little 
salt. Leave on the fire three minutes, and 
then serve. 

2. To roast them after the fashion of "clam 
bakes," place them on a stone, edge down- 
wards, and cover over lightly with dry brush 
and sage. Set the brush on fire, and when it 
is a little more than half burnt, pull out some 
of the clams and try them, and, if done, brush 
away the fire and cinders. Remove the clams 
from their shells, and season with catsup, but- 
ler, and spices to taste. 

CLARET. — All those wines which are 
know to us as claret are the product of the 
country around Bordeaux ; but in France there 
is no wine known as claret, which is simply a 
corruption of clariet, a term applied there to 
any red or rose-colored wine. The genuine 
wines of Bordeaux are of great variety, that 
being one of the most famous wine districts of 
France, and a number of them are of the first 
quality. The principal vineyards are those of 
Medoc, Palus, Graves, and Blanche, the pro- 
duce of each being different in character. 
The red Medoc wines are the best, and are 
known as Latour, Lafitte, Chateau Margaux, 
etc. When in perfection, they are of a rich 
red color, have a most agreeable bouquet, and 
are strong without being intoxicating. The 
Lafitte is considered to have the finest flavor ; 
the Chateau Margaux is next in rank ; the 
Latour is the strongest, and has the fullest 
body, but lacks the softness of the others. 
Besides these there are vast quantities of sec- 
ond and third rate Medoc wines, which seldom 
find their way out of France in a pure state. 
All the Medoc wines are improved by a sea 
voyage. 

The wines of Graves are so called from the 
gravelly soil on which they are produced ; they 
are both red and white, but the latter is most 
celebrated. Some of the red resemble Bur- 
gundy in flavor, but are inferior to good Me- 
doc wines. 

Another class of white Bordeaux wines well 
known in this country are Barsac, Sauterne 
and Beaume, which have the advantage of 
keeping long and having considerable dryness. 

The Palus wines are inferior to the Medoc 
and Graves. They are strong and rough when 



new, and are often used to mix with Medoc 
wines to give them additional strength and 
body ; when old, some of them have a fine 
bouquet. 

The Bordeaux wines, when genuine, are 
among the best that France produces ; but 
they seldom reach us in a pure state. The 
inferior are mixed with the better kind for ex- 
portation ; and very often they are adulterated 
with the cheap Spanish wines of Alicant, or 
with brandy. 

Claret should usually be drunk a little 
warmer than the temperature of the room, but 
in warm weather is good iced. The highest 
grades of claret will keep for from fifteen to 
eighteen years, constantly improving in deli- 
cacy. After that time they rapidly deterio- 
rate. 

Claret Cup. — A few sprigs of balm, a slice 
or two of cucumber ; pour over them one pint 
of sherry, half a pint of brandy, a lump or so 
of oleo-saccharum and the strained juice of one 
lemon and three oranges, half pint of curagoa, 
one gill of raspberry syrup, three bottles of 
plain soda and three bottles of claret. Sweeten 
to taste, draw the herbing and serve. This is 
the quantity for twenty people. 

Claret Cup. — II. Peel one lemon fine, cover 
with pounded sugar, pour over a glass of 
sherry ; add one bottle of claret, sprig of ver- 
bena and bottle of soda water. 

Cooling Cup. — Half fill a punch bowl with 
slices of pine-apple (the rind cut therefrom) 
and lemon cut very thin ; arrange in alternate 
layers, each layer being thickly strewed with 
white granulated sugar. Pour over the fruit 
as much claret as will fill the bowl ; cover 
closely, and let it stand six hours. Then put 
in a piece of ice ; when cold add a bottle of 
plain soda water. 

Claret Punch. {See Mulled Drinks.) 

CLAY. (^^^ Bricks.) 

CLEANING. — Wherever directions for 
cleaning come most conveniently under the 
special articles, they will be found there. {See 
Brass, Carpets, Feathers, Ink Stains, 
Matting, Marble, Oil-cloths, Silver- 
ware, Stoves, Grease, Stains, etc., etc.) 
We confine ourselves here to such things as 
are not mentioned elsewhere, or are mentioned 
in such connection as to render it desirable to 
bring instructions for cleaning them together 
under this head. 

Alabaster. {To clean.) — Spots of grease 
may be first removed by a cloth dipped in 
spirits of turpentine ; then immerse the article 
in water, rub it with a painter's brush, and 
dry it; and finish by rubbing it with a soft 
brush dipped in finely powdered plaster of 
Paris. 

Bottles. {To clean.) — Bottles should always 
be scalded, but care must be taken not to put 
them too suddenly into hot water. If not very 
dirty they may be washed in simple soap-suds, 
and afterwards rinsed out in pure water ; but 
if they are very dirty or smell badly, a little 
soda or oxalic acid should be put in each one. 



CLEANING 



109 



If there is any substance which water alone 
will not remove, pour in a few bird-shot with 
the water and shake them around. Bottles 
that have had medicine in them may be 
cleaned by putting ashes and water in each, 
immersing them in cold water, and then heat- 
ing the water gradually until it boils. When 
they have boiled an hour, take from the fire, 
and let them remain in the water till cold ; then 
wash in soap suds, and rinse in clear water. 

Brushes. {To clean.) — Hair brushes should 
be washed in soda and warm water, or ammonia 
and cold water, dipping the bristles frequently 
downward into the water, but keeping the backs 
as dry as possible ; when the bristles look clean, 
rinse the brush in cold water, shake it without 
wiping the bristles, and set it in the air to dry. 
Soap softens bristles. 

Carriages. {To clean.') — Remove cushions 
and carpets and clean with wisp broom. Dust 
the carriage with feather duster. Go over dirt 
to moisten well with a hose (regulating stream 
with thumb rather than using a nozzle), or, in 
default of this, a "watering-pot." Wash the 
body with a sponge and plenty of water keep- 
ing the sponge free from dirt. Never rub any 
part — rather "wash." Wash the wheels with 
a different sponge and lots of water, the more 
the better. Prop your wheel so as to turn it, 
going over each spoke separately. After re- 
moving the dirt, wipe lightly with moist cham- 
ois. Clean the silver with "whitening" or 
" lamp-black." Remove the wheels and wipe 
the axles and boxes thoronghly and apply a 
little sweet oil to the axle twice a week at 
least. Never use warm water on a carriage. 

Combs. {To cleatt.) — Clean combs with 
brushes ; washing makes the teeth split and the 
material rough. Clean fine tooth combs by 
throwing strands of thread over a hook, draw- 
ing tight, and inserting between all the teeth. 

Earthen-ware. {To clean) — Scald and 
wash it out thoroughly with ashes and a cloth. 
If there is any smell in jars let them stand 
filled with water and a little soda. 

Gilding. [To clean.) — Gently wipe with 
cotton dipped in sweet oil ; linen should never 
be used, as it deadens the gilding. To prevent 
flies from staining gilding, simply wash it over 
at the beginning of Summer with water in which 
two or three onions have been boiled. 

Gloves (Kid). {To clean ^ — Benzine is the 
best thing. Pour some of it into awash-basin, 
put on the gloves and wash, as in washing hands. 
Do not have a light or fire in the room for fear 
of explosion. Magnesia, moist bread, or India- 
rubber are all good for light kid gloves : rub 
on thoroughly, the magnesia dry, with a light 
flannel. If dirty enough to need dyeing, sew 
up the tops of the gloves, and rub them over 
with a sponge dipped in a decoction of saffron 
and water. {See Dyeing.) 

Harness. {To clean.) — Have a large hook 
covered with leather, and padded, suspended 
from the ceiling. Upon this hang the harness. 
With a sponge, wrung out and well rubbed 
with castile soap, wipe well all over until 



clean. Pull the straps from the loops and 
buckles, occasionally in washing, to keep all 
parts neat. Now wipe the patent leather 
parts — previously treated as above — with a 
moist chamois, and then polish with a clean, 
soft dry one. Never wet this second chamois. 
Now and then put a little sweet oil on the 
patent leather. If the harness is covered with 
mud, wash with a sponge in clear water first, 
and then proceed as above. If exposed to 
much rainy weather, a little neats-foot oil 
may be applied once in a month or two : or- 
dinarily, once in six months will suffice. Silver 
mounting will continue in good order by rub- 
bing with the dry chamois after washing — if 
needed, "whitening" may be used. Gold 
mounting requires simple wiping with the 
chamois. Prince's metal and brass require 
cleaning with " rotten-stone " or some of the 
preparations found at the saddler's. Steel bits 
are the handsomest and are easily kept bright 
if wiped as soofi as removed from the horse : 
if rusted rub with fine sand, moistened with 
water. A little sweet oil will prevent their 
rusting while not in use. 

Most of the varnishes and patent blackings 
are injurious to the leather. A little " liquid 
black " from the dyer's will be all-sufficient for 
rubbed spots, and castile soap for polish. 

Hearths. (To clean.) — Wash free-stone 
hearths in water without soap ; while damp, 
rub on free-stone that has been reduced to a 
powder ; let it remain till dry and then rub it 
off. If the hearth is stained, rub it hard with 
a piece of free-stone ; if you wish it to look 
dark, rub it over with hot soft soap, alone or 
diluted with water. For brick hearths, apply 
redding (or red clay) mixed with thin hot 
starch and a little milk. 

House -Cleaning. — Most of the advice on 
this subject is already included elsewhere in 
this article, and under FLOORS, Grease, 
Marble, Paint, Stains. It is worth while 
to add, however, that to walls painted in dis- 
temper, or simply whitewashed, water cannot 
be applied, and they can only be brushed care- 
fully. Kalsomined walls can be lightly and 
quickly wiped with damp cloths. 

Knives. {To clean.) — The handles of 
knives, especially if of ivory or horn, should 
never be dipped in hot water. The blades 
should be cleaned by rubbing vigorously with 
a soft flannel and Bath brick. If rusty or 
deeply stained, use wood ashes rubbed on 
with a newly cut Irish potato ; this will remove 
spots when nothing else will. If the ivory 
handles become yellow they may be rubbed 
with fine sand-paper. 

Marble Steps. — Scriib with sand and water, 
with the hearth-stone, or with this mixture : — 
Boil half a pint of size with the same quantity 
of whiting and of pipe clay, in two quarts of 
water; the stones must be first washed clean 
with water, and this mixture afterwards laid 
smoothly on with a cloth ; when dry, they must 
be rubbed with a dry cloth or flannel. 

Mirrors. {To clean.) — Mirrors and looking- 



110 



CLEANING 



CLOTHING 



glasses may be washed with a soft sponge 
dipped in spirits of wine (or water with a little 
ammonia in it), no more of the glass being 
wet at once than can be immediately wiped off, 
as dampness, in altering the temperature of 
the glass, unsettles the coating at the back 
which gives it its power of reflecting objects. 
While wet, the glass should be dusted with 
powdered blue or whiting tied up in a muslin 
bag, and then rubbed off with a soft linen dus- 
ter or silk handkerchief or pieces of chamois- 
skin. 

Paint. {To clean) — Soap should never be 
put on paint. For ordinary cleaning scour the 
paint with a brush less hard than that used for 
floors, using warm water ; before it dries wash 
it off with a piece of old flannel dipped in clear 
cold water, and wipe dry with a linen cloth. If 
the paint is very much soiled, smear a piece of 
flannel in whiting, mixed to the consistency of 
paste in warm water ; rub the surface to be 
cleaned briskly, and wash off with cold water. 
Grease spots will in this way be almost in- 
stantly removed as well as other dirt, and with- 
out injuring the paint. 

Paper-hangings. {To clean.) — Brush all 
the dust off carefully v/ith a brush and rub the 
walls with thick slices of stale bread, beginning 
at the top of the room, care must be taken not 
to rub the paper too hard, and to rub down- 
wards with a perpendicular stroke ; if the rub- 
bing is horizontal the wall will be covered with 
smears. The dirty surface of the bread must 
be cut away from time to time, and the pieces 
renewed as often as necessary. There is no 
way of removing grease spots or other stains 
from wall paper. 

Papier-mache. (To clean.) — Papier mache 
articles should be washed with a sponge and 
cold water, without soap, lightly dredged with 
flour while damp, and polished with flannel. 

Pots, Kettles, etc. (Zi? clean.) — As soon 
as a pot or frying-pan has been emptied of what 
was cooked in it, it should be filled with hot water 
and set back upon the fire to scald thoroughly. 
After cleaning, it should be wiped dry before 
being set away into the closet or it is likely to 
rust. If grease or any substance gets caked 
in it so as to resist the action of water, it may 
be dissolved by a little pearlash. Copper uten- 
sils should be cleaned with brick-dust and flan- 
nel ; if the outsides are to be highly polished, 
use a composition of one ounce of spirits of 
hartshorn, half a pint of vinegar, one ounce of 
rotten-stone, and one ounce of soft soap ; mix 
the soap and rotten-stone together first, and 
then add the hartshorn and vinegar. Tins 
should be kept clean by rubbing them with 
sifted wood-ashes, or whiting, or Bath brick. 

The " chain-cloth," a network of steel rings, 
resembling an old fashioned reticule is of great 
service in cleaning kettles that have been badly 
burned. 

Shawls. {To clean.) — Either woollen or silk 
shawls may be cleaned very thoroughly in this 
way : Pare and grate raw and mealy potatoes 
and for each pint of potato-pulp add two quarts 



of cold water. Let it stand five hours, then 
strain the water through a sieve and rub as 
much of the potato pulp through as possible ; 
let the strained water stand to settle again, and 
when clear turn the water off from the dregs 
carefully. Put a clean white sheet on a per- 
fectly clean table, lay over it the shawl to be 
cleaned and pin it down tightly. Dip a sponge 
that has never been used into the potato water, 
and rub the shawl with it until clean ; then 
rinse the shawl in clear water and salt (a teacup- 
ful of salt to a pailful of the water). Spread it 
on a clean, level place where it will dry quickly, 
— if hung up to dry the colors are apt to run 
and leave the shawl streaked. Fold it up 
while damp, and let it remain half an hour ; then 
wrap it in a clean white cloth, and put it under 
a heavy weight until it is dry. If there are any 
grease spots on the shawl, they should be ex- 
tracted before it is washed. 

Windows. {To clean.) — Wash each pane 
separately with old flannel and warm water, 
but do not let the water run on the sash. 
Dry quickly with a soft, clean linen cloth, 
wiping the corners carefully ; polish with dry 
chamois skin, or newspapers rubbed soft be- 
tween the hands. If the glass is very dim 
with dirt or smoke, dissolve a little washing- 
soda in the water ; or use whiting mixed 
smoothly in some water. The addition of a 
little gin to the water is also a great improve- 
ment. Paint or putty may be removed from 
the glass by dissolving sufficient pearl-ash in 
hot water to make it very strong ; then satu- 
rate the spots with it, let it remain till nearly 
dry, and then rub it off hard with a woollen 
cloth. Whiting may be used on the spots if 
they are very obstinate. 

CLOCK. — Clocks are so cheap now, that 
their usefulness and companionableness should 
secure them a place in nearly every room in 
the house. There should always be one in the 
kitchen especially, or where the cook may easily 
consult it; much of the careless and unscientific 
cooking which disgraces American kitchens is 
owing to the habit that prevails there of guess- 
ing at the time. The whole art of keeping 
clocks in order — so far at least as they can be 
kept in order by one not acquainted with their 
construction — consists in winding them up 
regularly and properly. If once the mechan- 
ism becomes disarranged and they refuse to 
keep time, it is best not to tinker with them, 
but take them at once to a clockmaker. If 
the ordinary pendulum clock runs too slow, this 
may be remedied by screwing the little nut at 
the base of the pendulum a little higher ; if it 
runs too fast the pendulum should be lowered 
slightly. A clock that is driven by weights 
must be so placed that its sides will be exactly 
perpendicular. 

CLOTHING.— It is foreign to our purpose 
to enter here into the history of dress or a 
description of prevailing fashions ; the forms 
of dress, being subject to the arbitrary rule of 
fashion, are seldom permitted to be regulated 
by individual feeling of convenience or utility, 



CLOTHING 



111 



and this branch o£ the subject has by common 
consent been handed over to the miUiners, 
dressmakers, and tailors. There are, however, 
certain physical principles respecting clothing 
that are permanent and universal, and attention 
to these will ensure healthy dress, notwithstand- 
ing the eccentricities of form and fashion. 

The usual temperature of the body is about 
98° ; and its heat is constantly being thrown 
off into the surrounding air. Clothing checks 
or prevents this loss in some degree ; and it 
follows of course that the materials which are 
the best non-conductors form the warmest 
clothing. But there are several other circum- 
stances to be taken into consideration in 
choosing materials. The skin, by its struc- 
ture, performs the function of regulating 
the temperature — by perspiration through 
its pores the excess of heat is carried off ; 
hence when this function is deranged, and 
the insensible perspiration obstructed, disease 
is the consequence. In addition to this ser- 
vice, the pores of the skin serve as an outlet 
for matters no longer necessary in the animal 
economy, and which if retained would prove 
injurious ; and we may observe that the skin is 
abundantly supplied with minute nerves, w^hich 
are the source of feeling, and which require a 
certain degree of warmth to preserve their 
vital action. From these facts it is easy to 
learn that clothing should be of such a nature 
as not to impede the escape of the perspired 
matter but to let it pass through its texture ; 
that it should be of such non-conducting quality 
as to confine the heat generated by the blood 
sufficiently to preserve the activity of the ner- 
vous system ; and that by its lightness, soft- 
ness, and pliancy, it should permit the free 
action of the limbs. 

Applying these principles, it is plain that 
clothing for summer wear should be made of 
materials which conduct heat rapidly; while 
that for winter should be made of such as 
conduct heat slowly. Now the power of con- 
duction of all substances available for clothing 
depends largely on the capacity for holding 
air ; those which hold most of this worst of all 
conductors of heat become, in consequence, 
bad conductors themselves, and those which 
hold least are necessarily good ones. Thick and 
loose textures are obviously better holders of 
air than thin and closely-woven ones, and there- 
fore woollen clothing will keep in the bodily 
heat and feel warmer than that made of linen. 
The capacity of dress for holding air will also, 
it is clear, be increased by numerous layers 
and looseness of fit ; while it will be diminished 
by tightness ; it is obvious then that warmth 
will be best secured by clothes which fit loosely 
and are composed of successive layers. Moist- 
ure increases the conducting power of cloth- 
ing, because it fills up the interstices of the 
material and thus excludes the air. Wool 
absorbs moisture less rapidly than Hnen or 
cotton or any other material, and its conduct- 
ing power is very little increased by it. For 
all these reasons woollen clothing, next the skin 



especially, is better than any other, no matter 
what may be the season of the year ; and it 
may be so adjusted as to meet the requirements 
of both winter and summer. 

Linen is the best conductor of heat of all the 
materials used for clothing, and as it does not 
absorb so much of the perspired matter as 
wool, it leaves the pores of the skin partially 
clogged up. It also feels colder to the skin 
than wool, and robs the body of heat very 
rapidly when first put on. It is a step there- 
fore in the direction of health as well as econo- 
my that it has been nearly superseded by cot- 
ton in some of the most important articles of 
dress. Cotton, in its powers of conducting 
heat, holds a middle ground between linen 
and flannel, and should be used when the latter 
is inappropriate. 

The choice of colors in dress, though gen- 
erally a matter of fashion or mere caprice, is 
only less important than choice of materials. 
Of all colors black reflects least and absorbs 
most of the heat that strikes upon it, which 
warmth it communicates to the body; but, on 
the other hand, it radiates more than any other 
color, and of course gives out more of the 
heat which it receives from the skin, producing 
a counteracting effect. White, on the con- 
trary, is least warmed by external heat but is 
more effectual in confining the heat of the 
body. The difference between them with re- 
spect to warmth is that black clothes are hottest 
when the sun is most powerful, and white 
warmest when the sun has least power ; 
speaking generally, white is coolest in summer 
and black in winter. The inference from this is 
that for steady wear, white is most appropriate 
for underclothes, while the best color for outside 
apparel is a neutral tint such as gray or brown. 

We hope it is superfluous to urge the neces- 
sity of frequent change of clothing ; but it 
should be borne in mind that continuous wear 
of the same apparel is not only uncleanly but 
detrimental to health. That which is worn 
next the skin, no matter what its texture is, 
should be frequently washed, and the outer 
garments should be changed from time to time 
to admit of a lengthened purification by shaking 
and exposure to air. Frequent cleansing of a 
garment, apart from its propriety, has the effect 
of keeping the material open and soft and 
pervious to the air, which, as has been shown, 
is essential to maintaining the warmth of the 
body. The open fleecy texture of woollen cloth 
especially, if not often stirred by shaking, 
beating, or brushing, will become so pressed 
and matted by constant use as to lose many 
of its peculiar advantages. A most healthy 
and cleanly practice is to shake each article 
of apparel every morning just before it is put 
on the body. 

One point in which people generally are 
much too careless is in making the changes of 
underclothing that are considered necessary for 
the different seasons. Too great haste in 
making this change, especially in the spring, 
has been and is one of the most fruitful sources 



112 



CLOTHES WRINGER 



COCOANUT 



of coughs, colds, and the related diseases. 
Such a change should never be made, until the 
weather is entirely settled, in otlier words, until 
steady hot weather has come in. The practice 
too often indulged in by young girls of chang- 
ing about from day to day as the weather hap- 
pens to vary is reckless to the point of foolish- 
ness. 

To Render Non-inflammable. — Linen and 
cotton goods may be rendered non-inflam- 
mable by steeping them in a solution of sul- 
phate of ammonia (seven parts to one hundred 
parts of water), or tungstate of soda (twenty 
parts to one hundred of water), and then drying 
them. Tungstate of soda is the best on account 
of its not interfering in any way with the process 
of ironing. Clothing prepared in this manner 
may be held in the flame of a candle, or gas, or 
lamp, without taking fire; that portion of the 
stuff in direct contact with the fire becomes 
charred and is destroyed, but it does not 
ignite, and consequently the burning does not 
spread to the rest of the material. 

To Render Waterproof. — Into a gallon of 
water put a quarter of an ounce of yellow 
soap, and let it boil for half an hour, skim, 
and when cold put in the cloth or garment ; let 
it remain in soak for twenty-four hours. Take it 
out and hang it to drain, and when half dry put 
it into the following solution : half a pound of 
alum, and a quarter of a pound of sugar of lead, 
dissolved in three gallons of water. Let it soak 
about four hours, and then hang to dry without 
wringing. The solution does not alter the ap- 
pearance or texture of the article immersed ; and 
the process does not require to be repeated. 

For directions for making Women^s and 
Childreii's Clothins; and tnidergartnents, see 
Cutting, and Fitting, and under the names 
of the respective garments. 
CLOTHES WRINGER. {See Wringer.) 
CLOVES. — Every part of the clove-tree 
abounds in aromatic oil, but it is most fragrant 
and plentiful in the unexpanded flower-buds, 
which in a dried state, form the cloves of com- 
merce. Cloves grow in several parts of the 
tropical world, but the best come from the 
East Indies. In choosing select those of a 
lightish brown which are not shrivelled. The 
oil of cloves may be obtained by expression 
from the fresh flower-buds, but the usual 
method of obtaining it is by distillation. Few 
essential oils have a more extensive use in perfu- 
mery than that of cloves. It combines well with 
grease, soap, and spirit, and forms a leading 
feature in some of the most popular handker- 
chief essences. For essence of cloves, dissolve 
oil of cloves in the proportion of 2 oz of oil to 
I gal. spirit. 

COAGULATION. — The thickening of a 
substance that has been fluid, as the formation 
of curd from milk when rennet is boiled with it 
or when it has clabbered. 

COAL. {See Anthracite, Bituminous 
Coal, Cannel Coal, and Charcoal.) 

COBBLER. (Fruit.)— Take half a glassful 
of the juice of any fruit ; sweeten to taste, 



and fill up the glass with ice broken very 
fine. 

Sherry Cobbler. — Fill a large glass full of 
ice broken up fine ; fill the interstices with 
sherry, add a tablespoonful of powdered white 
sugar, and about a square inch of lemon peel 
that has had the oil pressed to the surface. 
Stir together thoroughly, and drink through a 
tube or a straw. 

COCHINEAL.— The product of the cochi- 
neal insect {Coccus Cadi), a native of Brazil, 
whence it is shipped in large quantities to all 
parts of the world. It is used in dyeing scarlet, 
crimson, and related colors, and is the substance 
from which carmine is made. {See Carmine, 
and Dyeing.) 

COCKLE. — A kind of shell-fish very abund- 
ant and highly thought of in Europe, but scarce 
in this country and seldom seen in our mar- 
kets. It is shaped like the clam, but wrinkled 
and rough ; and is generally picked up with 
the round clam in the mouths of rivers and 
bays near the ocean. They have a peculiar 
and agreeable flavor, and are regarded as a 
very wholesome food ; they may be eaten raw, 
boiled, or fried, and are very good used as 
sauce instead of oysters. If pickled like mus- 
sels they will keep for several days. 

COCKROACHES.— These are one of the 
worst of the insect pests. They may be destroy- 
ed by pouring boiling water into their haunts, or 
setting a mixture of arsenic mixed with mo- 
lasses and Indian meal round the places which 
they frequent. Chloride of lime and sweetened 
water will also poison them ; as will hellebore 
rubbed over witn molasses. Cockroaches must 
be dealt with promptly, as they multiply rapidly 
and soon overrun the house. {See Roaches.) 
COCKTAIL. {See under Whiskey.) 
COCOA. — Cocoa is generally purer than 
chocolate, which is a preparation of the same 
bean, and is also more nutritious. The best 
comes from Trinidad, and may be had in the 
original seed or nibs, flaked, or ground and 
prepared like chocolate in small square pack- 
ets. The latter is a mixture of cocoa and 
arrowroot. The surest way of getting cocoa 
pure is to buy the beans and roast them, after- 
wards grinding them like coffee or simply 
bruising them. It deteriorates by keeping, and 
it is best to buy it in small quantities at a time. 
When prepared cocoa is used, make it in the 
same way as chocolate. {See Chocolate.) 
When the cocoa nibs are prepared add two 
ounces of them to a quart of boiling water, and 
boil an hour and a half ; then add a quart of 
fresh milk, let it heat almost to boihng, and 
then remove from the fire and serve. 

COCOANUT. — The fruit of the cocoa palm 
which grows wild throughout the tropics and is 
especially abundant in the eastern parts of 
Asia and the islands of the Indian seas. Those 
in our markets are generally brought from 
Baracoa and Brazil. Besides the white, solid 
kernel which is used so extensively for pies, 
puddings, cakes and the like, cocoanuts con- 
tain a creamy liquid, called milk ; in buying 



COD 



113 



select those in which the milk can be heard 
when they are shaken. Cocoanut should be 
grated fine before using. 

COD. — This fish is found in all the northern 
parts of the world and especially on the banks of 
Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and New England. 




It may be had in our markets throughout the 
year ; from October to May alive, after this 
they come packed in ice, from the northern 
fisheries. There often appear codfish of va- 
rious colors or markings ; some full of streaks, 
light and dark, many of the usual gray color, 
others of a greenish gray, and others still of a 
reddish brown. The fishermen say this is 
caused by their being taken in different waters, 
and apply to them the names of rock-cod, shoal- 
cod, etc. When fresh, the flesh is white and 
firm, the neck is thick, the gills red, and the 
eyes bright. The tongue is cut out when the 
fish is first caught ; and these, witli the air 
bladder or sack, called sounds are cured and 
found on sale. They are highly nutritious, be- 
ing almost pure gelatine. 

Balls (Codfish). — Take .--codfish, picked, Yz 
pt. ; milk % cupful ; cornstarch 2 even table- 
spoonfuls ; butter y^ the size of an &gg', eggs 
3 ; potatoes lo or 1 1, medium sized. Soak the 
fish all night (if very salt in a great deal of 
water) then press the water from it and pick it 
very fine ; boil and mash the potatoes ; add the 
butter and the milk, in which the corn-starch is 
mixed, to the hot potato, throw in the fish 
with the eggs and beat the whole until so light 
that it looks like pound-cake. Fry in balls, in 
deep lard, or brown like muffins in rings on the 
griddle. 

Boiled. (Fresh.) — Soak it for half an hour 
in cold water, slightly salted ; then drain it and 
wipe dry. Put it into a pot with water enough 
to fairly cover it, add a little salt, and boil for 
half an hour or more according to the size of the 
fish. Dish, and garnish with scraped horse- 
radish, or parsley, or both; surround with 
slices of fried roe, and accompany with oyster 
sauce. Another nice dressing is with egg 
sauce poured over it on the dish ; garnish with 
slices of hard-boiled eggs and sprigs of parsley. 
Boiled cod is also eaten with Anchovy, Caper, 
or Dutch sauce. 

Boiled. (Salt.) — Soak it in cold water for 
two days, changing the water two or three 
times ; then scale it well and clean. A shorter 
way is to place it one night in lukewarm water, 
renewing the latter several times ; it is then 
ready for use next day. Lay the fish in a 
kettle, cover it with cold water, set it on a slow 
fire, let it boil about two minutes ; then take the 
kettle from the fire, cover it over tightly, and 



let it stand ten minutes. Drain the fish, dish 
it, and serve as above. 

Chowder. (Codfish.) — Cut a codfish of 
six or seven pounds into slices about an inch 
thick ; slice half a dozen medium-sized pota- 
toes ; cut one pound of salt pork into thin 
slices and fry them brown. Grease the bottom 
of the pot and put in a layer of the fish, then 
a layer of the potatoes and pork, with some 
pilot-bread or crackers ; and so on, alternately, 
till all is in the pot. Pour over the whole a 
quart of water and a pint of milk, add salt and 
pepper to taste, and a few onions if they are 
liked, and boil twenty minutes. 

Picked-up Codfish. — Pick the fish into 
small pieces, the smaller the better. Freshen 
by leaving it in water an hour ; pour off the 
water, fill up with fresh, and set over the fire 
until it just comes to a boil ; then pour the 
water off, and put on the fish just enough hot 
water to cover it ; add, to a quart of the soaked 
fish, a -level tablespoonful of butter, a table- 
spoonful of flour, and a dust of black pepper. 
Let it boil ten minutes, and when it has been 
taken off the fire thicken by stirring in two 
well-beaten eggs. Dish and serve hot. 

Remnants of Codfish. — Remnants of fish 
left over make a pretty and agreeable dish 
prepared thus : Pick the flakes of fish away 
from the bones and skin before they become 
cold. When wanted put them into a stew-pan 
with what was left of the sauce (anchovy, 
oyster, or other) with which they were original- 
ly served. Add a dozen or more fresh oysters 
with their juice; if these are not enough _ to 
moisten the fish (and it only requires to be just 
moistened), make up the deficiency with a 
spoonful or two of melted butter. Warm care- 
fully over a slow fire, and when once hot 
through take it off. Surround the rim of the 
dish with a wall of nice mashed potatoes, so as 
to leave a hollow in the middle ; in this hollow 
place the warmed-up fish with its sauce. 
Sprinkle over the fish grated bread-crumb.s or 
crackers ; set the whole for a few minutes in a 
quick oven ; and when nicely browned on the 
top, serve. 

Stewed, with Eggs.— Prepare the fish as 
for balls. Take a pint of fresh milk, heat it 
almost to boiling, stir into it gradually three 
eggs well beaten, a tablespoonful of butter, a 
little chopped parsley, a litde pepper, and lastly 
the fish. Boil it up once, turn it into a deep 
covered dish, and serve hot. This is an excel- 
lent dish for either breakfast or supper. 

Tongues and Sounds.— Soak them twenty- 
four hours, changing the water once;_ then 
throw them into boihng water and boil ten 
minutes. Serve, covered with egg sauce and 
garnished with toast. 

2. Boil as above, and let them cool. Then 
dip them in batter, or roll them in bread-crumbs 
and egg, and fry to a crisp brown. So treated 
they either make a nice dish by themselves, or 
are an appropriate garnish for both salt and 
fresh cod boiled. 

3. After cooking them, scrape off the skin, 



114 



CODEIA 



COFFEE 



cut them into small pieces, and stew them in a 
little milk five or ten minutes till tender. Just 
before taking up, add a little butter and a little 
flour-paste. Serve with cold boiled eggs cut 
up over them. 

CODEIA. — An alkaloid contained in opium. 
It possesses hypnotic properties but produces 
only moderate anodyne effects. It is used to 
produce sleep, or to quiet cough in persons 
who do not tolerate opium or morphia. The 
dose is from \ to i grain, in pill form, or dis- 
solved in syrup. One dose only should be 
taken in one day without the doctor's advice. 

CODLING. — This fish is also known as 
" hake." It appears to be a species of the 
codfish, but is not considered equal to the lat- 
ter in flavor or in nutritive value. It weighs 
from one to twenty pounds, and is in season 
from September to December, though even 
then it is by no means abundant in our markets. 
It may be broiled or fried like blue-fish, or 
boiled like cod. 

COD-LIVER OIL.— Several kinds of livers 
are employed to make this oil, but the cod yield 
it most abundantly. Its great virtue prob- 
ably lies in its easy digestibility. Probably in 
those cases where it does so much good, it 
re-establishes the balance of nutrition, enabling 
other substances to be made use of in the ani- 
mal economy which were before rejected. 
Under its use patients sometimes marvellously 
increase in weight and improve in general 
appearance, their blood becoming richer, and 
their complexion ruddier, even though they are 
taking no iron. Its use is thus indicated in a 
great variety of exhausting diseases, especially 
those where there is chronic wasting with 
gradual emaciation. Individuals, too, with 
swollen glands, which themselves interfere 
with nutrition, are almost invariably benefited 
by its use; and one of the most obstinate 
complaints known — chronic rheumatism and 
rheumatic gout — frequently yield to its in- 
fluence. Where there is scrofula, and a ten- 
dency to consumption, cod-liver oil is invalu- 
able ; even in advanced pulmonary consumption 
its effects are wonderful. Nor is it of less 
value in treating the diseases of the bones and 
joints in scrofulous persons. In the wasting 
diseases of childhood, there is no remedy to be 
compared with cod-liver oil. 

It is a common assertion on the part of 
patients that they cannot take the oil because 
it makes them sick. The first thing to be done 
under such circumstances is to secure the 
purest and most palatable oil possible ; it should 
be perfectly clear, and have not the slightest 
trace of rancidity about it. Good oil has a slightly 
fishy smell, and taste, that is all. Then it should 
be given in small doses ; let the patient begin 
with a tablespoonful, or even less, a few drops 
if no more can be tolerated. It may be given 
in anything the patient fancies, water, milk, 
orange wine, curacao, etc., and it is best given 
within half an hour after a meal ; some like it 
immediately after. Even this may upset the 
stomach, and then it must be tried the last 



thing at night, after the patient has lain down 
in bed. As soon as the patient becomes accus- 
tomed to it, the dose must be gradually and 
carefully increased, taking care not to overload 
the stomach, until he can take a tablespoonful 
or more three or four times a day. When the 
stomach utterly rejects it, the oil is to be rubbed 
into the stomach and bowels with the hand or 
a warm flannel. This plan is especially adapt- 
ed for children. In marasmus and other wast- 
ing diseases, when digestion is entirely sus- 
pended, a wide band of flannel dipped in warm 
cod-liver oil and bound round the bowels, 
renewing it as it dries, may save the child's 
life. The addition of a few drops of Sulphuric 
Ether to the oil, in some cases, renders its 
digestion possible. 

COFFEE. — Coffee is said to be a native of 
Arabia, but it has spread from thence through- 
out the tropical portions of the world and parts 
of the temperate zone ; it will grow in any 
climate where the temperature does not fall 
below 55°. The best coffee of commerce 
comes from Arabia, and is known as Mocha, 
the next best is the Java, and after that the 
Ceylon, Bourboti, and Martinique. The prin- 
cipal supply of the United States however is 
derived from Brazil, which furnishes three- 
fourths of the whole import. This is known 
as the Rio, and is the kind always supplied un- 
less another variety is asked for. 

The only way to secure pure coffee is to 
buy the raw beans, roast and grind them at 
home. When coffee is bought already roast- 
ed, the disadvantage is in its losing its de- 
licate aroma very rapidly ; when it is both 
roasted and ground, it very generally is 
adulterated with chicory, peas, or potatoes. 
Good coffee cannot by any means be made 
from it, and in many cases dangerous de- 
coctions have been made from adulterated 
coffee. In buying raw coffee, choose that 
which is dry and light ; the coffee which 




Fig. 1. Coffee Roa.^ter. 

feels dense and weighty is green. Coffee 
which is from eight to ten months old is the 
best selection. 



COFFEE 



115 



The roasting of coffee in a proper manner 
requires great nicety, and cannot be done suc- 
cessfully without the aid of some such appar- 
atus as is shown in the accompanying figures, 
which may be had in the furnishing stores. 
Fig. I is inexpensive, and the supply of char- 
coal needed for it is very trifling indeed ; fig. 
2 is larger, and about double the price. The 
cylinder which contains the coffee should be 
only half filled, and it should be turned rather 
slowly over the fire, which should never be 
very fierce, until a strong aromatic smell is 
emitted ; the movement should then be quick- 
ened, as the bean is in that case quite heated 
and it will scorch before it is roasted through 
if slowly finished. When the coffee is of a 
light, chestnut-brown color, which can be as- 
certained by sliding back the door of the 
cylinder and looking at it occasionally towards 
the end of the process, spread it quickly over 
a large dish, beat up the wiiite of an egg with 




Fig. 2. Coffee Roaster. 

a tablespoonful of melted butter, and stir up 
well with it, and then cover it over with a 
thickly folded cloth. Let it remain thus until 
it is quite cold ; then put it into canisters or 
bottles where the air cannot get at it. 

For grinding coffee there are two kinds of 
coftee-mills, those which are portable and 
others for fixing against the walls. It should 
be ground to a moderately fine powder; if it 
is too coarse the essence will be only partially 
extracted from it in making, while if it is too 
fine the water will not percolate through it 
and it will not be clear. No more should be 
ground at a time than will suffice for a single 
making. 

Coffee, (boiled.) — Allow a tablespoonful of 
ground coffee to each person ; and for each 
tablespoonful a coffee-cupful of water. Let 
the water boil, and while it is boihng stir in 
the coffee ; allow it to boil hard five minutes, 
then set it where it will simmer for ten min- 
utes ; pour out a large cupful, hold it high 
over the coffee-pot, and pour it in again ; re- 
peat this, and then set it on the stove where 
it will keep hot without simmering for five or 



ten minutes longer. Coffee made thus will be 
perfectly clear unless it is mismanaged. 
Should fining be necessary, however, use a 
pinch of isinglass, or a small piece of the skin 
of salt codfish, or, better still, the shell of a 
raw egg with a little of the white adhering to 
it. 

Coffee, (Filtered.) — There are a great num- 
ber of patent coffee-pots designed to make 
coffee after the Continental method without 
boiling, and as minute directions for using ac- 
company each one we will only mention that 
the principle involved in each is very simple 
and consists in allowing hot water to percolate 
slowly through ground coffee into a receptacle 
below. Some of them are good, though need- 
lessly expensive ; but a simple filter or per- 
colator, as it is called, will answer perfectly well, 
and they can be obtained to fit any coffee-pot. 
In making coffee by this method allow rather 
more coffee than when it is to be boiled ; 
spread the grounds over the percolator ; and 
pour on the boiling water, slowly till the coffee 
is saturated and then more rapidly. Should 
the coffee not be strong enough, run it through 
the filters again. Coffee made thus is thought 
to have a more delicate and aromatic flavor 
than when boiled ; but on the other hand, Mr. 
Donovan, a prominent English chemist, who 
has made a special study of the matter, thinks 
that it requires boiling for a little time to ex- 
tract the bitter principle in which much of the 
exhilarating quality of coffee resides. 

A plan which we have ourselves tried with 
perfect satisfaction is to put the grounds in a 
flannel bag suspended from the inner side of 
the lid of the coffee-pot so as to be immersed 
in the water, and boil for ten minutes. Made 
thus, coffee is always strong and clear. 

Iced Coffee. — Make strong coffee, and 
when it is cold mix it with an equal quantity 
of fresh cream, sweeten to taste, and freeze. 
Iced tea may be made in the same way. 

Cafe a la Militaire. — Make some coffee as 
strong and clear as possible ; sweeten it in the 
cup with white sugar almost to a syrup ; then 
pour half a wineglass of brandy on the top 
gently over a spoon, set fire to it with a light- 
ed paper, and when the spirit is partly con- 
sumed, blow out the flame and then drink the 
coffee hot. 

Cafe Noir. — This is the very essence of 
coffee and it has become customary to serve 
it immediately after dessert — either before 
leaving the table, or in the parlor the moment 
dinner is ended. In the latter case it is com- 
monly followed by wines. To make it, proceed 
exactly as above, but add only about a third 
as much water, the object being to make the 
strongest possible infusion. About two-thirds 
of a small cupful — not more — sweetened al- 
most to syrup with white sugar in lumps is 
usually taken to each person. White sugar 
candy in powder may be served with it, in 
addition to the sugar in lumps. 

COFFEE-POTS. — Coffee-pots designed for 
coffee that is made simply by boiling are made 



11.6 



COKE 



COLIC 



of tm, zinc, or Britannia metal. Those of zinc 
are better and more durable than the tin ; the 
Britannia pots are the prettiest and most 
showy, but they cannot be set on the fire or 
even near it without melting. 

There is an immense variety of patent coffee- 
pots for making- coffee by filtering ; all draw 
the hot water through the ground coffee. The 
principle is very simple and any of them prob- 
ably can be used with satisfaction. The best 
one that we know is the " Eureka," though there 







B 

n 


c 

A 


R 




The Eureka Condensing Pot. 

A. Body of the pot, to hold the wafer after it has passed 
through the coffee. 

B. Water joint, to be filled with water, which, receiving the 
rim of the cover (G), makes an absolutely tight joint. 

C. Filter, with perforated bottom. 

D. Discharge. 

F. Valve, to close the spout when not pouring. 

G. Hoop of cover. 

K. Cup with perforated bottom, to distribute the water 
evenly over the coffee. 

The parts C and K are, in some shape, common to nearly all 
coffee machines. In many they are put on top of the pot 
instead of inside of it. 

may be others as good. An examination of it, 
however, will explain the good features com- 
mon to all, as well as some peculiar to this 
invention. The French cafCtiere is excellent 
and not very expensive ; so is the Vienna coffee- 
pot ; and Dr. Smith especially recommends an 
English invention known as Ash's Kaffee- 
Kanne. 

COKE. That which remains from coal 
after the hydrogen has been eliminated ; the 
kind chiefly employed for domestic purposes 
in this country is what remains in the gas re- 
torts after the gas has been extracted from 
the coal for illumination. Coke as a fuel has 
the advantage of kindling more quickly than 
anthracite, and giving out an intense radiant 
heat without either smoke or flame ; it is there- 
fore particularly convenient for many purposes. 
From the clearness with which it burns and 
the intensity of its heat, it is excellent for cer- 
tain operations of the cook, when a bright, 
clear fire is wanted, as for broiling, roasting, 
etc. Its disadvantages are that it burns out 



rapidly and will not keep a fire, and that it 
leaves a great deal of ashes. When burnt by 
itself, moreover, in close fires, it requires 
watching to prevent it from fusing that part 
of the iron-work of the stoves or ranges 
with which it comes in contact. It is best to 
mix it with other coal, and used in this way, it 
makes an excellent and economical fuel. 

It is a notion of some that coke is more 
sulphurous than coal ; but this is impossible, 
as the sulphur is eliminated by the very pro- 
cess of converting coal into coke. Burned by 
itself, however, coke has all the bad qualities 
of charcoal, giving out carbonic acid gas, 
which, if the current or draught up the chim- 
ney is not sufficient, will fall down into the 
apartment. 

COLANDER. — A deep tin vessel, shaped 
like a dish-pan, with holes perforated in the 
bottom and sometimes in the sides, used for 
separating the liquid part of substances from 
the solid. Its varied usefulness renders it an 
essential part of the furniture of the kitchen. 

COLD CREAM. — Take a quarter of an 
ounce of white wax and shred it into a bowl, 
with one ounce of almond oil. Place the bowl 
by the fire till the wax is melted ; then add 
one ounce of rose-water, little by Httle, mean- 
while beating the mixture smartly with a fork; 
this is to make the water incorporate with the 
other ingredients, and the beating must be 
continued till it is accomplished. Then pour 
it into jars for use. 

Or, take of best lard one pound, and of 
spermaceti four ounces, and melt the two to- 
gether ; then add one ounce of rose-water, 
and beat it in as above directed. 

COLDS. — A cold, however slight, should be 
attended to at once. When one is felt to be 
coming on, take a Turkish bath if it can be had, 
and if not, a common vapor bath. Or if the 
time can be spared, go to bed, take ten grains 
of Dover's powder with a little sugar, cover 
the chest with a hot poultice of bran or oatmeal, 
and in an hour after the powder drink a pint 
of hot tea or thin gruel ; next morning take a 
mild cathartic — either Epsom salts or a SeidHtz 
powder in warm water. If the cold has come 
on, but is only shght, drink a pint of cold water 
on going to bed and put on some extra bed- 
clothes so as to produce perspiration. A good 
remedy also, is to soak the feet in hot water, 
not above the ankle, with a handful of salt in it ; 
do this just before going to bed and drink cot 
piously of hot tea, or whey, or lemonade. If 
compelled to go out to business, put on plenty 
of clothes and move about as much as possible. 
{See Chest Protector and Influenza.) 

OOLIO. — There are several kinds of colic, 
all accompanied by severe griping pains in the 
bowels, with distention or flatulence, nausea, 
or vomiting ; and as the hardness or distention 
of the belly increases, cramps or spasms occur 
either in the abdominal muscles or in those of 
the thighs and legs. The only diseases with 
which colic can be confounded are cholera and 
inflammation of the bowels ; from the former it 



COLORS 



COMPOTES 



117 



is distinguished by the absence of diarrhoea ; 
and from the last by the pain bein^ reHeved 
by pressure. Tlie exciting causes of coHc are 
very numerous, but it usually comes from ex- 
posure to cold, from eating acid or unripe fruit, 
or from the food taken into the stomach being 
indigestible. A common cause of colic is the 
arrest of digestion from attempting severe men- 
tal labor immediately after eating. 

Treatment. — Colic may sometimes be re- 
lieved by applying hot cloths to the stomach, 
and giving a dose of castor oil with plenty 
of spice, such as grated nutmeg, cinnamon, 
etc. If this does not arrest it, and especially 
if cramps are felt, give an opiate (ten drops 
of laudanum) and a good drink of hot ginger 
or cinnamon tea. After a severe attack, it 
is well to take a mild aperient, and to abstain 
from all irritating substances in the food, such 
as fruit, green vegetables, etc. In many cases 
the absorption of medicine does not take place 
in the stomach, and the pain continues. When 
this is the case a dose of from 3 to 5 drops of 
Majendie's Solution of morphia into the skin 
by means of a hypodermic syringe will afford 
relief in a few minutes' time. 

COLORS. {To Restore.) — When the color of 
any fabric has been destroyed by acid, wash 
the spot with ammonia to neutralize the same, 
after which an application of chloroform will, 
in almost all cases, restore the original color. 
The use of ammonia is common, but that of 
chloroform is but little known. — Another plan 
with articles which will not be damaged by wet- 
ting is to boil them in a ley made of equal parts 
of quick-lime and wood ashes, rinsing them out 
afterwards in weak alum water, and pressing 
them well when nearly dry. {See Painting.) 

COLOGNE. — Eaii de Cologne, a favorite 
perfume, named after the city of Cologne where 
it was first made and where its manufacture is 
still extensively carried on. It consists of alco- 
hol perfumed with the essential oils. Cologne 
can always be bought of the druggists, but it 
is frequently inferior, and it can easily be made 
at home. The following is Fontenelle's famous 
recipe : — Take a quarter of an ounce each of 
dried rosemary, thyme, sweet marjoram, worm- 
wood, balm, and hyssop ; a quarter of an ounce 
each of cloves, cinnamon, angelica root, juniper- 
berries, anise, cummin, fennel, caraway-seeds, 
fresh orange peel, and oil of bergamot ; and a 
half ounce each of cardamoms, lavender-flowers, 
and bruised nutmeg ; the whole to be steeped 
in five pints of warm alcohol several days, and 
then distilled. — A simpler recipe is to put a 
pint of pure alcohol into a bottle and add a tea- 
spoonful each of oil of bergamot, oil of lavender, 
oil of lemon, and orange-flower water. Cork 
tightly and shake well. 

COMBS. — The best toilet combs are those 
made of buffalo horn, or tortoise-shell ; the rub- 
ber combs break easily and are likely to warp 
out of shape, especially if they are ever wetted. 
Combs should never be put in water, however, 
even to wash them ; for it not only warps them, 
but makes the teeth split and roughens the 



substance of which they are made. {See 
Cleaning.) 

COMMODE. — This name was formerly ap- 
plied to a chest of drawers with a place above 
them for hanging clothes, which combined the- 
advantage of both bureau and wardrobe. As 
understood now at the furniture stores, it means 
a highly convenient article of furniture for 
holding the chamber and keeping it out of 
sight. 

COMPOST. — Any refuse which has enough 
organic matter to become rotten. What is 
usually termed compost is made of the dung of 
any animal, but especially of cows and horses, 
mixed with earth. It is useful in the flower 
garden and indispensable in the planting of 
roses and other flowers demanding a rich soil, 
and in the cities may be obtained of florists 

•COMPOTES. — Compdtes are fruits prepared 
in syrup for immediate use, and differ from 
jams in being cooked less and containing less 
sugar. They are very delicate when properly 
made and form an excellent accompaniment 
for pies, puddings, ordumphngs. Or they may 
be served alone with a little pastry-crust, and 
in this way make one of the most tempting and 
wholesome of desserts. Coinpotes will keep 
two or three days in a damp, cool closet, but 
are likely to ferment if kept longer; for this 
reason they should be made in small quantities 
at a time. 

Apple Compote. — Take .--apples, sugar, 
water. 

Peel, cut into halves, and core some apples ; 
after letting them lie for a short time in 
cold water, drain them, and put them into enough 
syrup (made of sugar and water) to cover them 
well, in which boil them till they are soft ; then 
place them in a dish and strain the syrup over 
them. This compote may be improved by boil- 
ing some of the apple in the syrup to a jelly, 
straining it, and pouring it over the halves as 
above directed. 

Apricot {Green) Compote.— Take .--Apricots, 
I lb ; sugar, 8 oz ; water, 34!" pt. 

Take a pound of green apricots, throw them 
into hot water, and as they rise to the surface 
take them out and wipe off the down carefully. 
Make a syrup of eight ounces of white sugar and 
tliree-quarters of a pint of water boiled together 
ten minutes ; into this syrup put the apricots, 
stew them gently twenty minutes, then turn 
them into a dish and strain the syrup over them. 

Apricot {Ripe) Compote. — Za-^^ .--Same as 
in previous receipt. 

Peel, divide into halves, and stone some ripe 
apricots, and then prick them all over with a 
needle. Put them into a syrup made as in pre- 
ceding recipe ; stew them gently for ten min- 
utes ; turn them into a dish, and strain the 
syrup over them. 

Berry Compotes. — Very nice compotes may 
be made of blackberries, raspberries, straw- 
berries, or gooseberries, by washing them care- 
fully, putting them into a syrup made as above, 
and boiling them from one to five minutes. 
Raspberries and strawberries are so dehcate 



118 



CONGER-EEL 



CONSTIPATION 



as to require very little boiling, and it is best 
to take them off when they have boiled up 
once. 

Cherry Compote. — 7«^^ /-Cherries, i lb; 
sugar, 5 oz ; water, Yz pt. 

Simmer five ounces of sugar with half a pint 
of water for ten minutes ; throw into the syrup 
thus made a pound of cherries weighed after 
they are stalked, and let them stew gently for 
twenty minutes. It is a great improvement to 
stone the cherries, but a larger quantity will be 
required for a dish. 

Currant Compote. — Made same as Berry 
Compote. 

Fig Compote. — Take .--Sugar, 4 oz ; rind and 
juice of I lemon ; water, i pt ; dried figs, i lb ; 
wme, 2 wineglassfuls. 

Put into a porcelain lined pot, four ounces 
of fine white sugar, the rind of a large 
and fresh lemon (or orange-juice and rind), 
and a pint of cold water. When the sugar 
is dissolved, add a pound of nice dried figs, 
and place the pot over a moderate fire where 
the figs may heat and swell slowly and be very 
gently stewed. When they are quite tender, 
which will be in about two hours, add two wine- 
glassfuls of wine, and the strained juice of the 
lemon ; arrange them in a glass dish and serve 
them cold. This dish is very fine. 

Orange Compote. — 7a/^^ .-Oranges ; sugar, 
and water. 

Peel some large sweet oranges, cut them 
into slices crosswise, and remove the seed. 
Make some syrup as directed above, but 
do not pour it over the oranges until it is cold. 
This compote requires no boiling. 

Peach Compote. — TTz^^ .•- Peaches {quite 
ripe), I doz; white sugar, 10 oz; water, i pt ; 
lemon-juice. 

Pare a dozen ripe peaches, put them into 
a syrup made of ten ounces of white sugar 
boiled in a pint of water for ten minutes, and 
stew them very gently for ten minutes, stir- 
ring often. Dish the fruit ; reduce the syrup 
by quick boiling almost to a candy, pour it over 
the peaches, and serve them hot for a second- 
course dish, or cold for dessert. The peaches 
should be quite ripe, and will be found delicious 
dressed thus. If desired, a little lemon-juice 
may be added to the syrup. 

Plum Compote. — Ta^^ .--Plums ; sugar, 10 
oz; water, i pt. 

Select ripe plums, prick them with a needle, 
and put them into cold water while boil- 
ing a pan of water into which they must 
be put as soon as the water boils. When 
they rise to the surface of the hot water, take 
them out and put them again into cold water. 
Make a syrup of ten ounces of sugar to a pint 
of water, and boil them up in it. Put them into 
a basin and let them cool, and then boil them 
up once more ; skim them well and let them 
cool for use. 

CONGER-EEL. — A kind of eel, sometimes 
called the " American Conger," much larger 
than the common variety, being from three to 
four feet long with the tail ending in a sharp 



point. They are in season from November to 
April, but they are rather scarce in the markets 
and are not much esteemed as food. Cooked 
same as Eel. / 

CONSOMME. — Consomme is concentrated 
or very strong broth or soup. It may be eaten 
either by itself or will serve as a sauce or gravy 
for other meats according to the way in which it 
is made. To make, put five pounds of lean 
fresh beef into a soup-kettle, add three quarts 
of cold water and a tablespoonful of salt, and set 
it on a brisk fire. When the water boils, place 
the kettle on a moderate fire and skim off the 
scum which rises to the surface ; then add one 
carrot, one small turnip, one onion, two cloves, 
two cloves of garlic, and a stalk of celery. Let 
it simmer slowly from seven to eight hours, and 
it is then ready for serving. 

A conso7?itne of poultry may be made by 
roasting a couple of fowls until they are about 
one-third done, and then putting them in a soup- 
kettle with three pounds of lean beef, and three 
quarts of cold water and salt. Boil up as 
directed above, and add the same vegetables 
and seasonings. After it has simmered for 
three hours, take the fowls out of the kettle, and 
let the rest simmer three hours longer. Ladle 
out the vegetables, strain the liquor that 
remains, and that liquor is the best consomme 
that can be made. It is, of course, highly 
nutritious and very strengthening to invalids 
when their stomach can stand it. 

CONSTIPATION. — This is one of the 
most common of ailments and one of the most 
difficult to deal with, for though it is the fruit- 
ful source of many diseases it is itself less a 
disease than an indication of functional de- 
rangement. Of course the retention of excre- 
mentitious matter in the intestines produces 
serious disturbance of the whole system, which, 
however, is, as a rule, readily cured by medi- 
cal treatment, and the adoption of suitable 
hygienic habits. Dr. Andrew Combe, in his 
treatise on physiology, says : "In the natural 
and healthy state, under a proper system of 
diet, and with sufiicient exercise, the bowels 
are reheved regularly, once every day," and 
he adds that '•'•habit is powerful in modifying 
the result, and in sustaining healthy action 
when once fairly established. Hence the obvious 
advantage of observing as much regularity in 
relieving the system as in taking our meals." 
From the earliest age, people should accustom 
themselves to going to the water closet at a 
fixed period of each day ; and one who persists 
in this long enough to make it a habit will sel- 
dom suffer from constipation. This habit may 
be supplemented by a glass of cold water every 
morning before breakfast, which is to some 
persons a laxative ; and alternate contraction 
and expansion of the muscles of the abdomen 
may be tried. Such exercise continued ten 
minutes a day, and persevered in for a week or 
two, may cure ordinary cases of constipation, 
provided proper food is taken. For this pur- 
pose bread made of unbolted flour and fruit 
{especially cooked fruit), should enter largely 



CONSUMPTION 



119 



into the diet. Two Compound Rhubarb pills 
may be taken at bedtime for a few nights, but 
exercise, diet and regular habits should be the 
main agents in effecting recovery. For ob- 
stinate constipation use injections containing 
a little salt, or soap-suds, or better still, get the 
advice of a physician. 

CONSUMPTION. — The technical name for 
this disease is Phthisis, or wasting. By it is 
meant that form of lung disease where first of 
all there is a deposit of new material in the 
substance of the lung. After a time this softens 
and breaks down ; it is expectorated and leaves 
cavities behind. This process is accompanied 
by fever of a peculiar kind, and general wast- 
ing of the body ; whence the name. The de- 
posit in the lungs is by no means always of 
the same character, though that was taken for 
granted up to a very recent period. The pro- 
cesses which lead to this deposit are two in 
number — one is inflammation of the lung 
substance, and the other is a deposit of a new 
growth called tubercle. Most frequently the 
two processes are associated, for the deposit of 
the new growth sets up inflammation and its 
consequences. When the substance of the 
lung becomes inflamed, we have to deal with a 
very different set of phenomena than when the 
air passages alone are so affected. The disease 
may assume a very acute form, such as cannot 
be mistaken, or it may steal on insidiously, 
especially if it spreads from the air tubes to the 
lung substance. The consequence of such an 
inflammation is the choking up of the little 
cavities of which the lung consists in a portion 
of its substance, and the material thus deposit- 
ed may either remain there for a length of time, 
or at once proceed to soften and break down. 
In this process the damaged material of the 
lung too may take part. It may soften as well 
as the newly-deposited substance, and breaking 
down and being expectorated, leave behind a 
cavity in the substance of the lung. This pro- 
cess may go on quickly or slowly, sometimes 
very slowly, especially if other changes go on 
at the same time, such as indurate the texture 
of the lung, as what has been called fibroid 
phthisis, a very slow form of the malady. But 
again there may be a deposit of new substance, 
the process being by no means inflammatory, 
and this new growth which is laid down in the 
substance of the lung is called tubercle. Once 
deposited, its history is the same, or nearly so, 
as that of the inflammatory material laid down 
in the lung cavities. It softens and breaks 
down, the injured texture of the lung doing so 
also, and so a cavity is formed. There is yet 
another mode and kind of deposit ; that due to 
syphilis. This is, perhaps, if a diagnosis can 
be made, the most hopeful variety of the 
disease. To both the former varieties of dis- 
ease there may be a strong hereditary proclivity ; 
if so, this is a circumstance which tells most 
unfavorably on behalf of the patient, for there 
are few diseases in which a hereditary character 
is more prominent than that which commonly 
goes by the name of pulmonary consumption. 



It is of the very first importance that this dis- 
ease should be diagnosed in the earliest stages, 
for it is then that certain of its forms may be 
treated with tolerable confidence of success, 
and all can be dealt with to most advantage. 
That form which promises most by timely 
treatment is the inflammatory form, especially 
that which comes on in a patient who has long 
been in depressed health from whatever cause. 
It commonly begins with a slight cough, which, 
however, persists, and will not go away, and 
the patient gets gradually thinner. The res- 
piration indicates feebleness, being wavy in 
character, or even jerking. Besides this, there 
are certain sounds only to be appreciated by a 
skilled ear. If with all this, there is a bad fami- 
ly history, the case is one demanding prompt ac- 
tion. This may be taken with goodTnope of suc- 
cess. Fever is a most important element in such 
cases. If it keeps high, the chances do not im- 
prove ; if it gradually diminishes and totally 
disappears, the patient may be said to have re- 
gained his health. Take now a case of tuber- 
cular consumption. It may arise from the for- 
mer, or it may be developed from the products 
of some long standing disease of other organs, 
or one lung may infect the other. This form is 
not so common as the other. Its origin is very 
insidious ; but having begun it goes on. There 
is considerable uneasiness. At night the tem- 
perature is high ; and there are troublesome 
night sweats. There is a persistent cough, and 
very likely pain in one side. The appetite is 
very capricious, and very likely there is diar- 
rhoea. With such cases, too, a huskiness, or 
even loss of voice, is by no means uncommon. 
This rarely occurs in any other variety of con- 
sumption, and so may be looked upon as proof 
positive of the existence of this form, if any 
consumption be present. 

For the public, however, it is of less conse- 
quence to know what variety of consumption 
the patient labors under, than to know that he 
has got some form of the disease, or is likely 
to have it, if the malady he labors under is not 
arrested. Accordingly, an abstract of the com- 
monest signs is now given ; for we desire to 
impress the public very earnestly that it is in 
its earliest stages that consumption is remedi- 
able. The earliest symptoms are very probably 
connected with digestion ; the appetite becomes 
capricious ; there are pains in the chest, with 
some cough often dry and hacking, with a small 
quantity of frothy expectoration. There is de- 
bility, flushing of the face on the slightest ex- 
ertion ; at other times the countenance is pale, 
except there be a hectic patch of red in the 
middle of the cheek. The eyes look unusually 
white and pearly ; there is some fever at night, 
and a tendency to night sweats. Very likely 
there is some spitting of blood; This occurs in 
a very considerable portion of cases, and is of- 
ten the earliest symptom calling for attention. 
Provided it is clear that the blood does not 
come from the gums or throat, any bleeding by 
the mouth, especially in a young person, de- 
mands attention. As the disease advances 



120 



CONSUMPTION 



emaciation increases, so that the joints become 
enlarged by shrinking of the limbs. The club- 
bed appearance of the ends of the fingers in 
consumptives is probably due to circulatory 
disturbances. The night sweats, fever and 
diarrhoea are the means of reducing the bodily 
strength and substance ; while in some instan- 
cies, excessive expectoration aids materially 
in this process. The capricious appetite and 
the imperfect digestion leave the bodily supply 
very deficient, but the spirits of the patient are 
good, and it is often distressing to see one 
doomed to an early death talking of the future 
in a tone of assured confidence. A trouble- 
some complication sometimes seen is fistulae in 
the lower bowel, which, if not relieved, taxes 
the patient's strength sadly. On the other hand, 
there is always a risk that if an operation be 
attempted the wound will not heal, and so the 
latter risk is worse than the first. Usually if the 
disease be not arrested the patient dies of ex- 
haustion ; sometimes he is suffocated or bleeds to 
death, consciousness continuing to the last. But 
this result is by no means inevitable ; and the 
dread of the disease as being universally and un- 
erringly fatal, which was wont to prevail, has 
been shown to be without just foundation. Un- 
doubtedly, if a patient with a bad family history 
is seen for the first time when the disease is 
well advanced, we have little ground for hope. 
True, also, that the tubercular form of the dis- 
order is less amenable to treatment than is the 
inflammatory. Yet due care being exercised, 
there are few cases which cannot be benefited ; 
a goodly number which can be cured complete- 
ly, or, at all events, the lungs.so healed that each 
may be enabled to lead a long life in moderate 
comfort. 

Treatment. — The first and greatest point of 
all is the selection of the conditions under 
which the patient is to live. Unfortunately, in 
too many instances, this is not possible ; but 
where it is possible, and the disease is in an 
early stage, much may be done. On the con- 
tinent of Europe, there may be found in differ- 
ent health resorts, people who have all their 
lives had bad chests, but who by wandering 
from health resort to health resort, according 
to the season of the year, are able to maintain 
life comfortably. If such a thing is not possi- 
ble, we must try next to select the most favor- 
able conditions possible. The first great point 
in selecting an abode is the avoidance of damp ; 
it should be situated on a dry and porous soil. 
This is even of greater importance than tem- 
perature, though that too is important, inasmuch 
as fresh air is a necessity, and daily exercise in 
the open air even in winter is a thing very 
greatly to be desired. Such patients must take 
the greatest possible care of themselves — no 
risks must be run. They must live plainly ; 
but their food must be nutritious. They must 
avoid excitement, but cheerful society is of the 
greatest possible value. They must not fatigue 
themselves, but daily exercise is incumbent. 
They must not be exposed to too great heat ; 
but cold is even more to be dreaded. Hence 



the rule, which is a good one, always to keep 
indoors between sunset and sunrise. They 
must try to keep the skin open ; but they must 
avoid perspiration. Hence baths must be regu- 
lated in temperature for the individual — tepid, 
cool, or cold, as the case may be. The bowels 
must be kept open, but if they are loose, the 
diarrhoea must be checked. Finally, such 
patients are on no account to go without 
flannels ; whilst the outer clothing should be 
changed, if desirable, to suit the different peri- 
ods of the day and year. At all times it must 
be warm, so as to avoid risks from cold. For 
those in the very early stage of phthisis nothing 
perhaps does so much good as a sea voyage in 
a mild climate— to the West Indies for instance ; 
though many prefer the longer voyage to Aus- 
tralia or New Zealand; often these do great 
good, but they must be undertaken early, or the 
result will be the reverse of favorable. Change 
of climate in females is apt to provoke derange- 
ment of the menstrual function. This should 
be seen to, as any excessive flow would be very 
weakening. This, moreover, has to be 
borne in mind, that in consumption this func- 
tion almost entirely ceases, and generally does 
so altogether. Patients, the subjects of con- 
sumption, have often, early in the disease, a 
rooted objection to fat as an aiticle of food. 
This is the more important, as of all substances 
it is to them the most necessary. If, therefore, 
they refuse to take fat as food, we must en- 
deavor to give it as medicine. The form of fat 
which is most easily digested is cod liver oil. 
If this be given, it need have no disagreeable 
taste, beyond a slight fishy flavor which to 
many is agreeable. It is to be given to the 
patient cautiously. Often one will say, " I can- 
not take cod liver oil ; it always makes me sick. 
I have tried it again and again always with the 
same results." You inquire, and find they have 
been endeavoring to take one or two tablespoon- 
fuls at a time. As a matter of course they get 
upset ; but if they reduce the quantity to a tea- 
spoonful, or even a few drops, they gradually 
get accustomed to it, and take almost any 
quantity. Cod liver oil is, however, food, rath- 
er than medicine, and the best time for taking it 
is just after a meal. The fish oil used in this way 
should be entirely devoid of color ; every trace 
of color is an iiupitrity. Next to cod liver oil 
as a remedy comes iron. This, too, is best dealt 
with as a food ; that is to say, given along with 
the meals. The best preparation is the reduced 
iron, which can be taken in soup. If this is not 
attainable, the freshly prepared carbonate 
should be given. Next to these remedies, to 
be taken along with or after food, to add to the 
value of food, comes anything which will aid 
digestion. Pepsine, as procured from the pig's 
stomach, is for this purpose exceedingly useful, 
enabling the food to be digested with ease and 
comfort, when otherwise it would only pass in- 
to the intestines, there to putrefy and ferment, 
and so set up diarrhoea. Four or five grains 
may be taken for a dose just after a meat meal. 
If that does not suit, meat digested beforehand 



CONTUSIONS 



COOKER 



121 



might be tried. When cod liver oil cannot be 
taken, other kinds of oil may be tried. Of these 
the best are cream and salad oil. When no oil 
can be taken, rubbing it into the skin does good ; 
but it creates a horrid smell, which is very trying 
to the patient. Syrup of the iodide of iron may be 
given along with the oil, and often does good. 
Iodide of potassium seldom does, except the 
disease be syphilitic in its origin. If prescribed 
at all, it had better be given in decoction of 
bark. But of bark, the best preparations are 
the compound tincture and the liquid extract, 
given in doses of a drachm or so three or four 
times a day. It is often well to combine some 
acid with the bark ; the best is the dilute nitro- 
muriatic acid, in doses not exceeding 'twenty 
minims. If the perspirations be very trouble- 
some, it is customary to give dilute sulphuric 
acid ; but any acid does good. On the other 
hand, it is very frequently good to give alkalies 
instead of acids. These certainly, combined 
with bitters, very greatly strengthen the appetite 
and aid digestion. Liquor potassas is common- 
ly given in doses of 5, lo, or 15 minims, some- 
times with bark, sometimes with gentian or 
other bitters. Certain remedies called hypo- 
phosphites have been highly extolled as rem- 
edies in the earlier stages of the disease ; 
but their value is uncertain, though they 
often seem to do good. Counter-irritation is 
good if employed judiciously, so as not to weak- 
en the patient. It is of most benefit where the 
pleura is concerned, and the patient cannot lie 
in certain positions on account of pain. It 
must, however, be employed cautiously; the 
best form is some liniment, such as croton oil 
and turpentine mixed. Flying blisters, kept 
on for only a few hours speedily create counter- 
irritation, without causing it to such an extent 
as to prove injurious. 

Of the complications to be dealt with one or 
two yet remain to be noticed. First comes the 
bleeding. This it must always be remembered 
is a serious matter, for it may cause death. 
When it comes on, absolute rest must be en- 
joined, cold applied to the chest, ice taken in- 
ternally, and gallic acid with sulphuric acid 
freely imbibed. Oil of turpentine is also useful, 
though perhaps less directly. Night-sweats 
have been alluded to ; mineral acids, unless 
forbidden, are best for them. Diarrhoea must 
be dealt with cautiously. It must not, however, 
be allowed to weaken the patient ; chalk, opium, 
and acids are the best remedies. If the throat 
is bad, nitrate of silver is the best application. 
For the cough, a little opium, or belladonna may 
be given ; but it is better treated on general 
principles. 

CONTUSIONS. {See Bruises.) 
CONVALESCENCE.— The period of recov- 
ery from sickness is a most important one, and 
demands in many instances as much care as the 
sickness itself. The body is weak, susceptible 
to impressions, and disposed to morbid actions ; 
and many times a relapse is brought on by 
causes which would not affect the body at all 
when it is in a healthy condition. Of course 



after the disease has been subdued the ap- 
petite returns, and it is in the matter of diet 
that most harm is done during convalescence. 
As to the food to be given, the advice of 
the physician should always be acted upon, 
as the directions vary with the disease. It 
should be nutritious and easily digested, and in 
many cases, quite unstimulating ; and it should 
be given often and in small quantities at a time. 
Too rich food or too much of it will overload 
the stomach and result in indigestion ; and thus, 
in the eagerness to recover the lost strength, 
mistakes are made whose consequences are 
sometimes serious. Convalescents may take 
light nourishment with advantage early in the 
morning, as soon as they awake ; an egg, for 
instance, dropped into a glass' of sherry wine, 
or a drink of milk which is usually well-borne by 
the most delicate stomachs. If the patient is so 
weak as still to require watching, a little warm 
beef-tea or chicken broth should be ready to give 
in case of his waking during the night. An 
orange to suck, or lemonade to sip, though 
unnutritious, are refreshing and antifebrile ; 
and whatever tends to give tone to the 
system assists toward recovery. Care must 
be taken not to allow efforts to be made 
in the matter of exercise too early ; nor, in 
fact, must convalescents be pushed forward 
too rapidly, or tried beyond their strength in 
any way — beyond their strength of digestion, of 
sitting up, or of attending to business. {See 
Diet, and Sick-room.) 

CONVOLVULUS.— The botanic name for 
the pretty dwarf Morning Glory, with blue, 
white-eyed flowers, which grows wild in the 
fields throughout the country, and is one of the 
favorite vines for garden culture. It is a hardy 
annual, easy to cultivate, and a profuse bloomer, 
and is in flower from June to September. Sow 
the seeds in May, scratching them lightly into 
the soil. 

COOKER (Warren's Patent). — This uten- 
sil, the appearance of which is shown in the ac- 
companying cuts, is the invention of Capt 




The Warren Cooker. 

Frederick P. Warren, of the British navy. 
It was first designed for the preparation of 



122 



COOKER 



COOKERY 



food for soldiers and sailors ; but it worked so 
admirably that it was introduced into the regu- 
lar trade in England, where it achieved a com- 
plete success. Its introduction into this 
country dates from 1870, and we can say, 
after more than a year's constant use of one, 
that it accomplishes all that is claimed for it. 

The principle of the Cooker is that a tightly- 
closed vessel containing the meat to be cooked 
is surrounded by steam, except at its bottom, 
which rests in boiling water, and at a small 
portion of the upper part of its sides, which is 
exposed to the air. The meat rests on a false 
bottom, which prevents its coming in contact 
with that portion of the vessel that is in con- 
tact with the water at 212°. The exposure of 
the portion of the sides that is not steam- 
jacketed causes a loss of heat that reduces the 
temperature of the closed vessel to about 
210", or 2 degrees less than that of boiling 
water. As Liebig has demonstrated, this is 
the best cooking heat. While the full heat of 
boiling water coagulates the albumen of the 
meat in such a way as to render it hard, tough, 




Warren Cooker (Sectional View.) 

and stringy, this lower temperature cooks it 
completely, and, so far from making it tough, 
seems to render it more tender. The result 
is that the meat is cooked much more effectu- 
ally and temptingly, and at a loss of weight 
only about half of that produced by the ordi- 
nary modes of cooking; while those nourish- 
ing juices, which by the ordinary modes would 
have been thrown off in vapor, are condensed 
and thrown back upon the meat, and nothing 
is wasted. The cooker is divided into com- 
partments so that meat and several kinds of 
vegetables can be cooked at the same time ; 
and its working is so simple that the cook's 



chances of spoiling food are reduced to a 
minimum. It is literally true in fact that the 
cooker will cook the staple dishes of an entire 
dinner with less demand upon the attention 
than is usually made by the boiling of pota- 
toes. 

COOKERY. With the exception of a few 
fruits and vegetables, every substance used as 
food by man requires cooking in some foim be- 
fore its nutritious elements can be properly 
assimilated. It is not enough to have good raw 
material, and an abundance of it, but it is also 
necessary to render it agreeable to the taste and 
fit for human sustenance. Now as wholesome 
food is probably the most necessary condition 
of health, the art of preparing it should be 
reckoned one of the most important in the 
whole range of occupations ; yet it is not an 
exaggeration to say that there is more ignor- 
ance displayed in our kitchens than in any 
other department of human industry. Of 
carpenters, bricklayers, masons, coachmen, or 
gardeners, we demand knowledge and practical 
skill in their special work ; but of the cook, 
the results of whose experiments must affect 
us more intimately than any other whatever, 
we hardly make a pretense of exacting an ac- 
quaintance with even the rudiments of the art. 
In fact it is just these rudiments that are most 
neglected. It is not very difficult to obtain 
cooks who can make good cakes, pies, pud- 
dings, and fancy dishes, and when skill in this 
is lacking it can usually be suppHed by the 
mistress of the house ; but the notion is cur- 
rent that such apparently simple processes as 
roasting, boiling, and baking come by nature 
and are too unimportant to require study or 
practice. Many persons, too, associate the 
idea of great wealth with culinary perfection, 
though nothing could be more mistaken. 
Baked bread, and roasted, broiled, and stewed 
meats and vegetables must always and under 
all conditions form the staple articles of our 
diet ; and skill in preparing these is not only 
compatible with limited means, but is import- 
ant just in proportion to the smallness of the 
amount that can be spent on luxurious dain- 
ties. Careme, the most famous of French 
cooks, when he had fixed upon his career, 
took a long series of lessons in roasti?ig from 
the best cooks of Paris : he found it necessary 
to give months to the mastery of this single 
process, deeming it, as he said, " the founda- 
tion of the whole culinary art ; " and knowl- 
edge of these simple processes should be 
either exacted of, or imparted to, every one 
who undertakes even the plainest family cook- 
ing. Nor is it necessary that cooks should 
study chemistry in order to become proficients 
in their art. On the contrary, the principles 
of science applicable to cookery are few and 
simple, and cooks have only to exercise their 
senses diligently, and give heed to the results 
they indicate, and they will soon master all 
the essentials of good, plain cooking. A 
thorough practical knowledge of the processes 
described in our articles on Boiling, Broil- 



COOKIES 



COPPER-WARE 



123 



ING, Frying, Roasting, and Stewing, will 
form a really good cook far sooner and more 
completely than any mere array of receipts 
can do, however minutely they may be ex- 
plained ; and we commend them to the careful 
study of every one who is responsible for the 
management of the kitchen. Mastery of these 
and of the details given in the articles on the 
Kitchen, will render it unnecessary for us to 
add more here to the specific directions given 
throughout the volume — except perhaps a few 
words on seasoning. 

Seasoning is the rock on which inexperi- 
enced cooks are most frequently wrecked, and 
it is a branch of the subject most difficult to 
give instructions about, since tastes differ so 
widely, and the amount of seasoning often 
depends on considerations of individual health. 
The effect of seasonings, added in reasonable 
quantity, is to increase the digestibility of food. 
They effect that object either by stimulating 
the action of the gastric juices, or by giving 
an impetus to all the bodily functions in such 
a way that its effects, general in themselves, 
become in their turn a cause of increased ac- 
tivity in the functions of the stomach. The 
absence of seasoning has for its effect the 
prolonged retention in the stomach of many 
relaxing and obstructive substances which 
have little power of themselves to solicit the 
action of thai organ. Immoderate use of 
seasonings has for its results, first, the pro- 
duction of an artificial appetite, which tempts 
to the loading of the stomach with more food 
than it can properly digest, and consequently 
produces either acute or chronic irritation ; 
and, second, it is sure to bring on in the end 
languor and debility of the digestive organs, 
and derangement of all the related functions. 
The cook's practice must be guided by the 
habits and tastes of her employer; at the out- 
set, it is best to be light-handed with the 
spice — many stomachs are deranged for days 
by an over-dose of pepper or cayenne. When 
once, either by experiment or inquiry, the 
proper proportions have been hit upon, they 
should be carefully maintained thereafter, as 
any material variation in the amount or degree 
of seasonings is not only ungrateful to the 
palate, but injurious to the health. 

COOKIES. — Take a teacupful of butter, two 
teacupfuls of sugar, half a teacupful of milk, 
four eggs, two teaspoonfuls of baking-powder, 
and half a grated nutmeg (or flavor with lemon). 
Mix these all well together, and add flour enough 
to make a batter just stiff enough to be worked 
with well-floured hands ; roll out, cut into round 
cakes, and bake in a quick oven. 

Sugar Cookies. — Take one egg, one teacup- 
ful of butter, two teacupfuls of sugar, six table- 
spoonfuls of milk, one dessert-spoonful of bitter 
almonds, one teaspoonful of cream-tartar, half a 
teaspoonful of saleratus and flour. Roll out, 
cut into cakes, and sift sugar over before baking. 

COOLERS. — The methods employed in do- 
mestic economy for producing artificial cold 
may be reduced to three : i, the application of 



some body naturally colder than that to be cool- 
ed ; 2, by evaporation ; 3, by the solution of 
certain saline substances. Sometimes two of 
these methods are combined to increase the 
effect. The first method is almost universally 
practiced where ice can be had, and for this 
purpose water-coolers, and wine-coolers, and 
cream-freezers, are especially manufactured. 
When ice is used to cool wine, it will not be 
very effectual if applied, as is frequently done, 
only to the bottom of the bottle ; for the cold- 
est part of the liquid being already at the bot- 
tom cannot ascend, nor can the upper part, 
which is the warmest, change places to be cool- 
ed, so that the cooling will be very imperfect. 
To cool the wine effectually, the whole bottle 
should be plunged into the ice ; but before this 
is done it is best to decant it, as, if there is any 
sediment in the wine, it will mix with it as if 
the bottle had been shaken, owing to the up 
and down currents that always take place in 
the cooling. When ice cannot be procured, 
well water supplies a useful substitute to a cer- 
tain degree. A well of forty to fifty feet deep 
always preserves the mean temperature of the 
country, and consequently is colder than the 
summer heat of any place ; hence if a bucket 
of water be drawn, and a bottle of wine or other 
liquor immediately placed in it, it may be cooled 
considerably. 

One of the most general and useful modes 
of cooHng is by evaporation. Any substance 
which is wetted with water, and kept in the air, 
will be cooled by the evaporation of the water, 
and all the more rapidly if placed in the wind.' 
A bottle of wine, or an earthenware jug of water 
or any other liquid may be cooled surprisingly 
by wrapping it in a wet cloth and placing it in a 
shady place. It is best to suspend it either 
under a tree or in a passage, so as to expose it 
to the briskest current of air that can be ob- 
tained , and as fast as the water evaporates the 
cloth should be resprinkled. The third method 
of freezing and cooling is by the solution of 
chemicals, as follows : i lb of muriate of am- 
monia, finely powdered and intimately mixed 
with 2 lbs of nitrate of potash, also powdered. 
This mixture is to be known as No. i. No. 2 is 
made by crushing 3 lbs of sal-soda. To use, 
take an equal quantity in bulk of No. i and 
No. 2, stir well together ; then introduce into 
the freezer, and add as much co/d water as 
will dissolve the mixtures. For example, if i 
pint of No. I is used, and i pint of No. 2, it 
will take i pint of water to dissolve them; and 
if the materials employed are cold, the tem- 
perature will fall to 35 degrees below freezing 
point. The two powders, Nos. i and 2, must 
be kept separate in close-covered vessels; if 
the crushed sal-soda is exposed to the air, it 
loses the water it contains and is much weak- 
ened, while, if the other mixture is exposed, it 
absorbs moisture from the air, and is dissolved. 

COPPER-WARE. — Chemists and physicians 
have repeatedly pointed out the dangers 
arising from the use of copper vessels in culi- 
nary operations ; but on account of the mellea- 



124 



CORDIALS 



bility and hardness of the metal, it still enters 
largely into the manufacture of kitchen utensils. 
There are many reasons why these utensils 
should be banished from the household ; they 
not only frequently impart a peculiar and disa- 
greeable taste to food prepared in them, but 
are highly dangerous unless they receive an 
amount of attention which they are not at all 
likely to receive under the present management 
of our kitchens. If copper is put away damp 
or in a damp place, it rusts and is converted 
into a carbonate of copper, which is a violent 
poison. It is also acted upon by fat and oil of 
every description, this same carbonate of cop- 
per being found : therefore when copper vessels 
have been used for preparing food, fat should 
never be suffered to remain in them. Many 
cases of poisoning have occurred from soup, or 
other food into which fat entered largely, having 
been left for some time in copper boilers. It 
is also easily acted upon by acetic acid or vine- 
gar, and a green substance is formed, well known 
by the name of verdigris. This is an acetate 
of copper, the poisonous nature of which is 
generally known ; it is a powerful emetic, pro- 
ducing vomiting as soon as it is swallowed, 
without exciting nausea. 

Tinning on the inside prevents copper ves- 
sels from having the injurious effects upon the 
food prepared in them which they would other- 
wise have ; but the tin is very likely to get rub- 
bed off before attention is attracted to it. All 
copper vessels should be examined every time 
they are used ; the inside and the covers 
should be kept well tinned, and no food should 
be allowed to remain in them any longer 
than is necessary for preparing it for the 
table. 

CORDIALS. — For those of commerce see 
under their respective names, or under Liq- 
ueurs. 

Anise-seed Cordial. — Take : — Oil of anise- 
seed, y% oz ; refined sugar, 2 lbs ; rectified spir- 
its, 4 gals. ; alum, y, oz. Mix the several in- 
gredients ; bottle and seal. 

Blackberry Cordial. — Take .--Blackberries ; 
sugar ; cinnamon ; brandy, or whiskey. 

Place blackberries in a kettle over the fire, 
with a very small quantity of water in the bot- 
tom of the kettle. Let them boil until quite 
soft, and then strain them through a bag until 
the juice is all extracted. Put the juice on the 
fire again, sweeten to the taste with white sugar, 
and throw in a little bag of stick cinnamon. 
After it has boiled about half an hour, take it 
off, and stir in brandy or whiskey enough to 
make it as strong as desired ; then bottle it, and 
seal the bottles with wax. This makes a very 
pleasant and invigorating drink. 

Cara'way Cordial. — Take :-0'A of caraway, 
y% oz ; sugar, 2 lbs ; rectified spirits, 4 gals ; oil 
of cinnamon, 5 drops ; oil of orange, i drop ; oil 
of lemon, i drop ; alum, ^ oz. 

Put three eighths of an ounce of oil of cara- 
way, and two pounds of sugar into four gallons of 
rectified spirits ; add five drops of oil of cinna- 
mon, one drop of the essential oil of orange, 



and one of the essential oil of lemons ; fine 
with half an ounce of alum. 

Cinnamon Cordial. — Take :-QW. of cinna- 
mon, I pwt ; sugar, 4 lbs ; rectified spirits. ^ 
lb ; orange peel, lemon peel, cardamom seed, %. 
oz each ; water, i gall ; alum. • 

Dissolve one pennyweight of oil of cinnamon 
with four pounds of sugar in three quarters of 
a pound of rectified spirits ; add half an ounce 
each of orange peel, lemon peel and cardamom 
seeds ; put one gallon of water to the whole. 
Fine with alum, and if you wish it colored, add 
some burnt sugar. 

Citron Cordial. — Take :~Y.?.?,. of lemon and 
ess. of orange, X oz each ; sugar, 2 lbs ; lemon 
peel and orange peel, 2 oz each ; rectified spirits, 
3 galls ; dried figs, 3 lbs. 

Beat up a quarter of an ounce of essence of 
lemon, and as much of that of orange, with two 
pounds of refined sugar ; add to this two ounces 
each of dried lemon and orange peel ; infuse 
this in three gallons of rectified spirits that has 
stood upon three pounds of dried figs for a 
week. If it is too strong, add some water. 

Gin Bitters. — Trt'/Cv .--Ess. of lemon, and ess. 
of orange, X oz each ; oil of wormwood, i 
drachm ; orange peel, Yz lb ; sugar, 3 lbs ; gin, 
5 galls. 

Mix half an ounce each of the essence of 
lemon and orange, one drachm of oil of worm- 
wood, and half a pound of dried orange peel, 
with three pounds of refined sugar; add this to 
five gallons of the best gin, and let the whole 
remain together two weeks, when it will be 
ready for use. Dilute with water to the taste. 
Ginger Cordial. — Take .--Whiskey, i gall; 
ginger, ^ lb ; currants, 4 lbs; bitter almonds, 2 
oz ; lemons, 3 ; sugar, 5 lbs. 

To a gallon of good whiskey, add half a 
pound of bruised ginger, four pounds of red 
or white currants, two ounces of bitter almonds, 
the juice of three lemons and the rind of one. 
Let it stand ten days ; then strain it twice, add 
five pounds of white sugar, and bottle it for 
use. 

Quince Cordial. — 7"^:,^^ .--Quinces ; French 
brandy ; sugar ; bitter almonds, or peach ker- 
nels ; cloves. 

Take ripe quinces, wipe off the fur, and grate 
them fine. Press out the juices of the pulp 
through a strong cloth, and to each quart of the 
juice put two thirds of a quart of French brandy, 
a pound and a half of white sugar, a hundred 
bitter almonds, or peach kernels, and a dozen 
cloves. Put it in a stone pot, cover it tightly, 
and keep it a week in a warm place ; then skim 
and bottle it, and let it remain a year before 
using it. 

Peach Cordial. — r«>lv .--Peaches ; French 
brandy ; sugar. 

Select ripe, juicy peaches, wash and wipe 
them to get off the down, and gash them to the 
stone. Put to each peck of peaches a gallon 
of French brandy, and cover them up tightly. 
Let the whole remain two months, then drain 
the brandy off the peaches, add enough cold 
water to render it of about the strength of good 



CORDUROY 



CORN 



125 



white wine, and to every three gallons of it put 
four pounds of white sugar. Stir up well ; 
let it stand a couple of days, stirring it well 
each day ; then turn it into a wine-cask, close 
tightly and draw as wanted. 

CORDUROY.— A thick gotton stuff, ribbed 
or corded, the projecting part having a pile 
like velvet. It is very strong and durable, and 
much used for men's clothing. The best kinds 
are twilled. 

CORIANDER.— This annual plant, of East- 
ern origin, is cultivated in this country for its 
seeds, which are highly aromatic and pungent, 
and form one of the less agreeable spices : they 
are employed in cooking for flavoring cakes, etc., 
by the confectioner for incrusting with sugar, 
and by the druggist in medicine. Its leaves 
are also sometimes used in soups and salads. 

CORN. — The "corn" of America is In- 
dian corn, or maize, and its use here is more 
extensive than in any other part of the world. 
Ground into meal after it arrives at maturity, 
it makes excellent bread 
and enters into a multi- 
tude of dishes ; but these 
are treated of in their 
appropriate places, and 
we shall confine ourselves 
here to the green corn 
prepared and eaten as a 
vegetable. There are 
many varieties of this, of 
which the szvcet corn is 
considered best for boil- 
ing ; and of this quality 
there are several kinds, 
caused from peculiar cul- 
ture, soil, or climate. To raise, it should be 
planted in good garden soil as soon as the 
frost is well out of the ground, and at intervals, 
until July ist; putting three or four grains in 
hills, three feet apart each way. It is necessary 
to keep the ground free from weeds by frequent 
hoeing. 

Green corn appears in the southern markets 
about the ist of June, whence it is brought 
north ; in the Middle States it is ready for 
use by the middle of July in favorable sea- 
sons ; and in the New England States about 
the 1st of August. By a succession of crops 
it continues to be soft and good until the mid- 
dle of October, and sometimes later. Green 
corn, as found in the markets, has generally 
been plucked too young; it should at least 
have attained its full size of kernel, and is never 
unwholesome if used then. It also soon dete- 
riorates after it is gathered. If possible it 
should be eaten the same day it is picked ; by 
the second day it inevitably loses much of its 
flavor, and, moreover, becomes difficult of di- 
gestion. If any is to be kept over twenty-four 
hours, it is better to shave it off and cook it ; 
that is, if there be ice to keep it on, for when 
cooked it sours readily. 

Boiled. — Boiling on the cob is the simplest 
way of cooking corn, and, all things considered, 
the best. Strip off the outer husk of the ears 




Indian Corn. 



till the inmost covering is reached ; turn this 
back and carefully pick off every thread of silk ; 
then put them into a boiler with only enough 
hot water to cover them, in which a tablespoon- 
ful of salt has been dissolved, and cover the 
boiler closely ; cook from ten to fifteen minutes 
for young and tender corn, while twenty min- 
utes ought to cook sufficiently any sweet corn 
that is fit to be eaten green. Serve in a covered 
dish, or cover closely with a napkin. 

Some prefer to have the corn cut from the 
cob while hot and seasoned with butter, pepper, 
and salt, before it is sent to the table. 

Dried. — Corn for drying should be picked 
early in the morning, husked and cooked at 
once, shaved thin with a sharp knife, and dried 
as rapidly as possible, either in the oven, in a 
drying-rack or chamber, or, better still, under 
a hot-bed sash. If properly managed, it can 
often be thoroughly dried in a single fair day, 
and this is very desirable, as no fruit or vegeta- 
ble deteriorates so much by exposure as green 
corn. Grated green corn can also be dried, 
but it requires even greater care, as it is best 
not to scald it before drying. Dried corn pack- 
ed away in a dry place, can be kept through the 
winter ; and when subsequently soaked out in 
milk-warm water it can be used for most pur- 
poses as well as when freshly grated. 

Fritters. — Grate the corn, or having scored 
every row of grains lengthwise, cut off the mere 
outer part, then push out the cream and kernel 
with the back of the blade. To the corn cut 
from twelve large ears, add two well-beaten eggs, 
three even tablespoonfuls of flour, and salt to 
the taste. Mix well and drop in hot lard a 
fourth of an inch deep. When browned on one 
side, turn the other. 

Muffins, etc. — Very nice muffins can be made 
with one part grated corn, one part water, and 
two parts of w-heat-flour or oatmeal ; or it may 
be baked in a covered spider. Griddle cakes, 
biscuit, and other dishes, can be readily con- 
trived by an intelligent cook. 

Roasted. — Green corn can be roasted by 
placing it, properly husked and silked, on a 
gridiron over a bed of coals, and turning it fre- 
quently. A better way is to open the husks, 
pick off all the silk, replace the husks closely, 
and then bury the ears thus protected in hot 
wood ashes . In either case care must be taken 
not to scorch it, as the scorched portions are 
indigestible. 

Stewed. — To a quart of corn, cut as for F7-it- 
iers, add half a pint of rich milk, and stew until 
cooked in a covered tin pail placed in a kettle 
two-thirds full of boiling water. Cover the ket- 
tle and allow about two hours, removing the 
covers occasionally to stir the corn. Ten 
minutes before serving add salt, white pepper, 
and two or three ounces of butter, 

n. ("With Tomatoes.) — Cut the corn from the 
cob and put it with an equal quantity of toma- 
toes that have been sliced and peeled ; stew 
these together for half an hour ; then season to 
taste with salt and pepper — a very little sugar 
may also be added ii the sweetish flavor is 



126 



CORNS 



COUGH 



liked : stir in a liberal piece of butter; simmer 
the whole together a quarter of an hour longer. 
Serve in a covered dish. {See Succotash.) 
CORNICE.— (6"^^ Curtains.) 
CORNS — are always caused by the pressure 
of tight boots and shoes, the friction of loose 
and unyielding ones, or badly fitting stockings. 
The preliminary to any permanent cure must 
be the removal of the cause ; no foot can be 
kept free from corns unless a proper shoe is 
worn, without the ridiculous high heels which 
are a prolific source of other troubles besides 
this minor one. This being attended to, the 
corn can be easily eradicated. All that is ne- 
cessary is to soften it by soaking the foot in 
warm water, and then remove it with the finger- 
nail, or a needle, blunt knife, or file of steel, or 
pumice-stone. When the corn is of long stand- 
ing, however, it is sometimes necessary to resort 
to severe measures. In such a case soak it in 
warm water and pare it down carefully with a 
sharp knife ; then soap the cut surface slightly, 
take a bit of lunar caustic, and gently touch the 
soaped and cut surface once or twice ; after a 
little time, wipe off the soap, and apply a small 
bit of diachylon plaster, spread either on Hnen 
or leather. In a few hours the tenderness will 
subside, and the surface, where touched by the 
caustic, will be brown or blackish and the pres- 
sure of the shoe can be very well borne. Be 
careful not to apply the catistic beyond the 
horny spot. In very obstinate corns a surgeon 
should be sought. The operation for removing 
corns is painless, bloodless, and brief; and it 
will be effectual if the exciting causes be after- 
wards avoided. The fenestrated corn plasters 
sold by the apothecaries are to be recommend- 
ed. CooKs Infallible Corn Remedy has proved 
of great service to the writer and many of his 
friends. 

For soft corns, between the toes, dissolve a 
piece of ammoniac, of the size of a bean, in an 
ounce of warm water, and apply hot. 

CORPULENCE. {See BANTING and Diet.) 
CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.— Poison. — 
Symptoms: Intense pain in the bowels and 
stomach, with vomiting and diarrhoea. Treat- 
ment : Mix the whites of twelve eggs in two 
quartsof water, and give in the largest possible 
draughts every three minutes till the vomiting 
occurs. Flour and water will answer, though 
not so sure as the above; and warm water, 
swallowed copiously, will help when nothing 
else is in reach. Tincture of Peruvian bark is 
a good remedy. Also milk.either sweet or sour. 
A bi-chloride of mercury, often used in 
medicine for cutaneous and other diseases, 
and in the household for destroying vermin. 
Taken internally it is a violent poison, corrod- 
ing the parts with which it comes in contact. 

CORSETS.— As usually worn, corsets have 
no support from the shoulders, and conse- 
quently the entire weight of the dress.petticoats, 
etc., resting upon or above them, presses upon 
the hips and abdomen, and this in such a way 
as to disuse and weaken some of the most im- 
portantsupporting muscles of the abdomen , and 



impede abdominal breathing. Of course such 
an unnatural mode of dressing is injurious at 
best — curvature of the spine being a common 
result ; but when too tightly laced, as they gen- 
erally are, they compress the lungs and heart, 
thus impeding the vital functions of respiration 
and circulation, and producing debility and not 
infrequently the most terrible organic diseases. 
Corsets should always be made to pass over 
and derive support from the shoulders ; and 
the metal plate or b^isk up the front should be 
dispensed with entirely. It is a great improve- 
ment also to use a silk cord, instead of cotton 
or linen, for lacing them. 

COSMETICS. — This term is usually applied 
to substances used for the purpose of beautify- 
ing the skin. They may be divided into two 
kinds : those which are injurious and even 
dangerous by reason of some of the ingredients 
of which they are really composed ; and those 
which, though harmless in themselves, are high- 
ly injurious when applied to the skin, because 
they arrest that insensible perspiration through 
the pores by which the temperature of the body 
is preserved and a large part of its refuse mat- 
ter thrown off. Under the first class fall near- 
ly all those French preparations, so often used 
in the toilet, such as Pearl-white, beruse, Rojige, 
and the like ; these are never composed of the 
harmless materials which are claimed to be em- 
ployed, and in Rouge arsenic has repeatedly 
been detected. The least objectionable article 
used as a cosmetic is the mixture of hydrated 
oxide of bismuth with the subnitrate of the 
same metal, known as the niagister of bisimtth. 
Applied to the skin, its only injurious effects 
appear to be the interruption of the insensible 
perspiration referred to above, which after long- 
continued use produces a tendency to clammi- 
ness ; a slight nausea, too, is sometimes experi- 
enced in consequence of its use, accompanied 
with spasms and flatulence. It has the disa- 
greeable quality, however, of turning black on 
the face when exposed to sulphuretted hydro- 
gen, a gas frequently met with in badly-ventila- 
ted rooms, and, indeed, everywhere that gas or 
sewers exist. The perfume of onion also has 
a tendency to turn it black. There is nothing, 
it must be borne in mind, that can really beauti- 
fy the skin except bathing, exercise, and a reg- 
ular compliance with the laws of health. 
COSTIVENESS. {See Constipation.) 
COTTON. (.9^^ Clothing.) 
COUGH. — A cough is merely the symptom 
of some other disease, and gives warning of 
danger. It should never be doctored as such, 
but its treatment must depend on the disease 
by which it is caused. When it is aggravated 
by a constant titillation in the throat relief 
may be had by dissolving a bit of hoarhound 
or lemon candy in the mouth and swallowing 
the saliva. A pinch of salt dissolved on the 
tongue is also good. When the cough is 
simply the accompaniment of a cold, the fol- 
lowing is a good remedy : — Mix eight tea- 
spoonfuls of molasses, forty of vinegar, two 
of antimonial wine, and four drops of laud- 



COUNTERPANE. 



COW 



127 



anum ; take two teaspoonfuls at night and one 
in the morning. 

When a child has a cough as an accompani- 
ment of a cold, quite small doses of syrup of 
ipecacuanha are usually very good. To a 
child only a month or two old, the syrup of 
tolu may be given in doses of one-fourth of a 
teaspoonful, in a teaspoonful of water, every 
three or four hours. When the child is older, 
say three but under six months, use the syrup 
of ipecacuanha, but of this only three_ to five 
drops in a teaspoonful of water, once in three 
or four hours. From the sixth to the twelfth 
month, five to twelve drops may be given ; and 
during the second year from a fourth to a 
half teaspoonful. When these doses cause 
vomiting, let a longer interval elapse between 
them. For children that are over two years 
old, nothing is better than the old-fashioned 
" brown mixture," which is made thus : — Take 
of powdered gum arable, two drachms ; extract 
of liquorice, two drachms ; boiling water, four 
ounces (one gill). Dissolve the gum arabic 
and liquorice in the water, and add of wine of 
antimony, two drachms (two teaspoonfuls), and 
of laudanum, twenty drops. The medicine 
should be thoroughly shaken up before the 
dose is poured out. Half a teaspoonful may 
be given every three hours to a child under 
four years, and may be increased to one tea- 
spoonful, given with the same interval. For 
an older child, a correspondingly larger dose 
may be given ; the proper quantity may be 
judged of from the fact that the dose for an 
adult is one tablespoonful. This mixture will 
not keep well in a warm place, and small quan- 
tities should therefore be made at once. 

COUGH-CANDY. {See Candy.) 

COUNTERPANE. {To clean.)— "^hMt cot- 
ton counterpanes should be washed in a large 
quantity of strong suds twice over, scalded, 
and then rinsed in clear cold water ; on no 
account wrung, but carried to the drying ground 
in a washing-tub and spread out over the line. 
Before they are thoroughly dry, they should 
be folded quite smooth and flat, and left in that 
state for ten or twelve hours, after which they 
should be opened and aired, to get rid of the 
musty smell. 

COW. — In the following observations we 
confine ourselves to treating of cows intended 
for the domestic dairy. Cows may be bought 
at any of the markets or fairs throughout the 
country, and cost from 60 to 125 dollars. It 
is important in selecting one that she should 
be a good milker, and in healthy condition, 
though if a rich milker she may be very lean. 
Indeed, this is a good sign, if the cow is evi- 
dently vigorous and is in full milk— it indicates 
that she secretes fat with the milk rather than 
in the flesh. By way of suggestion on these 
points we quote from Mr. R. L. Allen's treatise 
on " Domestic Animals." He says : " There 
are certain points in a good milker that can 
hardly be mistaken. She should be descended 
from the best milking stock ; her head should 
be small or of medium size, muzzle fine, and 



nostrils flexible and expanded ; face long, 
slender, and dishing; cheeks thin ; eyes full, 
mild, and prominent ; horns delicate and waxy, 
long, thin, lively ear, with the inside of an 
orange color ; neck thin and small at its junc- 
tion with the head ; deep chest, but not too 
heavy before ; back level and broad ; well 
ribbed ; belly large ; low flanks ; wide thighs, 
but thin ; short legs, and standing well apart ; 
large milking veins ; loose, capacious udder, 
coming well out behind ; good teats ; loose, 
mellow skin, of a deep yellow; and a fine, 
thick coat of glossy hair." But these de- 
scriptive indications will be of little or no use 
to a person inexperienced in the purchase of 
cows; and it is best to have the selection made 
by some one skilled in the matter, in whom 
confidence can be placed. In order to make 
sure of obtaining a cow that will continue in 
milk a long time, it is best to buy one with a 
calf from a fortnight to a month old. It is a 
common trick, in offering cows for sale, to 
leave them unmilked, in order that their dis- 
tended bags may impose on the buyer. It is 
never safe to buy a cow that has been sub- 
jected to this treatment. 

A cow may have her first calf when between 
two and three years old. The average time of 
gestation is from 40 to 41 weeks ; though they 
sometimes go only 34 and occasionally overrun 
44. A dry, unoccupied stall or yard is best for 
her to calve in ; and if there is any serious de- 
lay or difficulty in the birth, she may be assis- 
ted by placing the foetus in the right position, 
and gently pulling it with every throe of the 
dam. When, from neglect, a calf is dropped 
in the yard or field, there is great danger of its 
perishing (and this may imperil the life of tlie 
cow). Should this happen, and the mother 
take cold (which may be known by her shiver- 
ing and refusing her food), she ought immedi- 
ately to be driven into a warm place, together 
with her calf, and fed with a warm bran mash 
and a little hay, and should not be suffered to 
drink cold water. 

Before the calf has drawn all he wants at 
morning and evening, the bag should be 
quickly and thoroughly emptied of all the milk. 
If strong and vigorous, the calf is the best 
doctor for garget or caked bag. He may be 
allowed to suck or not, at the option of the 
owner; but if the cow is to be " dry-milked," 
the calf should be separated from her as soon 
as he is able to stand up. The cow should be 
stinted in her food for two or three days, and 
not fed freely for a week. Avoid fat in a breed- 
ing cow. Too high feeding is the cause of 
milk fever, caked bag, and a host of evils; 
and very poor feed, except at calving time, is 
almost equally objectionable. 

A cow should be dried off at least for two 
weeks before calving, and the milk should not 
be used by the family until four days after the 
event. Always see that the calf gets the first 
milk of the cow. 

Diseases. — Many cows are lost from the 
want of knowledge how to treat certain diseases 



128 



cow 



to which they are liable, so we include here 
such remedies as can be easily apphed, and 
are likely to prove effective. 

Caked Bag may be removed by washing 
with warm water frequently ; poultice the bag 
with belladonna leaves poultice ; in bad cases 
wash with a weak solution of carbolic acid. 

Choking is usually caused by a root get- 
ting stuck in the throat. If within arm's 
length, it may be removed by the hand. Or 
pour down the throat a pint bottleful of soft 
soap, mixed with sufficient hot water to make 
it run freely. Should this fail to remove it, 
tie up the fore-leg with a small cord close to 
the body, and give the cow a sudden start with 
a whip. You may pass a small smooth rod 
easily down the animal's throat, inserting first 

a piece of wood o in its mouth, and 

keeping the rod pressed back of the wind-pipe. 

Garget is an intense form of caked bag, and 
shows itself in hard bunches on the udder. 
Bleed the cow, give a large dose of Epsom 
salts, and wash the udder as in caked bag. 

Hoof Ail is indicated by lameness, fever, and 
a soft swelling just above the hoof. In all 
these cases treat with carboHc acid and keep 
the hoof clean. 

Hoven is a temporary ailment, caused by 
eating too freely of fresh and generally wet 
clover, or other succulent food. It is known 
by the swelling of the paunch, and difficulty of 
breathing, and unless speedily relieved, suffoca- 
tion and death will ensue. The paunch is full 
of gas, caused by the decomposition of the food. 
In the early stages, when not too severe, it may 
be cured by any of the following remedies : — A 
pint of gin poured down the throat. From one 
to two pints of lamp or other oil. Strong brine. 
A tablespoonful of hartshorn in a pint of water. 
A wineglassful of gunpowder, mixed with coid 
lard and forced in "balls into the stomach. A 
teaspoonful of unslaked lime, dissolved in a 
pint of warm water, shaken and given imme- 
diately. A pint of tolerably strong ley. By far 
the best treatment of Hoven, however, is half 
an ounce of carbonate of ammonia, in a pint of 
cold water — or pour cold water over the back ; 
when very bad cases occur, puncture with a 
trochar or knife, half way between the last rib 
and the hip and four inches from the spine, to 
let out the gas. 

Majige or Scab is denoted by the ani- 
mal rubbing the hair off the eyes and other 
parts ; the skin is scaly or scabby, sometimes 
appearing as if covered with large seed-warts. 
Wash the skin with soap and warm water, and 
rub the spots with a mixture of sulphur and lard. 
When the skin is cracked take one pound of 
sulphur, a quarter of a pound of resin, two 
ounces of mercurial ointment, and one pint of 
linseed oil; melt the resin and warm the oil, 
and when partly cooled, stir in the sulphur ; 
when cold add the mercurial ointment, mixing 
all well. Rub this thoroughly with the hand 
on the affected parts. Mange is in all animals 
a parasitic disease. Wash with a solution of 
carbolic acid i to 20 or i to 30 of water. 



Milk Fever is caused by cows being in high 
condition at the time of calving ; it can almost 
always be avoided by keeping them in mode- 
rate feed and flesh. To cure, bleed freely, 
say six to ten quarts ; then give from one to 
one and a half pounds of Epsom salts, to be 
repeated in half-pound doses every six hours 
till the cow purges freely. When purgatives 
are tardy in their action an injection of warm 
water and soap should be given. Only bleed 
in early stage, keep the animal moving every 
20 minutes, and give drenches. 

Scour, or diarrhoea, may be cured by giving 
any of the fixed oils i pt, or an ounce of 
powdered chalk, nurse well and give good food. 
Diarrhoea is caused by the presence of an 
irritant in the stomach, which must be removed. 

Sore Teats may be cured by rubbing them 
with goose oil, cream, or new milk. Or wash 
the bag and teats with warm water, and apply 
the ointment : melt together one ounce of yel- 
low wax and three ounces of lard, and when 
cool rub in a quarter of an ounce of sugar of 
lead, and a drachm of alum finely powdered. 

Warts are of two kinds : the first, on the 
outer skin, may be removed by rubbing with 
camphorated olive oil. The other kind pene- 
trate into the flesh and may be removed by 
a ligature of fine thread or silk ; tie it tightly 
round the wart, and it will fall off in a few 
days. 

Woimds. In simple wounds always catch the 
skin together with two or three stiches, having 
first well cleansed the part. Then place over 
this a small rag wet with water only, with i or 
2 drops of carbolic acid ; over this place some 
India rubber or oil silk, the object is merely 
to exclude the air and prevent decomposition. 
Dry earth is useful in cases where there is a 
great discharge of matter. 

Food. — The modes of feeding cows are tech- 
nically divided inio grazing, or feeding on grass 
in the fields ; soiling, or giving them green food 
cut and taken into the house ; and stall-feeding, 
which is confined chiefly to hay and grain, 
together with succulent roots, either raw or 
steamed. Notwithstanding all that has been 
said concerning the good qualities of certain 
roots and artificial grasses, experience has 
shown that no food is comparable to good nat- 
ural early pasture for milch cows ; for not only 
does it yield a greater quantity of milk, but the 
flavor of grass butter may always be distin- 
guished by its superior richness and delicacy, 
from that made of milk produced by feeding in 
the stall. Roots of all kinds, as carrots, pars- 
nips, mangel-wurzel, and potatoes are excellent 
food for cows, as also are peas and cotton-seed. 
Turnips are much used, but unless fed immedi- 
ately after milking, they impart a disagreeable 
flavor to the milk and butter. In the winter, to 
keep cows in the best condition for milk, they 
should have abundance of hay (clover-hay is 
best), and cornstalks cut up, thoroughly soaked 
in water for half a day, and then sprinkled with 
corn-meal; oil-cake is good. The amount of 
meal may vary; but corn-meal alone, in large 



COWPOX 



CRACKNELS 



129 



quantities, is too heating. Common salt is much 
relished by cows, and, when added in moderate 
quantities to their food, is said to improve their 
milk as well as their general health. 

The best time to feed cows is as soon as 
possible after daylight in the morning, at noon, 
and a little before sunset, leaving sufficient 
intervals for them to lie down and ruminate. 

The water given to cows should be of the 
purest kind, and they should have access to it 
at all times, or have it frequently offered to 
them. Some recommend stirring a handful of 
corn or oat-meal in each draught occasionally. 

Milking. — This is an important operation, 
and unless it is properly done, not only will a 
reduced yield of milk be the result but the 
cow herself will be spoiled. It is best to milk 
twice a day, at intervals of about twelve hours, 
though if a great deal of milk is given it pays 
to milk three times a day, as nearly as possible 
eight hours apart. In milking, sit with the left 
knee close to the right leg of the cow, the head 
pressed against her flank, the left hand always 
ready to ward off a kick, which the gentlest 
cow may give almost without knowing it, if her 
tender teats be cut by long nails, or if a wart 
be hurt, or her bag be tender. Put the fingers 
round the teat, close to the bag ; then firmly 
close the forefinger, immediately squeezing 
with the other fingers. The forefinger prevents 
the milk from flowing back into the udder^ 
while the others press it out. A cow must be 
stripped dry every time she is milked or she 
will gradually dry up. Moreover, not only will 
the quantity of milk be diminished, but the qual- 
ity will also be inferior ; the first of the milk 
is poorest, and it gradually becomes richer 
until the last drainings of the udder are nearly 
as rich as cream. Never stop while milking, 
as this may cause some cows to hold up their 
milk. 

COWfOX. — 'The disease caused by vacci- 
nation. It is in the vast majority of cases 
nothing more than a slight fever which lasts 
while the pustule is in its most inflamed stages, 
and requires no special treatment. In those 
few instances where vaccination causes a vio- 
lent fever it is generally complicated with some 
other causes, and cannot be treated without 
medical advice. 

CRAB. — Though not so popular as lobsters, 
crabs are among the most pleasantly flavored 
fish of their class. They are in season from 
June to January, but are considered to be more 
wholesome in the cold months. The middling 
size, when heavy, lively, and possessed of large 
claws, are the best and sweetest ; if light, they 
are poor and watery. When crabs are stale, 
the eyes look dead, the claws hang down, and 
there is no muscular activity ; in this condition 
they are not fit to eat. The female is consid- 
ered inferior to the male, and may be distin- 
guished by the claws being smaller, and the 
apron, which appears on the white or under 
side, larger. Soft-shell Crabs are deemed a 
great luxury ; but they must not be kept over 
night, as the shells harden in twenty-four hours. 
9 



Boiled. — Crabs must be put on the fire with 
the water cold ; if put into hot water, they have 
the extraordinary faculty of " shooting " their 
claws, which spoils them. Heat gradually, and 
boil half an hour. Then put them in a dish, 
face downwards, to dry. 

Cold Dressed (or Deviled) Crab. — Open 
boiled crabs by raising the body from the shell 
without breaking the latter. Carefully remove 
the gills and other uneatable parts. Pick all 
the white meat from the claws and body ; do 
the same with what is good of the inside, i.e., 




Dressed Crab. 

the white and yellow curd and the coral. Chop 
these tolerably fine ; mix them together, season- 
ing with oil, vinegar, mustard and pepper ; then 
return them to the empty shell, which must pre- 
viously have been cleaned, and send to the 
table garnished with sprigs of fresh parsley. 
Accompany it with rolls and butter. 

Hot Dressed (or Deviled) Crab. — Pick and 
prepare the meat as before, adding bread-crumbs 
and pounded mace or grated nutmeg to the sea- 
soning. Warm the whole gently in a sauce-pan ; 
replace it in the crab-shell ; sprinkle bread- 
crumbs over the top, and brown in a hot oven. 
Serve as soon as browned. 

Plain. — Crab allowed to stand until it is cold, 
then opened and with its claws cracked, accom- 
panied with a little fresh salad, is as agreeable 
and wholesome a way as any of serving it. 

Salad. — Crabs make a perfect salad. Use 
Mayonnaise dressing. See Salad. 

Soft-Shell Crab.— Pull off the spongy sub- 
stance from the sides and the sand-bags ; 
wash carefully in cold water, and wipe dry. 
Put them into a pan of hot lard or butter, and 
fry them to a light, crisp brown. If lard is 
used, a little salt must be added ; butter is salt 
enough. Serve hot, garnished with sprigs of 
green parsley. This is a delicious dish. 

CRACKERS. — Rub six ounces of butter 
into two pounds of sifted flour ; dissolve one 
teaspoonful of saleratus in a wineglassful of 
milk and strain it on the flour ; add a teaspoon- 
ful of salt, and enough milk to enable you to 
roll the dough out. Beat it with a rolling-pin 
for half an hour, roll it out thin, cut into cakes 
with a tumbler, and bake in a moderately quick 
oven till crisp and hard. 

CRACKNELS. — Beat up thirteen eggs with 
a quarter of a pound of powdered loaf sugar 
until they are quite light; then stir in three 
pounds of flour and a quarter of an ounce of 
sal-volatile reduced to a very fine powder. 
Mix these well together and roll the paste out 



130 



CRADLES 



CRAPE 



thin ; cut out the cracknels with a wineglass | 
or tumbler, throw them into boiling water for 
one or two minutes, then put them into cold 
water. After they have remained there three 
minutes take them out and bake in a rather 
quick oven. These are very delicate and eatable. 

CRADLES. — The use of cradles for rocking 
babies to sleep is now very generally con- 
demned by medical writers as injurious to the 
brain and paralyzing to the nervous system. 
A French physician goes so far as to declare 
it to be a source of idiocy and mental weak- 
ness. Even on grounds of convenience, how- 
ever, their use should be abandoned. When 
once a child becomes accustomed to being 
rocked asleep he will never go to sleep without 
it, nor even lie down ; whereas if children are 
dealt with properly, it is surprising how early 
they can be taught to lie down alone and go to 
sleep without waiting to be soothed. Rocking 
is only liked by nurses who find it convenient 
for putting babies to sleep when they ought, 
perhaps, to be carrying them about in the open 
air. 

CRADLE. (Wine.)— A small basket, like 
that shown in the engraving, used in serving 
Burgundy, Latour, and other wines which 
throw down a precipitate. The precipitate or 
"dregs" being deposited on the side of the 
bottle, the wine can be poured off clear, which 
it is impossible to do when the bottle is shifted 




Wine Cradle. 

from a horizontal to an upright position, as in 
serving in the ordinary way. The wine should 
of course be placed in the cradle on the same 
side on which it lay in the bin, with as little 
agitation as possible. Hence it is well to have 
a uniform plan of storing bottles — with labels 
up or down. 

CRAMP. — A violent and involuntary muscu- 
lar contraction. It is, perhaps, most readily 
induced by cold, especially after prolonged 
exercise. This is probably the reason why it 
so often occurs in swimmers, and is supposed 
to account for a good many of the lives lost by 
drowning. The best remedy for Cramp is rub- 
bing, especially with some stimulant applica- 
tion, such as spirit; but it is the rubbing 
which is most valuable. {See COLic.) 

CRANBERRY.— A well-known native fruit, 
growing wild in rich, moist low lands, and pro- 
ducing large crops without cultivation. The 
cultivated fruit, however, is the largest, most 
perfect, and of the best flavor. The season for 
the fresh fruit commences about the ist of 
September and continues until April ; but they 
can be dried in the sun and, in this condition, 
kept throughout the year. There are several 



varieties of cranberries, but only two at present 
extensively cultivated or found in the markets : 
these are the cherry and the bell, the former 
resembling the cherry in appearance and being 
considered the best ; while the bell is oval in 
shape and somewhat the larger of the two. 
Cranberries make excellent pies, tarts, jellies, 
etc., and are unrivalled as an accompaniment 
for turkey and other poultry, and for game. 
They are considered astringent, and are 
thought to restore the appetite ; and they are 
sometimes fermented into an intoxicating 
liquor, which is put into whiskey to disguise its 
peculiar flavor. 

{See Compotes, Jellies, Pies, Preserves, 
AND Tarts.) 

Sauce (Cranberry.) — Choose light colored 
cranberries ; look them over and take out all 
that are defective ; wash them well, and put 
them over the fire more than covered with cold 
water ; cover the saucepan and cook until the 
skins are tender, adding more water if necessa- 
ry; add a pound of granulated sugar for every 
pound of cranberries, let them simmer ten or 
twelve minutes, then put them away in a wide 
mouthed crock and keep them covered. 

Tea. (Cranberry.) — Select nice ripe cran- 
berries ; mash them, pour boiling water on 
them, and then strain off the water and sweeten 
it to taste ; grate nutmeg over the top. This 
is a very pleasant drink for the sick. 

CRANE.— A long-legged, long-necked, and 
long-billed bird, of the same species as the 
great blue heron. It sometimes, but very 
rarely, makes its appearance in our markets, 
though it is very abundant in the Southern and 
Western States from the middle of October to 
the middle of April, and is said to be well 
flavored and delicate when young. Cook like 
wild turkey. 

CRAPE. — A light, transparent stuff, made 
of raw silk, gummed and twisted in the mill, 
and woven without crossing ; when dyed black 
it is much used for mourning. Crapes are 
either crisped or smooth; the former, being 
double, expresses the deepest mourning, and it 
owes its peculiar appearance to a larger quanti- 
ty of gum being added to the silk in dressing it. 
White crape is used in various dresses, but 
soils very easily. Ckhta crape is a beautiful 
variety, remarkably firm in texture and weighty 
in substance, which is usually dyed in various 
shades of pink and other gay colors, and used 
in rich dresses, shawls, etc. 

Cleaning Crape. — When a drop of water 
falls on black crape it leaves a conspicuous 
white mark. To obliterate this, spread the 
crape on a table and place underneath the 
stain a piece of old black silk; with a large 
camel-hair brush dipped in common ink, go 
over the stain, and then wipe off the ink with a 
bit of old soft silk. It will dry immediately, 
and the stain will be seen no more. — Old rusty 
black Italian crape may be made to look as good 
as new by dipping it in skimmed milk and water 
(equal parts), with a bit of glue in it, made 
scalding hot ; after dipping the crape, clap and 



CRASH 



CRESS 



131 



pull dry like muslin, — China crape scarfs, if the 
fabric be good, can be washed as frequently as 
may be required without injuring them. Make 
a strong lather of soap and water, suffer it to 
cool ; when cold, or nearly so, wash the scarf 
quickly and thoroughly, and dip it immediately 
in cold hard water in which a little salt has 
been thrown (to preserve the colors); rinse, 
squeeze, and hang it out to dry in the open air, 
when the more rapidly it dries, the cleaner it 
will be. 

CRASH. — A kind of coarse linen cloth, 
much used for towels, tablecloths, and the 
like. It comes of various quaUties and kinds, 
some being figured and very closely woven, 
while others are coarse and flimsy. 

CRAZINESS. {See Insanity.) 

CREAM. — To procure the largest amount 
of cream, the milk should be placed in very 
shallow pans, never more than three inches 
deep. Twelve hours in summer, and twenty- 
four in winter, will be sufficient time for the 
milk to stand for "creaming," though it may 
often be kept longer with advantage. Three 
quarts of really good milk will produce about a 
pmt of cream. The cream should be removed 
with a perforated skimmer which has been 
dipped in cold water to prevent the cream, 
when thick, from adhering to it. It should be 
kept in a deep covered disli in a cool place, 
where the temperature is uniform. The con- 
sistency of cream increases by 'exposure to 
air. In three or four days if becomes so thick 
that the vessel which contains it may be invert- 
ed without spiUing it. In eight or ten days 
more it becomes a soft solid, and its surface 
becomes tough ; it has now no longer the 
flavor of cream, but has acquired that of cheese. 
This is the process for making cream cheese. 
{See Cake and Ice Cream.) 

Artificial Cream. — (To eat with stewed fruit 
or tarts.) Take .--Fresh milk, i pt ; sugar, i 
tablespoonful ; eggs, yolks of 2. 

Put a pint of new milk into a saucepan, add 
a tablespoonful of sugar, set it on a very low 
fire, or the hot iron plate of a cooking-stove ; 
break into it the yolks of two eggs, and keep 
stirring, always one way, until it becomes as 
thick as ordinary cream. It must never reach 
the boiling point. 

Coffee Cre?ixa.-Take .'-Cream, 3 pts ; ground 
coffee, 2 dessert-spoonfuls ; eggs, yolks of 8. 

Into three pints of cream, put two dessert- 
spoonfuls of ground coffee, and sweeten to 
taste. Boil it for half an hour; then let it 
stand to settle. Pour off the cream from the 
coffee-grounds, and stir into it the yolks of 
eight eggs ; then simmer slowly until the 
whole is of the consistency of thick boiled 
custard. Serve in cups or glasses, like cus- 
tard. 

Lemon Cream. — Take :-Egg%, 3; lemons, 
2 or 3 ; water, ^ pt ; loaf sugar, % lb. 

Beat up well the whites of three eggs and the 
yolk of one, and stir them together ; add the 
juice of two large lemons or three small ones, 
half a pint of water, and half a pound of loaf 



sugar, pounded fine. Mix these together 
thoroughly ; set them over a slow fire, stirring 
constantly the same way ; when warm, put 
in the rind of one lemon, peeled very thin. 
When it thickens well, remove the lemon 
peel, and take the cream off the fire. On no 
account must it be allowed to boil. Serve in 
custard-cups, or glasses. 

Orange Cream. — Made same as Lemon. 

Tea Cream. — Take .--Mxlk, i qt ; green 
tea, 2 oz ; cream, i qt ; eggs, yolks of 6. 

Pour a quart of boiling milk over two ounces 
of green tea in a teapot ; put the lid on, and 
let it stand on a moderately hot part of the 
stove for a quarter of an hour. Then pour off 
the milk ; mix it with a quart of good cream ; 
stir in the yolks of six eggs, well beaten ; 
sweeten to taste ; and thicken over a very 
gentle fire, stirring all the time. Serve as 
before. 

Whipped Cream. — Whip one quart of thick 
cream until it is stiff, taking care that it is not 
overdone, as it then would produce butter. 
When the cream is whipped, add one ounce 
of clarified gelatin, five ounces of powdered 
sugar, one wineglass of brandy, one table- 
spoonful of essence of vanilla, and the yolk of 
one tgg. Carefully rub a mould with the oil 
of sweet almonds ; pour the cream into it, and 
set it away on ice. When about to serve, turn 
it out on its dish, ornament the base with rasp- 
berries, strawberries, apricots, greengages, or 
peaches, or any bright, clear-colored fruit jel- 
lies. This cream is used for the purpose of 
garnishing Charlotte, Chantilly cake, merin- 
gues, etc. 

CREAM CHEESE. {See Cheese.) 

CREAM OP TARTAR. — Cream of tartar is 
usually sold as a powder, but in this state is 
almost always adulterated with chalk, clay, 
gypsum, sand, or flour. It is best therefore to 
buy it in the crystalline form in which it is re- 
ceived from the French manufacturers ; it can 
be pulverized at home in a mortar or piece of 
cloth. Keep it tightly corked in a glass jar or 
bottle. 

Beverage {cream of tartar). — Pour a pint of 
boiling water on two teaspoonfuls of cream-tar- 
tar ; sweeten to taste, and flavor with lemon 
peel. If this is too acid, add more boiling 
water. This is a very refreshing summer 
drink. 

CRESS. — There are several species of this 
pleasantly flavored and aromatic herb the shoots 
of which are much used as a salad. _ The most 
common is the water-cress, which is found in 
abundance on the banks of fresh, clear streams, 
from March until May, and again from Septem- 
ber to November. {See Water Cress.) An- 
other kind is called garden-cress, or pepper 
grass, which is also eaten as a salad when 
young. It has a pleasant, refreshing, pungent 
taste, and is abundant during the spring months. 
A third species is called the winter-cress ; this 
is a much larger plant, which grows about 
hedges, and the young leaves are used as a 
salad during the greater part of the year. The 



132 



CREWEL 



CROUP 



flavor of this variety is very pungent and bit-i 
ing. Still another species is called Indian- 
cress ox nasUit'tmm. (See Nasturtium.) 

CREWEL. — A kind of woollen yarn very 
slightly twisted. It comes in every color, and 
is used in several kinds of embroidery. 

CRIMPING. — The process of producing a 
kind of plaiting or fluting on frills or ruffles. 
It is done by a machine with two grooved roll- 
ers, the lower of which is heated by a cylin- 
drical piece of iron made red hot and inserted 
in it. The crimping is performed merely by 
putting the ruffles between the rollers when 
they have become hot, and turning the handle. 

CROCKERY. {See Earthen-ware.) 

CROCUS. — The only kind of Crocus known 
to our gardens is the early blooming spring 
bulbs. "These are hardy little plants. Plant 
them two inches deep, in a sunny spot, about 
the first of October, either by themselves or 
as a border. Enrich the soil with a liberal 
quantity of well-rotted cow manure and enough 
pure sand to make it rather loose. Just before 
the ground freezes up, a good covering of coarse 
manure and straw should be spread over the 
bed. In the spring rake off the straw, the 
bulbs will be found well up, the white stalks 
will soon turn green, and an abundance of 
bloom will follow. As winter approaches, 
cover them as before; they will bloom year 
after year. 

For blooming in the house the crocus is only 
valuable as an early flower, its blooms being 
fugitive ; a few, however, planted with other 
bulbs, produce a pretty effect. The soil for 
them should be one part loam, one part sand, 
and water should be sparingly given. As soon 
as the flowers fade, and the tips of the leaves 
begin to turn yellow, water should be gradually 
withheld, and the bulbs thus dried off. When 
dry, the earth should be carefully shaken off, 
and the dry bulb put away for the next autumn's 
planting. Some of the choicest varieties of the 
crocus are : — G7-ootverst, Ca?-oline and Queen 
Victoria, white ; Scotch, yellow ; David Rizzio, 
blue; Albion, violet; Grand Lilas, lilac; Sir 
Walter Scott, variegated; and Othello, very 
dark purple. 

CROQUETTES — Take lo ozs of chicken, 
freed of bone and skin, cut into small neat 
dice, with 2 ozs of mushrooms, and 2 ozs of 
ham cut in dice also. Place on the fire i table- 
spoonful of chopped shallot, 2 of chopped 
parsley, i blade of pounded mace, a saltspoon- 
ful of powdered thyme, white pepper and salt 
to taste. Fry these in a sautoir with 2 ozs of 
butter ; then add il ozs flour ; stir a minute, 
then add i gill of broth; when it boils add the 
mince, and the yolks of 2 eggs ; stir the mix- 
ture until it leaves the bottom and sides of the 
stewpan, then pour it on a well-oiled dish to 
cool. Form it into any shape desired ; bread- 
crumb in the usual manner ; fry them to a 
clear yellow in plenty of hot lard, pile them 
• up on a napkin, and send them to the table at 
once. 

Croquette of Sweetbreads. — Cut 10 ozs of 



sweetbread in small neat dice, 3 ozs of mush- 
rooms, and I oz of red tongue in dice also ; 
then incorporate with f pint of reduced alle- 
mande sauce ; season with nutmeg, white 
pepper, and salt ; i tablespoonful essence of 
anchovies and a piece of chicken glaze. 
Br&ad-crumb them in the usual manner, and 
fry them in hot lard until they are of a light 
brown. 

Rice Wipe clean, in a dry cloth, seven 

ounces of rice, put it into a clean stew-pan, 
and pour on it a quart of new milk ; let 
it swell gently by the side of the fire, and stir 
it often that it may not stick to the pan, nor 
burn ; when it is about half done, stir to it 
five ounces of powdered sugar, and six bitter 
almonds beaten extremely fine ; the thin rind 
of half a fresh lemon may be added in the first 
instance. The rice must be simmered until it 
is soft, and very thick and dry ; it should then 
be spread on a dish and left until cold, when 
it is to be rolled into small balls, which must 
be dipped into beaten egg, and then covered 
in every part with the finest bread-crumbs. 
When all are ready, fry them to a light brown 
in fresh butter, and dry them well before the 
fire, upon a sieve reversed and covered with 
a very soft cloth, or with a sheet of white blot- 
ting-paper. Pile them in a hot dish, and send 
them to the table quickly. (See Lobster.) 

CROUP. — This most dreaded of all the dis- 
eases to which children are liable, requires 
immediate attention, for if neglected it may 
destroy life in one or two days. It commences 
with hoarseness and a short dry cough, which 
in a few hours becomes husky, and the cry 
hoarse ; then the cough becomes peculiarly 
metallic, or "brassy," as it is called; the diffi- 
culty of breathing quickly increases, and soon 
becomes very distressing, the child seems to 
fight for breath and to require all its strength 
to force the air in and out of the chest ; the 
face is flushed, and the voice and breathing 
make a peculiar crowing or cooing sound which 
it is impossible to describe, but which once 
heard will never be forgotten. Unless the 
disease is arrested, all these symptoms increase, 
the difficulty of breathing becomes greater and 
greater, and the child literally strangles to 
death. Before describing the treatment to be 
pursued, it may be well to explain that there 
are two varieties of croup, one of which is call- 
ed me?nbranous or true croup, and the other 
spasmodic crotip. The spasmodic is of the 
most frequent occurrence, but fortunately is 
a very mild disease, and is seldom, very sel- 
dom, fatal. The membranous is of much more 
rare occurrence, but it is very often fatal. At 
first it is difficult to distinguish between them, 
and it is because of this that it is wise to seek 
the advice of a physician as soon as the attack 
commences ; fortunately the spasmodic is rarely 
liable to develop into the membranous. 

Treatment. — To save a child when taken 
with membranous croup, domestic remedies 
must not be rehed on. Night or day send at 
once for a doctor. Till the doctor comes pro- 



CRUMPETS 



LUCUMBERS 



133 



ceed in this way : Keep the child in a warm 
room, and give from half a teaspoonful to two 
teaspoonfuls of syrup of ipecac, according to 
the age of the child (half a teaspoonful to a 
child under a year old, a teaspoonful when be- 
tween one and two, and two teaspoonfuls when 
over three); if this has no effect, repeat the 
dose every fifteen minutes, and give warm water 
to drink, until the child vomits freely ; put the 
feet into hot water and mustard till the skin is 
quite red ; and on the chest and well up to the 
throat place a large poultice made of two parts 
of oatmeal or bran and one part mustard, and 
keep it on till it reddens the skin (which will 
be but a short time in a young child). When 
the disease is spasmodic croup, the effect' of 
the vomiting is usually to loosen the cough and 
to restore it to a more natural sound ; when 
this is done the distress is removed. This 
variety of croup comes on most frequently in 
the night, the child awaking from its sleep to 
cough, or even coughing without waking. Af- 
ter vomiting has occurred and the cough ceased, 
the child often falls asleep at once, and may 
pass the rest of the night without further trouble. 
The disease, however, is very apt to recur at 
the same time on the succeeding night, and 
this should, if possible, be prevented. During 
the intervening day the child should be kept 
in a moderately warm room, and be given such 
medicine as the doctor may direct. The follow- 
ing old-fashioned remedy may do where nothing 
better can be procured : Mix in a teacup equal 
parts of molasses and good strong vinegar; 
let it stand where it will just keep warm, and 
give the child a teaspoonful as often as once 
every hour. If the breathing becomes heavier 
as night comes on, repeat the vomiting and 
poulticing as before. 

A child that is subject to attacks of spasmodic 
croup should be guarded with unusual care 
from changes of the weather, and all those 
influences which are found by observation to 
precede the paroxysms ; and the clothing should 
be carefully arranged to protect the chest, and 
in general to keep him more constantly warm. 
A child that has survived one attack of mem- 
branous croup, (a very rare object, because the 
disease is almost always fatal,) should be still 
more carefully guarded against all these in- 
fluences. There is no advantage in excessive 
anxiety ; yet it must be felt, under the circum- 
stances, that the child's life hangs on a more 
slender thread than that which before sustained 
it. At all events, wash such children, and all 
children, once or twice daily, in cool or cold 
water, and rub them warm afterwards. You 
will thus harden them and render them less 
liable to be influenced by changes of tem- 
perature. 

CRUMPETS.— I. Take .--Raised bread dough 
3 teacupfuls ; melted butter or cream, |< tea- 
cupful; eggs, 3; milk. 

Take three cups of raised bread dough and 
work into it, with the hand, half a teacupful of 
melted butter or rich cream, three eggs, and 
enough milk to make a thick batter. Turn it 



into a buttered bake-pan, let it stand until it 
is light, and then put it into the oven ; it will 
bake in half an hour. .Or the batter may be 
put into tins and cooked like muffins. 

n. Ta^v.-Same as before, with a teacupful 
of white sugar added. 

Take three teacupfuls of raised dough, and 
work into it half a teacupful of melted butter; 
beat together three eggs and a teacupful of fine 
white sugar, and add them to the dough ; put 
it into buttered pans and bake twenty minutes. 

CUCUMBERS. — The cucumber, though 
usually regarded as a vegetable, is botanically 
one of the fruits, and belongs to the order of 
melons. Almost the only way in which cucum- 
bers are used in this country is in salad, and 
when young, for making pickles ; but in Eng- 
land, France, and Germany, they are dressed 
for the table in various ways, of which frying 
is one, and are said to be much more whole- 
some when thus prepared than when eaten raw. 
In cultivation, the cucumber requires a sunny 
situation, a deep and rich soil, and plenty of 
moisture. The seed should be planted as soon 
as the frost is out of the ground, in hills about 
two feet apart each way. They will grow with 
scarcely any care ; though the young plants are 
subject to the depredations of numerous insect 
foes. The best way to prevent these is to 
cover the plants with boxes having gauze tops, 
which should be kept over them until the fo- 
liage is large and abundant. As an early veg- 
etable, scarcely any other can be as successful- 
ly forced in the hot-bed ; but the best sort 
should be selected for this purpose. Cucumbers 
begin to make their appearance from the South 
in April; in the Middle States they ripen about 
the middle of June, and so continue in the mar- 
ket until November, after which they are found 
in a cured state or pickled. {See Pickles.) 

Fried Cucumbers. — Pare and soak in cold 
water half an hour ; then cut them lengthwise 
into very thick slices, throw them into ice 
water, and after they have remained ten min- 
utes, take them out and wipe each slice dry 
with a cloth. Sprinkle with pepper and salt, 
roll in flour, and fry to a light brown in butter 
or lard. This is the best way of cooking cu- 
cumbers, and prepared thus they are far more 
wholesome than when raw. 

Raw Cucumbers. — Select those in which 
the middle is yet crisp and hard, pare them 
well, and cut crosswise in very thin slices ; 
dress with salt, pepper, and vinegar, and let 
them stand half an hour in a cold place before 
serving. A little olive or sweet oil may be 
added for those who like it, and a few slices of 
onions mingled with the cucumbers is a great 
improvement and renders them more digestible. 

Stewed Cucumbers. — Pare the cucumbers, 
cut them into quarters lengthwise, take away 
the seeds, and stew them in butter until quite 
tender. On removing, sprinkle them with salt 
and pounded mace. A portion of the juice 
remaining in the sauce-pan may be thickened 
with flour and poured over them. 

Stuffed Cucumbers. — This is a German 



134 



CULLENDER 



CURRANT 



dish. Peel the cucumbers whole, scoop the 
seeds out carefully at the stalk end, and fill the 
cavity with a stuffing composed of minced cold 
veal, bread-crumbs in small quantity, eggs, and 
finely chopped lemon peel. Put butter in a 
stew-pan and when it is melted, lay the stuffed 
cucumber in it and add a little pepper, mace, 
and chopped onions ; cover with good broth 
and stew gently till well done — say half to three 
quarters of an hour. Then take the cucum- 
bers carefully out of the broth, and arrange 
them on a dish. Reduce and thicken the broth 
by boiling down ; strain it, and pour while very 
hot over the cucumbers. 

CULLENDER. (See Colander.) 

CUMMEtT SEED.— The fruit or seed of the 
cummin plant, cultivated in the East from the 
earliest times. They have a bitter, aromatic 
taste, and a peculiar fragrance, and though sel- 
dom used in this country, enter largely into the 
composition of French ragoitts and other dish- 
es. They are also put into liquors. 

CUPHEA. — The most desirable plant of this 
family for culture is the little Mexican b. ignea, 
which blooms very profusely and for a long 
time. Plant the seed in June or July in a soil 
of about three parts loam and one each of sand 
and manure ; it grows about a foot high and is 
always in bloom. In autumn the plants may be 
potted and removed to the house, where, if 
watered freely, they will be covered all winter 
with a profusion of bright scarlet tubes, tipped 
with a ring of black and white. 

CURACOA. — A liqueur first made in the 
island of that name. A fair quality can be 
made at home by taking the rind of six oranges, 
peeling off as thin as possible, without retain- 
ing any of the white skin. Put it into a glass 
jar with a cover closing tight ; pour over it a 
quart each of best brandy and rectified spirits 
of wine. Let it steep in a warm place for a fort- 
night ; then strain the liquor carefully away 
from the orange peel. Melt two pounds of 
loaf sugar into a wineglassful of water, and 
when nearly cold, pour it into the liquor, stir- 
ring well. Then bottle it off, and use as re- 
quired. {See Liqueurs. "> 

CURD. {See Cheese.) 

CURRANT. — There are several varieties of 
this well-known garden fruit, but the chief 
division is into red and black currants. The 
latter is of a different species from the common 
currant, not having the same flavor, but a flat 
and strong taste, and is considered best for jam, 
jelly, etc., especially for the sick. The cultiva- 
tion of the currant is extremely easy, as it will 
grow in almost any garden soil, in the open sun 
or in the shade of fences, when the fruit is long- 
er in ripening but still sure. In planting, select 
well-ripened, straight, short shoots, removing 
all the buds or eyes from the lower portions 
which are to be inserted in the soil, which will 
prevent future "suckers" from springing up 
around the stem. After the stem has been trim- 
med upright for two or three feet, a thin spread- 
ing head should be carefullf grown by trimming 
off all superfluous wood as it makes its appear- 



ance. About mid-summer the ends of the fruit- 
bearing branches should be pinched off, in 
order to allow the strength of the plant to go 
into fruit. But the currant will reward the least 
degree of attention that can be given to it, and 
is on this account one of the most desirable of 
the smaller garden fruits. Among the best 
varieties are Cherry, Red, White-Dutch, and 
White-Grape. The green currants are much 
sought after, just before they begin to color or 
grow red, for pies, tarts, etc. They are gener- 
ally in market about the first of June ; in July 
they ripen, and will then remain on the bushes 
until September, especially if covered. {See 
Cake, Custard, Jam, Jelly, Pies, Pre- 
serves, and Tarts.) 

Dried Ciirrants are imported from abroad, 
and are sold in grocery stores and occasionally 
in the markets. The best come from the Levant 
and the Grecian islands, and the new-dried fruit 
arrives here in December and January. 

Ravr. ■ — Select nice fresh currants and stem 
them carefully ; sprinkle powdered sugar liber- 
ally over the bottom of a dish, put in a thick 
layer of currants, sprinkle in more sugar, add 
another layer of currants, and continue until 
the desired quantity is prepared. Set on ice 
until time to serve. Currants prepared in this 
way are one of the most cooling and refreshing 
of fruits. 

Stewed. {See Compotes.) 

Wine (Currant). — L 7'«>iv .--Currants ; water; 
sugar ; brandy ; alum. 

Select ripe currants, stew them, mash thorough- 
ly, and strain. To one gallon of the juice add 
two of water, and to each gallon of this mixture 
add three and a quarter pounds of sugar, a gill 
of brandy, and a quarter of an ounce of pow- 
dered alum ; put the whole into a clean cask to 
ferment. In March draw off, add another gill 
of brandy to each gallon, and bottle. It will be 
fit for use in six months, but improves with age. 

II. Take .--Currants ; sugar ; cream-tartar. 

To each gallon of juice of white currants, add 
three and a half pounds of sugar ; stir them 
well together, let the liquor stand twelve hours, 
and then pour it into a clean wine-cask, adding 
six ounces of cream-tartar {powdered ) to each 
ten gallons, and mixing it well. Let it ferment 
three months, covering the bung-hole with a 
tile ; then bung down closely, and leave the 
spile-peg rather loose, examining occasionally 
for six months, when it may be bottled. This 
will make a clear white wine of delicious flavor. 

III. Take .--Honey, 8 lbs ; boiling water, 1 5 
galls ; currants, 8 lbs ; sugar ; eggs and cream- 
tartar. 

Dissolve eight pounds of honey in 15 gallons 
of boiling water ; strain and add the juice of 
eight pounds of red or white currants. Fer- 
ment for twenty-four hours, and then to every 
gallon of the liquor add a pound of sugar. 
Clarify with whites of eggs and cream-tartar 
{an oufice of the latter with the whites of two 
eggs) and bottle. This is the French way. 

IV. (Black Currants). — Take .--Currants ; 
loaf sugar ; cream-tartar ; yeast. 



CURRY 



CURTAINS 



135 



To a gallon of water allow a gallon of pick- 
ed currants ; squeeze the currants lightly, and 
then put both into a boiler, boil ten minutes, 
and strain off the liquor. Press the currants 
again, adding water to make up for loss by boil- 
ing, and strain it into the first liquor. Add to 
each gallon of the liquor two and a half pounds 
of loaf sugar and one ounce of cream-tartar ; 
bring the whole up to a temperature of 85°, and 
add a quarter of a pint of fresh yeast to every 
five gallons. Put it in a cask, where the long- 
er it is kept the better it will be. 

CURRY. — Almost any kind of meat can be 
made into curry, though chicken and veal are 
the best. Cut any fowl, rabbit, or game into 
joints suitable for serving; meat or fish into 
pieces. Put four ounces of butter into a stew- 
pan ; when it is melted, put in the meat or fish, 
with a couple of sliced onions, and fry over a 
brisk fire till the meat is nicely browned ; then 
stir in half a pint of broth, and let all simmer 
for twenty minutes. Put into a tea-cup one table- 
spoonful of curry-powder, the same of flour, and 
a teaspoonful of salt ; mix these together with 
a little cold water, and put them into the stew- 
pan, shaking all well together until the curry 
boils. Then take it off the fire, let it simmer 
by the side for twenty minutes longer, add a 
tablespoonful of melted butter and the juice of 
half a lemon, and give a final stir up. Serve hot, 
accompanied by boiled rice. 

In all curries the quantity of curry-powder 
used must depend first upon its age and 
strength ; and secondly, on the degree of spici- 
ness desired. Many persons who are fond of 
curry find it disagree with them when too much 
of the powder is used. {See Curry-Powder.) 

Dry Curry. — Skin and cut down a fowl into 
small joints, or two pounds of lean mutton into 
small thick cutlets ; rub them in a mixture of 
two tablepoonfuls of curry-powder, two of flour, 
and one teaspoonful of salt, till no more will 
adhere to them. Melt a heaping tablespoonful 
of butter in a stew-pan, and while it is boihng 
hot, put in the meat and brown it well and equal- 
ly, without allowing a morsel to be scorched ; the 
pan should be shaken vigorously every minute 
or two-, and the meat in it turned frequently. 
When the meat is done, lift it out, and throw 
into the stew-pan two or three layers of onions 
finely minced, and four or five eschalots, when 
these last are liked ; add a morsel of butter, if 
needful, and fry them until they begin to soften ; 
then add a quarter of a pint of gravy, broth, or 
boiling water, and a large acid apple, or two 
moderate sized ones, with the hearts of two or 
three lettuces, or of one hard cabbage, cut very 
fine {tomatoes or cucumbers, freecCfrom their 
seed, can be substituted for these when in sea- 
son^. Stew the whole slowly until it resembles 
a thick pulp, adding broth or water should 
it become too dry, put in the meat and simmer 
the whole gently from three-quarters of an hour 
to an hour. Serve hot. 

Egg Curry. — Boil six or eight fresh eggs 
quite hard, as for salad, and put them aside un- 
til they are cold. Mix together from two to 



three ounces of butter and three to fouf dessert- 
spoonfuls of curry-powder ; shake them in a 
stew-pan over a moderate fire for several min- 
utes, then throw in a couple of onions finely 
minced, and fry them until they are tolerably 
soft : pour to them by degrees from half to 
three-quarters of a pint of broth or gravy, 
and stew them slowly until they are reduced to 
a pulp ; mix smoothly a teaspoonful of cream 
with two teaspoonfuls of wheat or rice flour, 
stir them into the curry, and simmer the whole 
until the raw taste of the thickening is gone. 
Cut the eggs into half inch slices, heat them 
quite through in the curry without boiling 
them, and serve as hot as possible. 

CURRY-POWDER. — An East Indian pow- 
der much used in cooking. The prepared 
curry-powder can be bought in the shops, but 
is extensively adulterated with very pernicious 
ingredients, red lead being frequently detected 
in it. The quantity taken in curry-powder at a 
meal has been known to produce a serious ef- 
fect ; and for this reason it is a safer as well 
as more economical plan to make the powder 
at home. Take four ounces each of turmeric, 
coriander seed, and black pepper ; three ounces 
of fenugreek seed ; two ounces of ginger ; one 
ounce each of cummin seed and ground rice ; 
half an ounce each of cardamons and cayenne 
pepper. Pound them to a fine powder, put in 
a bottle, and keep tightly corked. 

CURTAINS. — Window-curtains should be 
selected in accordance with the general prin- 
ciples of taste laid down in the article on 
Decoration. According to their several pur- 
poses, and the nature of the apartments, the 
quality of the materials and the manner of 
hanging them must be determined. In this 
country particularly, window-curtains are ne- 
cessary to exclude the cold air which press- 
es in from the windows in winter when the 
fires are burning, however closely the sashes 
may be fitted. But there is another cause 
for this which is not generally thought of. 
The warm air in a room which always occu- 
pies the upper part near the ceihng, coming 
into contact with the glass, is cooled by it, and, 
descending immediately in consequence, dif- 
fuses itself through the lower part of the room 
and is felt as a cold current coming from the 
windows though no outside air may actually 
have entered them. Curtains check this partly 
by preventing the warm air from reaching the 
glass, and partly by turning the current side- 
ways. 

But though curtains help to keep air out, 
heavy ones may exclude it too much and also 
keep bad air in. They should therefore be 
hung on rings sliding on rods so that they can 
be drawn entirely away from the window. For 
the same reason, lambrequins are very objec- 
tionable, more so even than curtains as they 
have no opening in the centre, and are fixed 
obstacles to ventilating the upper part of the 
room where the air is most heated. _ As to 
taste, too, this arrangement is certainly inferior 
to others. The rod and rings are more "con-- 



136 



CUSTARDS 



structive " than the cornice, and the general 
effect conforms to the purpose in view. It is 
well that curtains are now so seldom used for 
shutting ventilation away from beds. In low- 
priced materials curtains are apt to be cheaper 
than lambrequins because the latter require 
more fringe. 

CUSTARDS. — The secret of preparing 
good custards lies in mixing the ingredients 
thoroughly together and cooking them over a 
slow fire ; without attention to the latter point 
especially it is impossible that custards should 
be delicate and smooth. To prevent boiling 
and scorching the milk, the sauce-pan should 
be placed over boiling water. A very small 
pinch of salt may be used to a quart of milk ; 
without it custard is likely to have a somewhat 
flat taste. 

Almond Custard. — Take: — Milk, i qt ; 
eggs, 6 ; white sugar, i teacupful ; almonds, %, 
lb ; rose-water, 4 tablespoonfuls ; powdered 
sugar, Yz teacupful ; extract of bitter almond, 
teaspoonful. 

Take a quart of milk {half cream is better), 
heat it to boiling, and add the beaten yolks of 
six eggs, and whites of four ; a teacupful of 
white sugar ; and half a pound of almonds, 
blanched and pounded to a paste with four 
tablespoonfuls of rose-water. Put it over boil- 
ing water and stir constantly till it thickens ; 
then remove and when nearly cold stir up and 
pour into cups. Make a mdringue with the 
whites of four eggs and half a teacupful of 
powdered sugar, flavored with one teaspoonful 
of extract of bitter almond, and heap upon 
each cup. 

Apple Custard. — Take: — Apples, 6 or 7 ; 
eggs, 10; milk, y/^ pints. 

Pare six or seven very acid apples, core them, 
and stew in about a teacupful of water until 
they begin to feel soft ; then put them in a pud- 
ding-dish and sugar them well. Beat up ten 
eggs with eight ounces of sugar, mix it with 
three and a half pints of milk, pour it over the 
apples, and bake about thirty minutes. 

Arrowroot Custard. — Take : — Arrowroot 
2 tablespoonfuls ; milk, i qt ; eggs, 3. 

Mix two tablespoonfuls of arrowroot in a 
teacupful of cold milk, and add three eggs well 
beaten ; boil a quart of milk and pour it while 
boiling upon the arrowroot and eggs, stirring 
continually ; then put it into a pitcher, set the 
pitcher into boiling water, and let it boil until 
it thickens. When done turn it into custard 
cups and set away to cool. 

Baked Custard.— I. Take : — Fresh milk 
I qt ; eggs, 8 ; sugar, 5 to 8 oz ; salt ; nutmeg, 
or lemon rind. 

Pour a quart of boiling milk on eight well 
beaten eggs ; strain the mixture through a fine 
sieve, and sweeten with from five to eight ounces 
of sugar according to taste, adding a pinch of 
salt ; pour the custard into a deep dish, grate 
nutmeg or lemon rind over the top, and bake it 
in a very slow oven from twenty to thirty min- 
utes, or longer should it not be firm in the 
centre. A well baked custard should be quite 



smooth when cut, and there should be no whey 
in the dish. 

II. (Richer). — Take :-Fresh milk, i}4 pts ; 
loaf sugar, 6 oz ; salt ; lemon, rind of i ; eggs, 
10; cream, }4 pt ; brandy, 3 or 4 teaspoonfuls. 

Boil together gently for five minutes a pint 
and a half of new milk, a pinch of salt, six 
ounces of loaf sugar, and the very thin rind of 
a lemon ; stir these while boiling hot, but very 
gradually, into the well beaten yolks of ten 
eggs and the whites of four ; strain the mix- 
ture, and add to it half a pint of rich cream. 
Let it cool, and then flavor it with three or four 
spoonfuls of brandy ; pour into small custard- 
cups, and bake in a slow oven from ten to 
twelve minutes. 

Chocolate Custard.— TlzZv. --Chocolate, i^ 
oz ; milk, one pt ; flavored with lemon peel or 
vanilla ; sugar, 2 oz ; eggs, 5. 

Dissolve an ounce and a half of the best 
chocolate in a wineglassful of warm water, and 
then boil it until it is perfectly smooth ; mix 
with it a pint of milk flavored strongly with 
lemon peel or vanilla, add two ounces of fine 
sugar, and when the whole boils, stir it into 
five well beaten eggs which have been strained. 
Put the custard into a jar or pitcher, set it 
into a pan of boiling water, and stir constantly 
until it is thick. When nearly cold, turn it into 
cups or a dish. This, as well as other custards, 
is very much finer when made with the yolks 
only of the eggs, of which the number must 
then be increased. Two ounces of chocolate, a 
pint of milk, half a pint of cream, two or three 
ounces of sugar, and the yolks of eight eggs, 
will make a very superior custard of this kind. 

Coffee Custard. — Take :-Cofi.ee (strong), i 
pt ; cream, i pt ; eggs, 8 ; white sugar, i }4 
teacupfuls. 

Make some strong fresh coffee, mix a pint 
of it with a pint of cream, put it into a sauce- 
pan and let it boil up once. Beat up eight 
eggs with a teacupful and a half of white 
sugar ; turn the coffee and cream boiling hot 
into this, stirring all the while. Put the whole 
into a jar or pitcher, set into boiling water, and 
stir it constantly until it thickens. Pour into 
custard-cups and set aside to cool. 

Cold custard. — Take:-A\monds, 2 oz; rose- 
water, orange-water, or vanilla, 2 teaspoonfuls ; 
loaf sugar, 2 oz; eggs, 8; milk and cream 
(mixed), I pt. 

Pound to a fine paste two ounces of blanched 
almonds, with two teaspoonfuls of rose or 
orange water, or vanilla, and two ounces of 
loaf sugar ; moisten with a little milk, and 
throw in a few grains of salt. When it becomes 
of the consistency of thick cream, take it out 
and beat it up with the yolks of eight eggs ; 
then gradually add a pint of half milk and 
cream. Set this over a very slow fire, stirring 
continually, until it thickens ; then remove, 
pour it into glasses, and set it away to cool. 
Half a dozen bitter almonds and a couple of 
bay-leaves may be used for flavoring instead of 
rose-water or vanilla. 

Currant Custard. — Take .--Currant-juice, i 



CUSTARDS 



CUTS 



137 



pt; sugar, lo oz; eggs, 8; cream, ^ pt; lem- 
on-juice, 2 tablespoonfuls. 

Mash the currants, strain off the juice, and 
boil in a pint of it ten ounces of sugar for 
three minutes ; take off the scum and pour 
the boiling juice on eight well-beaten eggs. 
Thicken the custard in a jar or pitcher set into 
a pan of boiling water, pour it out, and stir 
until nearly cold ; then add to it by degrees 
half a pint of cream, and two tablespoonfuls of 
strained lemon-juice. When the currants are 
very ripe omit one ounce of the sugar. 

Strawberries, cherries, red or white rasp- 
berries, or a mixture of any of these fruits, 
maybe used instead of currants in this receipt. 

French Custard. — 7<z^^ .--Fresh milk, i qt; 
loaf sugar ; peach or vanilla ; eggs, 8 ; marma- 
lade, or jelly. 

Take a quart of new milk, sweeten it to taste 
with loaf sugar, flavor it with peach or vanilla, 
and put it into a sauce-pan to boil ; beat the 
whites of eight eggs to a stiff froth, and when 
the milk boils put in the froth in spoonfuls until 
it hardens a little ; then dip them out carefully 
and lay them on a dish. When all the whites 
have been cooked, beat up the yolks and stir 
them into the boiling milk till it thickens ; turn 
this over the whites, and ornament with bits of 
marmalade or colored jelly. 

Fruit Custard. — Ta^e .--Juice of stewed 
fruit, I qt ; eggs, 8 ; milk, 3 pts ; vanilla or es- 
sence. 

Stew any kind of fruit almost to a jelly, 
strain off the juice, and when cool sweeten it. 
To a quart of this juice, add eight eggs well 
beaten and stirred into three pints of new milk ; 
flavor with spice or essences, and either boil in 
a jar set in boiling water till it thickens, or bake 
in cups or a deep dish for twenty minutes or 
half an hour. Eaten either hot or cold. 

Moulded Custard. — Take. --Eggs, 4; flour; 
milk; loaf sugar; essence. 

Mix the yolks of four eggs with enough flour 
to make a rather stiff past'e, then stir in the milk 
until it is of the consistency of cream ; sweet- 
en to taste with loaf sugar, flavor with any kind 
of essence, and mix in the whites of the four 
eggs beaten to a froth ; butter a mould well, 
fill it with the mixture till about two-thirds full ; 
and bake in a slow oven twenty minutes or half 
an hour. Serve as soon as done ; if intended 
to be served cold, omit the whites of the eggs. 

Quince Custard.— Made same as Apple. 

Rice Custard.— r^^^. --Fresh milk, 3 pts; 
flavored with lemon peel, mace, or cinnamon ; 
rice-flour, i tablespoonful ; eggs, yolks of 2 ; 
brandy, 2 tablespoonfuls. 

Boil three pints of new milk with enough 
lemon peel, mace, or cinnamon to flavor it 
rather strongly, and sweeten it to taste ; rub a 
large tablespoonful of rice-flour into half a cup- 
ful of cold milk, and mix with it the well-beaten 
yolks of two eggs ; dip out a cupful of the boil- 
ing milk, mix it with the cold, and then pour 
the whole in the boiling milk. Stir tlie custard 
continually until it thickens ; then pour into a 
dish, stir until nearly cold, and add two table- 



spoonfuls of brandy. Part cream will make 
this a nice custard. 

Tapioca Custard. — Tia:^^ .--Milk, I qt ; tap- 
ioca, 3 tablespoonfuls ; eggs 3 ; sugar, i coffee- 
cupful. 

Boil a quart of milk, and while boiling add 
three tablespoonfuls of tapioca in a pint of cold 
water, in which it should have been soaking 
for several hours previously, and a pinch of 
salt ; stir until it becomes boiling hot, and then 
pour it gradually upon the yolks of three eggs 
that have been beaten up with a coffee-cupful 
of sugar. Put it in a jar or pitcher, set in 
boiling water, and boil, stirring all the time 
until it thickens. Then turn into a dish and 
stir in gradually the whites of the eggs beaten 
to a stiff froth. Flavor to taste, and serve cold. 

Wine Cream Custard. — 7«^^ .--Cream, i 
pt ; powdered sugar ; wine ; rose-water, or es- 
sence. 

Take a pint of rich cream, sweeten it with 
powdered sugar, heat it over the fire, and stir 
in wine until it curdles ; then flavor with rose- 
water or other essence, and turn it into cups. 
This may be eaten either hot or cold ; but all 
custards if served hot should be very hot. 

CUTS. — As this form of accident is so con- 
stantly occurring in families, a supply of linen 
and long bandages, about two inches wide, 
some small soft sponges, needles and thread, 
and a roll of adhesive plaster, should always 
be kept where they can be got at immediately 
in case of emergency. In all cuts, before you 
begin to dress them, notice the way they bleed. 
If the blood is dark and flows regularly it may 
generally be stanched by an application of 
cold water and pressure ; but if it is of a 
bright scarlet color, and spurts out in jets, an 
artery is cut {see Bleeding), and, however 
small the wound, send for a doctor at once. 
If the cut has smooth clear edges, wash the 
part well with cold water, dry the skin, bring 
the edges of the wound together, and keep 
them there with strips of adhesive plaster. The 
plaster must be applied in strips of length and 
breadth proportioned to the size of the wound. 
Having first softened the plaster surface, one 
end of the strip should be closely apphed to 
the sound skin, at right angles to the cut, and 
at some distance from its edge; then the 
wound being closed by pressing together with 
the fingers, carry the strip along the line of 
contact and fix it to the sound skin at a hke 
distance on the other side of the cut. Each 
strip so applied should be parallel with the 
preceding ones, and when a sufficient number 
have been put on, place raw lint over the cut, 
and secure the whole with a bandage. In re- 
moving or changing the plasters, the ends 
should first be raised, and both lifted up from 
the outside towards the centre, so that no drag- 
ging may take place at the injured part. If the 
cut is ragged with loss of skin, it will not in all 
cases be "possible to unite its edges, and the 
best thing then to do is to apply pieces of 
folded Hnen dipped in cold water. 

If an artery be cut, which can be told as 



138 



CUTLERY 



CUTTING AND FITTING 



above explained, by the blood being scarlet- 
colored and coming out in jets, the bleeding 
should be arrested as soon as possible. Bleed- 
ing from small arteries is usually best con- 
trolled by bringing the cut surfaces together. 
A vessel of larger size may require tying. The 
doctor should therefore be summoned and 
meantime an attempt made to arrest the bleed- 
ing by compressing the tissues in which the 
artery lies imbedded. In this case, and in all 
cases ©f bad wounds that bleed much, tie ^ a 
tight bandage near and above the wotind, in- 
sert a stick in the bandage, and twist as tight 
as can be borne, or until the flow of blood 
perceptibly lessens. Cuts on the head cannot 
be dressed with plaster without shaving a large 
space, and in small injuries this is unnecessary. 
Cut the hair very close just around the wound ; 
and, after washing with cold water, apply a 
fold or two of wet linen and leave it there. If, 
however, it becomes painful, and there is head- 
ache and the face flushed, call in the doctor. 

CUTLERY. {See Knives, Forks, Razors, 
and Scissors.) 

CUTLET. {See Veal.) 

CUTTING AND FITTING.— The object 
of this article is to explain the general 
principles on which all garments are cut and 
fitted ; and to do this will be an easier matter 
than might at first be believed. Although 
fashion incessantly varies the forms and names 
of garments, these changes in reality are and 
must be but trivial. The general outlines will 
always remain the same, and these general out- 
lines, as we shall now proceed to show, are ob- 




tained by a series of measurements, exact, 
simple, and applicable to any garment and to 
any figure. 

These measurements might, indeed, for the 
perfect figure, be reduced to a single one, 
whence the others might be derived in accord- 
ance with the following rules : The size of the 
wrist is one half that of the neck ; that of the 
neck is equal to the length of the front of the 
waist, and is half the circumference of the 
waist ; the size of the waist is equal to the in- 
side length of the arm ; the length of the arm 
is equal to the breadth across the breast ; two- 
thirds of the size of the waist equals the length 
and breadth of the back ; one third of the size 
of the waist equals the height under the arm, 
etc. But in reality there exist very few figures 
exactly conformed to these rules, and patterns 
prepared for the ideal figure seldom prove 
satisfactory till they have undergone very con- 
siderable modifications. In accordance with 
the system of measurement we shall now ex- 




Fig. I. 



Fig 2. 

plain, every woman may cut not her own gar- 
ments from given patterns, but her own 
patterns, suited expressly to herself, and fittmg 
her with a grace and perfection attainable m no 
other way except by the work of a first-class 
dress-maker. 

In taking these measurements a tape measure 
is required, and a large card, upon which 
should be copied the specifications given be- 
low in small capitals, afterwards filling out the 
list by writing down each measurement as it is 
taken. 



\ CUTTING AND FITTING 

I. — Length of skirt, back (Fig. i). 
Measure from the waist at the middle b, to touch 
the floor, or longer as desired, allowing an extra 
half inch at top and- bottom. 

II. — Length of skirt, front (Fig. 2). 
Measure from the waist in front ^, to touch 
the floor, making the same allowance at top 
and bottom as for the back. 

III. — Length of waist in front (Fig. 
2). Place one end of the measure at the base 
of the neck a, and carry it down to the waist b. 
IV. — Breadth of the chest. Place one 
end of the measure at the right side of the chest, 
close to the arm, at the point d, and carry it, 
not too tightly drawn, across to the left arm e. 

V. — Length under the arm. Place the 
measure under the arm at the point e (Fig. i), 
and carry it down to the waist c. 

VI.— Size of the waist. Bring the tape 
around the waist evenly, neither tight nor 
loose, and reduce the measure by a scant half- 
inch, because the measurement is taken outside 
the clothes. 

VII. — First height of shoulder. (For 
the height of the shoulders two measurements 
must be taken to allow for the slope.) Place 
one end of the measure at the middle of the 
waist b. (Fig. 2), carry it to the point /at the 
neck, and thence down the back to the mid- 
dle point b (Fig. i). 

VIII. — Second height of shoulder. 
Place one end of the measure at the point c 
(Fig. 2), carry it straight up over the shoulder 
at the point g^ and down straight to the point 
c on the waist (Fig. i). 

IX. — Arm-size. Slip the measure under the 
arm, and meet it, without drawing it tightly, on 
the shoulder at the point h (Fig. i). 

X. — Length of arm. The measure is 
placed under the arm e (Fig. 2), and carried 
to the wrist i. (The outside measure of the 
arm is useless.) 

XI. — Size of wrist. This measure is 
taken loosely. 

XII. — Length of waist, back. This 
measure is taken from the nape of the neck a 
(Fig. i), to the waist at the point h. 

XIII. — Breadth of back. This measure 
is taken across the shoulder blades from e to d 
(Fig. i), and the tape should be drawn tightly. 
XIV. — Length of shoulder. Place one 
end of the measure at the base of the neck f 
(Fig. i), carry it down the slope of the 
shoulder t6g, and an inch further upon the arm. 
XV. — Size of neck. We draw the measure 
very loosely around the neck and meet it. For 
the neck we mark two measures in the follow- 
ing manner : We fold the measure in three 
parts and mark the number of inches in a 
third, and also, in a sixth. The use of these 
two minor measurements will be explained 
elsewhere. [See Waists.) 

We have now given the entire list of meas- 
urements necessary for making the pattern of 
a high-necked plain waist, which is the basis 
from which all other garments are designed. 
To this list we may add ofle more measure- 



CYPRESS VINE 



139 



ment, used in capes and some few other gar- 
ments : the breadth of shoulders (XV^L), 
that is to say, a measure taken around the 
whole figure including the arms, just below the 
shoulder-joint.* 

CYCLAMEN. — A pretty little flower, much 
cultivated in England, but too little known in 
this country. It is especially adapted for 
window culture, and will give more flowers 
with less trouble, and occupying less space, 
than almost any other member of the floral 
kingdom. It can be grown easily from seed, 
but the seedlings do not bloom until the third 
year, and it is best to buy the bulbs, which can 
be had of any florist at from fifty cents to one 
dollar each for the common varieties. Plant 
them about the latter part of November in a 
pot filled with rich loam, with a sprinkling of 
white sand ; a handful of charcoal broken into 
bits and thoroughly mixed with the soil will 
increase the size and brilliancy of the flowers. 
Good drainage is indispensable. Place the 
crown of the bulb just above the surface of the 
soil. Till the leaves are well grown, keep the 
plants where the sun will not fall directly upon 
them ; when the buds begin to rise on the foot 
stalks, remove to a sunny shelf, and they will 
soon show bloom. By shading, the duration 
of the flowers may be prolonged. When the 
bloom is past, gradually withhold water; the 
leaves will turn yellow, and the plants should 
be kept dry, in a state of rest, all summer.* 
Sometimes it is difficult to prevent the bulbs 
from shrivelHng up during the summer; to 
prevent this, the bulbs may be buried in the 
open ground until the middle of September, 
when they are found fresh, and in good con- 
dition for a start. There is one risk, however, 
in this latter method : mice are very fond of 
the bulbs and sometimes commit great havoc 
among them. 

The best of the common varieties are : C. 
Persicum, white tipped with purple ; C. Persi 
cum Album, pure white; and C. Punciatum. 
resembling Persicum. These flower from Janu. 
ary to March. There are several varieties 
which bloom from October to January; the 
best are : C. Europ(£um, pinkish purple ; C. 
Europceum Album, pure white ; and C. Hede- 
rafolium, rosy purple, and a very large splen- 
did variety. 

CYPRESS VINE. — One of the most 
delicate and beautiful of all the creepers. It 
is an annual, dying down each year; but it 
produces seed plentifully, and these may be 
put away in paper during the winter. In plant- 
ing, select some spot near a fence, arbor, or 
trellis, pulverize the soil, and rake it smooth, 
soak the seed for several hours in warm water, 
and then sow them over the prepared ground, 

* In the preparation of the series of articles on the making 
of garments of various descriptions, we have depended princi- 
pally upon a little book recently published in Paris, entitled 
" Methods de Coupe''' It is written by a woman, who has tested 
with her own hands the accuracy of eveiy pattern and every 
direction she gives ; and it has been so well received in France, 
that land universally recognized as the arbiter of good taste in 
dress, that it has even been introduced as a text book into, 
schools for girls in Paris, Strasburg, and other large cities. 



140 



DACE 



DAIRY 



pressing them in with the open hand. The 
green shoots will make their appearance in a 
few days, and from the time they are a foot 
high the vines should be carefully trained, and 
given plenty of water. No vine is more orna- 



mental than the Cypress for training over the 
windows or porticoes of houses ; for this pur- 
pose the seed should be sown thickly and nu- 
merous shoots carried up,, as the foliage is 
rather slight. 



D 



DACE. — A fish of the carp genus, usually 
found in clear running streams, and of a bright 
silvery color. It is considered a light, nutri- 
tious food, but is full of bones, and rarely, ex- 
cept in the case of the silver dace which is 
abundant in the great lakes, weighs as much 
as a pound. Dace are not often offered in the 
markets, being used by the fishermen as bait, 
but they are the usual reward of amateur ang- 
ling in the interior. The only way of preparing 
them for the table, is to roll them in bread- 
crumbs or Indian meal and fry them crisp in hot 
fat. The smaller kinds may be eaten bones and 
all, and have a very delicate and pleasant flavor. 

DAFFODIL. {See Narcissus.) 

DAHLIA. — Twenty years ago the growing 
of Dahlias amounted almost to a mania in Eng- 
land and the United States, but of late they 
have been nearly superseded by the gladiolus, 
hollyhock, and similar plants. They are rank, 
coarse, ill smelling flowers, too stiff for grace 
and unpleasant to handle, whose only recom- 
mendation is the extreme ease with which they 
can be cultivated. They will grow in almost 
any kind of soil excepting wet, heavy clay ; and 
require scarcely more attention than potatoes. 
For the finest blooms a clear, open location, well 
exposed to the sun is best. Dahlias may be 
grown from seeds, or the tubers may be bought 
from florists. In the former case, sow the seed 
early in the spring, in shallow boxes in a win- 
dow or hot bed, in a rich, light soil, with a good 
sprinkling of sand ; as soon as the third and 
fourth leaves are developed, plant them in two 
inch pots, or in boxes three inches apart, and 
when the frost is entirely out of the ground 
they may be transferred to the garden. If the 
finest blooms are desired, the side branches 
should all be pinched off and only three or 
four of the strongest shoots allowed to grow ; 
and on these the buds must be thinned out, 
leaving but three or four to come to perfection. 
Soapsuds make an excellent fertihzer for 
dahlias, and it is well to give the roots a 
thorough drenching with it at least once a week. 

The dv/arf or Povipone Dahlias are much 
prettier than the larger kind, and are very 
lovely for bouquets and vases. They grow 
about eighteen inches to two feet high, and 
the flowers are of a globular shape with each 
petal perfectly cupped and tinted. In cultiva- 
tion treat them exactly like other dahlias. 

To keep dahlias through the winter, dig up 
the tubers or bulbs just before the ground 
freezes, and place them in a dry outhouse for 
a day or two to dry off. Don't break the 



tubers apart, but cut the stem down to within 
a few inches of them and use it as a handle by 
which to lift them ; all the flowering stems of 
another season are situated on or near the 
point of junction between the tubers and the 
stem. When the tubers are so dry that the 
soil will all shake off, pack them in barrels or 
boxes and fill up with perfectly dry sand ; if 
the sand is at all damp they will rot. After 
they are packed, put them in a dry frost-proof 
cellar, and they will come out in March or 
April fresh and vigorous. In planting them, 
it is considered best to .set out the cluster of 
tubers, and after the .shoots have sprouted two 
or three inches, to separate them, leaving two 
shoots to a tuber. 

When planted out in the bed, put the root 
at least three inches under ground and water 
carefully, shading from the sun for two or three 
days. A stake must be inserted close by the 
stem when the tuber is planted, and as the 
shoots advance tie them to it with soft yarn ; if 
driven in after the plant is growing it may in- 
jure the roots. 

There are nearly two thousand varieties of 
the dahlia. Among the choicest are Alba 
Multiflora^-^wx^ white; AH Baba, d^f^ scar- 
let; Amazons, scarlet margins with yellow 
centre; America, white ground striped and 
splashed with rose crimson; Antiope, buff, 
shaded with carmine ; Colossus, large yellow ; 
Cartiation, buff, striped with crimson and 
lilac ; Duchess of Caiiibridge, pink, edged with 
crimson ; Gem, scarlet, tipped with white ; 
Glowing Coal, crimson-scarlet ; Hebe, white, 
edged with yellow and tipped with red ; Koh-i- 
noor, canary yellow ; Murillo, salmon, shaded 
with lilac and carmine ; Striata, lilac, striped 
with maroon ; Tiger, maroon-purple. 

Of Pompone Dahlias the choicest are : Alba 
Floribunda nana, pure white ; Artidt, magenta, 
with brown stripes and spots ; Black Diamond, 
maroon ; Exquisite, golden yellaw, tipped 
with scarlet ; Little IIe?man, cherry pink, 
tipped with white ; Little Kate, dark crimson ; 
LittlelVillie, deep pink ; Rachel, salmon, tipped 
with crimson ; and Rose of God, finest vermilion. 

DAIRY. — The dairy-house for the sake of 
convenience may be near the cow-house ; 
but care should be taken that it is not exposed 
to the effluvia of the cow-house or stables, as 
milk is a ready absorbent, and any bad odor 
will taint both the milk and the butter made 
from it. The dairy should also be so situated 
that it will be sheltered from the sun and wind 
as much as possible, an equable temperature 



DAIRY 



141 



being very important. In the summer time, 
should the temperature rise too high, it may 
easily be reduced by suspending a piece of ice 
at a considerable distance from the floor, or by 
hanging up a wet sheet where the air will strike 
upon it. If, during the winter, the cold should 
become too great, and the room is not provided 
with a stove, a barrel of hot water, closely 
stopped, or a few hot bricks placed on the 
floor, will prevent any bad effects. On no ac- 
count should a charcoal stove be used, as it is 
certain to impart a bad taste to the milk. 
The setting of milk in deep cans in cool water 
obviates much of the difficulty connected with 
the question of temperature, both in summer 
and in winter. Abundance of pure water is 
essential to a dairy ; if a well or spring can be 
had adjoining, it is desirable ; if not, there 
should be a cistern conveniently placed and 
kept well supplied ; likewise proper drains 
should be made for carrying off the water. 
Dampness does no harm, however, if the dairy 
is kept sweet and clean. 

The utensils of a Dairy comprise pails, 
sieves, pans, creaming dishes, churns, cheese- 
vats, ladders, and presses, with a thermometer 
which should be suspended in a prominent 
place. These utensils are often made of wood, 
which is apt to acquire a musty smell ; to pre- 
vent this the vessels should be scoured and 
scalded every time they are used, as the small- 
est drop of milk in them, or the least taint of 
acidity or mustiness, may spoil the next milk- 
ing. Earthen-ware vessels, when properly 
glazed, or glass utensils, are least troublesome ; 
but the lead, brass, copper, and tin vessels, al- 
though so generally used, are objectionable be- 
cause the acid contained in the milk that has 
long been exposed to the air combines with 
these metals and gives the milk a disagreeable 
flavor. Cast-iron vessels are equally objec- 
tionable, and for a similar reason. The com- 
mon brown earthen-ware pan, glazed on the 
inside, has been found to preserve the milk 
better and throw up more cream than any 
other ; iron pans, enamelled in the interior, also 
throw up cream very well ; and slate vessels 
would be unequalled but for their liability to 
come uncemented at the joints. Pans made of 
zinc are sometimes used, but are open to the 
same objection as other metals. Earthen-ware 
vessels are somewhat easier to keep clean. 
Or if metal vessels are kept clean they will do 
also. 

Other utensils which it is convenient to have 
in a dairy are the creatitojneter and lactometer. 
The lactometer is an instrument by which the 
specific gravity of milk or of any other fluid, is 
ascertained — that is to say, the quantity of 
water in it ; since the instrument really shows 
the difference between the milk and pure dis- 
tilled water. All milk is composed of water in 
which are suspended casein (or cheesy matter), 
butter, milk sugar, and various salts ; the pro- 
portion of water in loo parts being 87, and as 
the specific gravity is increased in a ratio to the 
quantity of these solid materials, so the number 



indicating it marks their amount. The instru- 
ment (see Fig. i.) consists of a 
glass tube, with a bulb at its 
lower extremity, in which is a 
little mercury so adjusted that 
it will make the mark o on the 
scale float exactly level with the 
surface of distilled water. When 
the jar accompanying it is nearly 
filled with the milk to be ex- 
amined (taking care to shake up 
the cream just before doing this), 
the instrument rises in propor- 
tion to the density, and by 
casting the eye along the surface 
of the milk, the number on the 
scale on a level with it will indi- 
cate the exact specific gravity. 
The ordinary specific gravity of 
new cow's milk, at 50 Fahren- 
heit, is said to be 1.031 ; but this 
is no test of the cream, which is very variable, 
and in many cases the specific gravity of the 
skim-milk is greater after skimming than be- 
fore. As a test for cz^r^, it is of great value; but 
for measuring the cream the best instrument 
for ordinary use is the lactometer of Sir Joseph 
Banks, now called creamofneter. Three or 





Fig. 2. Lactometer. 

four glass tubes, about a foot high, divided into 
100 parts, and graduated neartheir upper ends, 
are loosely supported in a wooden stand, and 
filled with the milk warm from the cow, one 
being devoted to each sample to be examined. 
The scale is generally extended down one-fifth 
of the tube, and this will almost always suffice; 
but in some cases the amount of cream is much 
greater than this. After standing twelve hours, 
the cream has all risen to the surface, and the 
figure opposite its lower edge marks the per- 
centage of cream to milk. Thus, supposing it 
stands at the figure 10, then there is 10 per 
cent, of cream ; or, if at 5, then only 5 per 
cent., and so on. The average of cream 
appears to be about 8 or 9 per cent, but in 
different breeds and pastures it will vary greatly 
from that amount. Provided with these two 
instruments, one of which measures the amount 
) of curd, and the other that of cream, the cow- 



142 



DAMASK 



DAPHNE 



keeper will be able to ascertain whether the 
cows which he has are worth keeping, or 
whether he shall make an attempt to better 
himself by getting rid of them, and purchasing 
others. 

DAMASK. — A twilled fabric invented and 
originally manufactured at Damascus, whence 
its name. It was made of silk, and was highly 
ornamented with figures of animals, bird's, 
fruits, and flowers, woven into the cloth. It is 
still distinguished by this method of ornament- 
ation, though the- material of the modern dam- 
ask is generally linen, and sometimes woollen, 
or even cotton, or a mixture of linen and cot- 
ton. Linen damask is very generally used for 
table-cloths and napkins, and some of them are 
very rich. As regards fineness of fabric and 
beauty of designs, the French damask is the 
best, but the Scotch is also excellent. Cotton 
damasks are made in imitation of the linen ; 
though they answer very well for many ordinary 
purposes, and are cheap ; they are not so durable 
as linen, and they require frequent bleaching 
to preserve their whiteness. 

Diaper is a variety of Damask, woven in the 
same way, but of smaller and simpler patterns ; 
it is made for inferior table-cloths, and for nap- 
kins, towels, and various other domestic pur- 
poses. Those called union are composed of 
linen and cotton ; and there are also cotton 
diapers. 

DAMSON. — Damsons are small black plums, 
which grow like others of their species on 
small trees, and are found in the markets gen- 
erally from about the middle of July to Decem- 
ber. They are soft to the touch when ripe. 

Cheese (Damson). — Boil the damsons in a 
stone jar placed in a sauce-pan of water. Pour 
off some of the juice, and to every two pounds 
of the fruit, after skimming and stoning it, 
weigh out half a pound of sugar. Set the 
fruit over the fire in a sauce-pan and boil quietly 
until it begins to look dry ; stir in the sugar 
and simmer slowly for two hours ; then boil it 
quickly half an hour or until it candies on the 
sides of the pan. Pour it into buttered pans 
or dishes, about an inch deep, so that it may 
cut firm, and set away to cool. By some per- 
sons, the plum-stones are cracked and the ker- 
nels boiled in the cheese. 

Preserves. (Damson.) {See Preserves.) 

Wine. (Damson.) — I. Take .--Damsons, 4 
galls; water, 5>^ galls; sugar, 15 lbs; crude 
tartar, 3 oz. 

Take four gallons of npe damsons, remove 
and break the stones of about one gallon for 
the flavor of the kernels ; press the fruit thor- 
oughly, pour upon it five and a half gallons of 
water, and strain the liquor ; let it stand twenty- 
four hours, and then add fifteen pounds of su- 
gar, with three ounces of crude tartar, and fer- 
ment ; after which it will be ready for bottling. 

11. Take .--Damsons, 8 lbs ; boiling water, 
I gall ; sugar, 3 lbs. 

Pour upon every eight pounds of damsons 
one gallon of boiling water, and let them stand 
three days, when strain off the liquor, and to 



every gallon add three pounds of raw sugar ; 
put it into a cask, and ferment with the bung 
loose ; then bung it closely, and in about four 
months it will be fine for bottling. 

DANDELION BEER. {See Beer.) 

DANDRUFF. — There is no permanent rem- 
edy for dandruff except frequent and regular 
brushing of the hair and keeping the head as 
clean as possible. The use of pomades or 
grease of any kind must be abandoned or kept 
within the most rigid limits ; and about once a 
week the head should be washed with clean 
cold water with a few drops of ammonia in it, 
rubbing the scalp vigorously with the fingers, 
and brushing the hair out dry. The hair- 
washes and other preparations sold for this 
purpose are generally worthless, and even 
when they afford temporary relief, they always 
aggravate the evil in the end. The cause of 
dandruff is the failure of the skin on the scalp 
to perform its functions properly, usually on 
account of the pores being stopped up with 
grease ; and the only remedy is to bring the 
skin back to its normal condition, which can be 
done only by cleanliness, local friction, and at- 
tention to the general health. 

DAPHNE. ^ — There are numerous varieties 
of this plant, of which the best known is the 
Daphne odorata, one of the few old-fashioned 
plants which the modern rage for novelties has 
not succeeded in driving out. It is an ever- 
green shrub, attaining the height of about four 
feet, and remarkable for its long, dark, glossy 
green leaves, and its branches of fragrant 
white flowers ; as an indoor or green-house 
plant it is unsurpassed, flourishing and bloom- 
ing in situations where most other plants would 
dwindle and die. The cultivation of the green- 
house varieties is almost identical with that of 
the camellia {see Camellia); the same tem- 
perature will do for both. The plants should 
have plenty of room, and the pots must be well 
drained. Potting should generally be done in 
the fall, about the time the plants are housed, 
when as much of the old soil should be removed 
as is possible without disturbing the roots. 

The chief varieties are : Daphne odorata, 
which may be obtained of any florist at trifling 
expense, and is propagated from cuttings with 
great ease. It is the most desirable variety, 
from its season of blooming, which is from De- 
cember till March, according to the degree of 
heat given. There is also a variety with red 
flowers, known as D. Odorata rubra. 

Daphne hybrida is a pretty evergreen shrub, 
with purple flowers, which it produces very 
freely, and which are extremely fragrant. It 
blooms at all seasons of the year, but espe- 
cially from January to April ; and should be 
taken indoors in winter. 

D. Mezeretim is a hardy plant, has white or 
purple flowers closely attached to the shoots, 
and is the earliest blooming shrub of our gar- 
dens, the blossoms appearing in the beginning 
of April before the leaves expand. This 
species, notwithstanding its beauty, has a dan- 
gerous reputation, as the berries which it bears 



DATE 



DECORATION 



143 



are highly poisonous. Its juice is acid, and 
produces inflammation and even blisters upon 
the skin. 

DATE. — The fruit of the date-palm, which 
grows on the margin of the great sandy deserts 
in the north of Africa, and forms the principal 
food of the inhabitants. They are brought 
here in a preserved state, pressed into a sort 
of matting called trails, and when sold by re- 
tail, are cut or broken into lumps and sold by 
the pound. The fresh fruit arrives here in 
January, February and March. In buying, 
choose those which are large, softest, not much 
wrinkled, and of a reddish-yellow color on the 
outside. Dates have a laxative effect when 
eaten in any quantity, and are thought to give 
tone to a weak stomach. Soaked in water and 
sweetened, they make a pleasant and refresh- 
ing drink. 

DECANTING. — To insure the clearness of 
wine for serving is an important point. At 
rest on the shelf or in the bin, it will be clear 
enough ; but removing it, drawing the cork, 
and decanting it, very often render it turbid. 
Be careful not to shake or disturb the crust 
when moving the bottles about or drawing the 
cork, particularly in the case of port wine. 
Never decant wine without a wine-strainer, 
with a bit of fine cambric in it to prevent the 
crust and fragments of cork from going into 
the decanter. In decanting port wine or any 
other red wine, do not drain it too near the 
bottom ; there are generally half a wineglass 
of thick dregs in each bottle, which ought not 
to be drawn out. In white wines there is not 
much settling; pour it out, however, very 
slowly, and raise the bottle up gradually, watch- 
ing for any indication of dregs or foreign mat- 
ter. No wine should be decanted in a hurry. 

DECAY. {See Decomposition.) 

DECOCTION. — A decoction is the extrac- 
tion by water of certain principles in vegetable 
substances by subjecting them to boiling for 
some time ; the well-known beverage, barley- 
water, for instance, is a decoction of barley. 
Many parts of vegetables are not soluble in 
water, as the resinous parts ; but others, such 
as mucilage, are entirely so. Decoctions, from 
the nature of their constituents, very soon fer- 
ment and spoil ; for this reason they should be 
prepared in small quantities only as they are 
wanted, and never used, especially in summer, 
over forty-eight hours after they are made. 

DECOMPOSITION.— In hot weather fresh 
meat is very likely to become tainted if kept 
any length of time, no matter how many pre- 
cautions are taken. The decomposition may 
be arrested and the taint (if slight) removed by 
sprinkling a little soda over the meat before 
cooking. The taint may also be removed by 
covering the meat with common charcoal for a 
few hours ; or by putting a few pieces of char- 
coal into the water in which the meat is boiled. 
DECORATION, with special reference to 
walls, floors and furniture. 

|@='(This article attempts to treat only the 
aesthetic side of furnishing. For the practical 



side, see Carpets, Furniture, House, 
Paper Hangings, and Pictures). 

The man of average cultivation or much 
more than average cultivation cannot be ex- 
pected to have an understanding of the rather 
complicated problems of artistic arrangement 
of things in his house, unless he has given 
special attention, and even some hard study to 
the subject. The knowledge of these things 
he must acquire by gradual accumulation. He 
cannot expect to succeed entirely at once. If 
he will keep himself open to the influence of 
that which he distinctly recognizes to be good, 
always preferring to err on the side of simplicity, 
he may be sure of the eventual attainment of a 
measurable success. 

It is hard to point out even the most general 
principles of this kind ; for the danger is that 
we shall be too dogmatic, and shut the door 
on the ten thousand little things that shall some 
day be waiting to come in. A work of art 
of any kind cannot be entirely the product of 
calculation ; the resulfof certain determinations 
of the mind. The painter has a clear idea of 
the picture he is to paint ; but in putting it on 
the canvas, he sees a thousand beauties he had 
not thought of before. He himself is long in 
arriving at such rules as he ever learns. After 
going on for years finding out the uselessness 
of much that he had before esteemed, he begins 
to see his way and to do good work. Before 
"seeing the way," one not only cannot do good 
work, but cannot understand over well if an- 
other tries to tell him how; moreover the best 
part of what the artist learns must always be 
unspoken, and very often not even arranged in 
definite thoughts in his own mind. 

Within a very few years increasing attention 
has been given to these things. England has 
been the stronghold of certain reformers. 
Books have been written pointing out the 
necessity of principles in art, and callingatten- 
tion to many important truths long neglected; 
and designs have been made, a few good, and 
many in the various stages of badness. The 
authors of these books and designs, in their 
intentness on general truths, have left un- 
noticed those equally important truths, harder 
to seize and name, which have to do with the 
graces of art. Of course, this in a great 
measure was unavoidable. 

Angularity. — One would think, to see some 
of the books, that anything but angularity of 
form and figure, hard decisiveness of line, and 
crude "flat" color,— too much beauty, in fact, 
— must be incompatible with truth and honesty 
in artistic furniture or decoration. The angular 
is good, but so are many other things. Man 
is not all elbows. Curves badly designed, 
curves out of place, or an excessive propor- 
tion of curves are not good. Indulging in a 
flourishing penmanship of art, because we wish 
to do something and do not wish to take the 
trouble to think, is worse than the severest 
angularity. A box is a very useful thing, and 
properly an angular thing. But why, in the 
modern English fashion, be so eager to call 



lU 



DECORATION 



attention to its straight lines and corners, as 
if they were the only virtues it possessed ? 
Every one has opportunities to see how the 
Japanese deal with it. They give the edge a 
delicate quarter bead ; or simply soften it off 
with a scarcely noticeable rounding. They 
sometimes give a gentle bending inward to 
the corners ; and their decoration of its surface 
is entirely independent of its structural form. 
They do not allow it to deny its construction, 
but they make it so modest that it shall not 
loudly proclaim its accidents of being. 

By much the larger proportion of things 
that we put in our houses are primarily con- 
structed for other purposes than to merely 
please the eye. Flowing lines are beautiful; 
and the curve has infinite possibilities, while 
the straight line is the most limited of things : 
but the limited is a large part of all things ; 
and infinite possibilities have ruined more 
things than shapes and forms. 

Honest construction. — The first point, as 
has been insisted on so much of late, is honesty 
of structure to begin with. If a chair, being 
made of pieces of wood joined together, gives 
way at some of the joints after a few months, 
let one see that it was not perfectly framed, 
and reject the mode. If the chair of his great 
grandfather's day (probably despised for its 
simple unpretending character), after years of 
use is still strong, let him believe in the strength 
which endures. Let him also see that the most 
beautifully designed chair is the one with 
nothing but its most necessary parts, beauti- 
fuUy treated. (And his great-grandfather's 
chair is probably the most beautiful one he 
has in his house.) Let him see that parts 
shaped in violation of the nature of the wood 
they are made from, are weaknesses, and that 
ornaments fastened on are only incumbrances. 
If to decorate is to adorn, it is as well to re- 
member that only to the worthy thing belongs 
the worthy adornment. When we decorate a 
sham, our decoration becomes but a sham 
added to a sham. The greatest beauty of 
design in anything for use, is always the result 
of the beautiful treatment of the proper struc- 
tural parts, and not the result of added or 
complicated parts. For a good thing to per- 
fectly and fully show its nature and char- 
acter, is for it to show beauty. And, for 
it to contradict or conceal its character, and 
pretend to the character of another thing, is for 
it to be unbeautiful. It may have certain mis- 
placed external aids, beautiful in themselves, 
sometimes so beautiful as to lead us to over- 
look many faults. But models, where beautiful 
parts conceal many faults, are not to be deliber- 
ately chosen. Indifference to having things 
good and honest in themselves inevitably 
brings bad art. Always, in the long run, ac- 
cording to the worth of the thing treated, will 
be the skill devoted to its treatment. 

Bad construction illustrated. — In the 
room where this is written there is an oak 
chair, probably intended by the cabinet-maker 
for a dining-room chair. It is better than a 



large proportion of tnose to be found in the 
shops. The front, back, and side-rails forming 
the edges of the seat, are very fairly framed 
into the four uprights ; two forming the front 
legs, and two forming the back legs and side 
pieces of the back. All this is good. But, as 
the back inclines, and the back legs turn out- 
ward, to preserve its balance, the two long up- 
rights cannot be straight pieces ; they are, 
therefore, sawed to a curve, instead of being 
bent, or selected pieces of a natural curve. 
In consequence of this the grain of the wood 
crosses the back legs diagonally, and one of 
them has split near the foot, and been clum- 
sily mended. The legs taper towards the 
feet, where they are bored to receive castors, 
instead of being fitted into a sheath or cup of 
the castor in the old-fashioned way. The con- 
sequence is that two of the legs are split by 
the leverage of the shaft of the castor. To 
prevent the chair from being " common," and 
at the same time to avoid the expenditure of 
time-consuming labor, the top and bottom rails 
of the back are sawed out in rather extraordi- 
nary shapes, necessarily thick and clumsy, to 
jDrevent the pattern from weakening them too 
much. Then, in an attempt to lessen some of 
the clumsiness of the top of the back, a small 
moulding has been worked and glued on ; and, 
as it was impossible that the direction of grain 
of wood in the moulding and in the back of 
the chair should everywhere agree, one part of 
the moulding has split off. The uprights of 
the back are finished with ornamental knobs; 
but instead of the knobs being simply the ends 
of the pieces of wood finished — because a 
finished end is more agreeable to look at than 
a squarely-cut off butt — they are turned and 
fastened on with dowel pins and glue. One 
of them can be taken out and put in like the 
stopper of a vinegar cruet (perhaps with a not 
unsimilar result). The whole is covered with 
a thick varnish, which injures the color of the 
wood, looks extremely disagreeable wherever 
there is an edge, and renders every bruise and 
scratch doubly conspicuous. 

Elaboration not necessarily ornamental. 
— We are too much in the habit of supposing 
that any way which is something more than 
the most simple way of treating a thing, must 
be an ornamental way. The knobs and mould- 
ings and sawed figures in the chair just spoken 
of, could only seem ornamental to the most 
uncultivated taste and perception. The sawed 
work is not bad because it is sawed, but be- 
cause, being sawed, it cannot be both delicate 
and strong, firm enough for its place. The help- 
ing the shape by a sort of cornice moulding 
stuck on, even if it were finely designed and 
worked, would not be good. Nothing, how- 
ever rich or rare, can be ornament unless 
it adorns ; and it cannot adorn unless it has 
some kind of pertinence to that to which it 
lends itself. 

There is such a thing as fatiguing elaboration. 
So we sometimes find that simple, good tex- 
tures — such as are produced by threads in 



DECORATION 



145 



stuffs, or grain in woods — are better in certain 
places than ornamental detail ; that they give 
neither vacancy nor sufificient fulness to de- 
prive better things of their importance. 

The kind of elaboration which is necessary 
for full expression, and the kind of finish which 
is not finish for the sake of finish, are good. 
But that elaboration and finish which is inde- 
pendent of thought and labor, such as the 
smoothness, evenness, and accurate spacings 
and markings given by the help of machinery, 
must always be contrary to the spirit of art. 
A smooth texture and a feeble expression, a 
mathematical precision of form and no life, a 
perfect evenness ot color and no subtleties of 
contrast, often go together. Over-accuracy in 
small things, and too perfect a finish to corres- 
pond to the worth of a thing, gives us the idea 
of time wasted. The best artist never grudges 
labor so long as he can add import ; but when 
he can only add polish, he stops. When he 
has a fine curve to draw, he does it with all the 
accuracy required for its subtle expression ; 
but when he has to draw a circle or straight 
line, which do not have so particular an expres- 
sion, he does not always do it with so great 
accuracy. 

Oonsiflt the relations of things. — In furnish- 
ing and decorating an ordinary dwelling- 
house, we must consider the occupants' style 
of living, and the sizes, aspects, and uses of the 
room ; richness or simplicity, and scale and 
number of parts, warmth or coolness of color- 
ing, and fitness of ideas of association being 
therein observed. A leading idea should con- 
trol the management of each room, and of all 
the rooms, as a whole ; the different rooms 
contrasting, but the transition from one to 
another being rather a " mild surprise " to the 
senses than to the mind. The absurd idea of 
one style for the drawing-room, another style 
for the dining-room, another for the library, 
savors rather of the curiosity of the museum 
than of the quietness of home ; and shows a 
disposition to regard art as a pretty plaything, 
rather than the outward expression of a digni- 
fied life. 

The indiscriminate mingling of variously 
constructed and fashioned pieces of furniture, 
of the ordinary patterns of Brussels carpets 
and Eastern rugs, and of incongruous orna- 
mental articles and pictures, is fatal to style 
and dignity. 

Fashion no guide. — Fashion and caprice in 
these things cannot be a help but only a hin- 
drance. For beauty is of a nature unchang- 
ing. Of course as our perception of beauty 
may be growing, the love of newness is not 
inconsistent. Beauty is infinite and each new 
phase that we discover may well give us 
pleasure. But the love of novelty for its own 
sake, change because it is change, is fatal to 
•the health of art. 

There is no help to be found in some of 
the new affectations in furniture and decora- 
tion — the decoration mannered, prosy, and 
harsh in its contrasts, and the furniture, made 
lo 



often in protest of some former sham or ab- 
surdity, with a little common sense, and a vast 
deal of bad taste, having for strong points 
clumsiness of structure, and ornamentation of 
restless chamfering and coarse mouldings, 
with badly painted tiles let into the wood- 
work, drawing the eye by a harsh spot of color 
and disagreeable contrast of texture to a de- 
sign composed without thought or feeling. 
There must be contrast, but it must be har- 
monized contrast. Good contrast is that which 
makes us recognize the qualities of things by 
showing us how they differ with their neigh- 
bors. Harsh contrasts, discords, may become 
parts of the finest harmonies by having that 
which shall lead to them and from them. If the 
discord is such that it shall catch the eye sud- 
denly, and require it to make a jump to get 
away again, it is, instead of a simple discord, 
a false note ; a fragment of another key. The 
discord should be the bringing together of 
two things so harshly opposed, that by them- 
selves no kind of similarity can be discovered; 
but which by their accompaniments lead to the 
perception of a common ground of meeting. 

Flat decoration. — One of the doctrines of 
the advocates of this decoration and furniture 
is " only flat decoration for walls." They say, 
"common sense points to the fact, that as a 
wall represents the flat surface of a solid ma- 
terial which forms part of the construction of 
a house, it should be decorated after a manner 
which will neither belie its flatness or solidity. 
For this reason all shaded ornaments and pat- 
terns, which by their arrangement of color 
give an appearance of relief, should be strictly 
avoided. Where ornamental forms are intro- 
duced they should be treated in a conventional 
manner, — /. e., drawn in pure outline, and fill- 
ed in with flat color ; never rounded." But, 
surely, the great painters did not teach us so to 
believe. A picture painted on a movable ma- 
hogany panel, or on an immovable stone wall, 
is painted ontheflatsurfaceof asolid material, 
and in no way belies it. The truth is, that imi- 
tative painting on the flat surface of a thing, 
of structural features sometimes belottgingto 
that thing {^or instance, mouldings, pilasters, 
panels and niches on a flat wall), does belie its 
flatness. But the making use of that flat sur- 
face for the display of painted ornament or 
story, in no way belies flatness or solidity or 
any other structural condition. The true art- 
ist would prefer not to have equal outline or 
flat unmodulated color. Flatness is related to 
vacancy, and art as well as nature abhors a 
void. We often accept willingly flatness of 
pattern. But such patterns according to the 
measure of their goodness, will be varied with 
passages of minutely broken parts and com- 
paratively solid masses, in a general way sug- 
gesting to the eye at a short distance, a play 
of light and shade and color. 

Conventionalism should not be sought for 
its own sake, as if it were a thing excellent in 
itself; when its only virtue is to stand for some- 
thing better. If conventionalism means, as 



146 



DECORATION 



it seems to with many modern designers, that 
where a natural form is bounded by a curved 
line, it shall be represented by a straight; 
where it has a rounded projection, it shall be 
represented by an angular one ; and where 
color is changing, it shall be crude and flat, 
then it is not good. Such a conventionalism is' 
a kind of grotesqueness without beauty or 
meaning. The grotesque in art is that peculiar, 
humorous conjunction of things which is set 
beside serious things for relaxation, and for 
contrast; it is always significant of something, 
and not a mere contradiction of the beautiful. 
It is always humorous, for it is an attempt to 
say that for which no accepted phrases have 
been discovered. 

Right conventionalism is a kind of short- 
hand, really used because of the embarrass- 
ment of our riches, used because we must 
sacrifice enormously more than we keep, giv- 
ing hints and suggestions of a wealth that we 
never show. But it, at least in its old forms, 
is a thing that we hope to use less of to-morrow 
than to-day. 

A GOOD WAY TO BEGIN WORK. 

It is always best to begin by first consider- 
ing those things in which we have least room 
for choice. On account of the change and 
want of aim of " fashion," the least variety is 
to be found in floor covering, and the greatest 
in wall covering — supposing we use wall paper, 
which is almost always the best where econ- 
omy is a motive. 

The first step, it is true, that time dictates 
in preparing the house, is to color the wood- 
work and the walls. But this being done to 
suit the taste as far as it alone is concerned, 
trouble is apt to come in finding carpets to cor- 
respond. As the accessible variety of wall paper 
and tints for painting is so much greater than 
that of upholstery and carpets, it is best to 
select the carpets at the very outset. Then it 
will be comparatively easy to find appropriate 
furniture and, that being selected, to find appro- 
priate wall pajjcr and to paint appropriately, 
if the woodwork is to be painted. 

One strong argument in favor of unpainted 
woodwork, especially as compared with that 
painted white, is that it will tone in with a 
variably greater variety of carpets and wall 
decorations. White woodwork is constant- 
ly bringing to grief the best laid plans of 
wall and floor decoration. Pretty papers and 
carpets have more than once been sent home 
and even put in place before it has been real- 
ized that the uncompromising woodwork must 
kill them. 

FLOORS, AND FLOOR COVERING. 

For the floor of the entrance or hall, encaus- 
tic tiles are best in durability as well as in 
appearance. Combinations of these may be 
made good and harmonious in color if we 
will but be simple and not attempt display. 



Marble tiling, to be satisfactory, must be ex- 
pensive, and demands the exercise of great 
taste and judgment. Next to tiling, hard wood, 
paint, or even oil cloth, if it can be had of 
moderately fair design and color, should be 
preferred to carpet. 

For other floors in the house a large rug, 
reaching to within about a foot and a half or two 
feet of the walls, is, for many reasons, to be 
preferred to a nailed-down carpet covering the 
entire floor. This may be made up of carpet- 
ing sold by the yard, with a border ; or may be 
an Eastern carpet in one piece, which of 
course is very greatly to be preferred. For 
the floor itself hard wood is best. If it have a 
border, one of simple design should be chosen, 
avoiding conspicuous spots or zig-zags, or 
sharply contrasted stripes. If it is to be paint- 
ed, the carpet, furniture and wall paper should 
first be chosen, then the floor color agreeably 
to all of these, contrasting not too strongly 
with the carpet, or the effect of breadth over 
the whole floor may be destroyed. 

In the carpet the contrasts and colors should 
generally be not too striking, because it is the 
thing most under our eyes when they often need 
rest. If the texture be a deep velvety pile, the 
contrasts of lights and darks and separate 
colors may be greater. Generally, it had bet- 
ter be inclined to the dark and warm in tone. 
Aggravating lessons in geometry, as well as 
roses, scroll, and pictures, as subjects of design 
in carpet are things to be tabooed. There are 
to be found carpets of fair design copied from 
Eastern patterns, but their over preciseness 
and painful small accuracies, and their inferior- 
ity of color, leaves them far behind a genuine 
Oriental carpet, with its slight pleasing way- 
wardness. 

MOVABLE FURNITURE. 

In choosing furniture, consider the colors of 
the woods. Against a wall of dull red, black, 
or dark oak, will generally look well. And 
with a wall of sage or olive-green, greenish- 
blue, or dull grey-blue ; mahogany, oak, walnut 
or rosewood. Yellow with black and some 
kinds of grey always looks well. Rarely 
choose any wood lighter than oak. If the 
articles be of somewhat light construction they 
may contrast rather strongly with the floor 
and walls ; if large enough to make important 
masses in the room the contrast should not be 
of a sudden and violent kind. The introduc- 
tion of black in furniture is often of great 
value. Generally take the plainest and most 
reasonably constructed furniture that you can 
find. Avoid in it extravagance of shape ; curv- 
ing fronts to drawers, things made to imitate 
drawers and doors, and lumps of carving glued 
on. Do not lightly and without consideration 
choose adjustable chairs, extension tables, and 
shutting beds. Avoid having a piece of fur- 
niture which is not quite sufficient for its uses, 
and so has to be eked out by other insufiicient 
things : such as two or three inconvenient 
make-shifts for book-cases, cabinets, etc. 



DECORATION 



U7 



Upholstery of chairs and sofas may con- 
trast with floors or walls ; there can be no 
rule ; sometimes one plan will be found the best 
and sometimes the other ; or a partial adoption 
of both. The larger the pattern in furniture, 
coverings and curtains, the less conspicuous 
should be their colors. 

Curtains may generally harmonize pretty 
closely with the furniture upholstery. They 
may often be somewhat more lively, as, in the 
day time the light does not fall on the surface 
the most in view, and at night they should 
not break too suddenly the general effect of 
pictures and furniture against the walls. They 
should always be suspended from rings on 
rods. Lace curtains, except where mere 
screens against the inside of the window sash, 
are not to be commended on any account, to 
say the least. 

WALL-PAPER, WALLS, AND CEILINGS. 

The carpets being selected, httle difficulty 
need be experienced in properly coloring the 
walls and woodwork. 

Woodwork. — (See above under " A good 
way to begin work.") 

If the doors and casings in a room be of 
hard wood, their color is of importance in con- 
nection with floor and walls. If they be paint- 
ed, the colors may well be of such tones as 
will more strongly contrast with the walls than 
with the carpet, the doors themselves being 
more nearly like the wall than the casings 
around them are. 

Ceilings cannot be left plain unbroken sur- 
faces of white plaster without sacrificing the 
harmony of the room, if the least degree of 
fulness of coloring be attempted in other 
parts. They may generally be made light- 
er than the side walls, and slightly contrast- 
ing with them. With the walls very light, they 
may be darker. In any case they should 
have as much gentle variation of light and 
dark and color as may be. A fashion of 
showing the construction of the floors and 
roofs above, is a thing to be wished by all de- 
corators. It would add more to the effect of 
the rooms we live in than one-half of what we 
now take pains to do to them. 

Papers. — In choosing wall papers avoid 
over brightness, display, sharpness, or angular- 
ity of pattern. It is not necessary that they 
should be precisely and accurately " made out." 
It is as well that something should be left to 
the imagination. Prefer those of a general tone 
of warm grey, and but few detached broken 
colors ; or creamy ochreish yellows ; or sage, 
citron, olive and tea greens ; or dusky reds. 
Blues are the hardest to choose ; they should 
generally incline to green or greenish-grey, or 
to the quality of blue of some kinds of old 
china. Rarely or never choose stripes, what- 
ever your friends may say about their making 
your rooms look higher. Sometimes they do 
so, and sometimes they do exactly the reverse 
by calling attention to the shortness of the 



space they have to run. They more often than 
not produce a bad effect on a wall. 

Dado. — It will often be of advantage to have 
a plinth or dado around the room varying in 
height from one and a half to four feet, of a 
color of about the same degree of force as the 
color of the floor. It should be plainer in 
design than the wall above ; and may often 
with advantage be absolutely plain. The hne 
is invaluable where there are pictures. Dadoes 
to passages and staircases, where there is no 
wainscot, are good on account of their useful- 
ness as well as appearance. They had best 
be made of paper of such a pattern that 
where a piece is rubbed off, another may be 
substituted. It is not always the case, as is 
constantly said, that a wainscot or dado makes 
a low room look lower ; for it is interrupted by 
doors and windows and large pieces of furni- 
ture. Entire blankness and absence of detail 
never make a space look larger. Detail is 
always good when sufficiently subordinated, 
and always bad when obtrusive. Simple treat- 
ment is what is required, that the space shall 
not be so cut up as to leave no leading feature. 
Border. — A border or frieze does often 
make a room look lower. It arrests the eye at 
a lower point than the top of the wall, and by 
its uninterrupted line carries it around the 
room at that level. 

Pictures. — The walls may properly be 
allowed to furnish the key for the whole 
scheme of color ; and not necessarily namable 
color as red, green or blue ; but hue, tone, 
what might be called atmosphere. In pro- 
portion to the absence of pictures walls re- 
quire a strong and elaborated treatment. If 
slight water-color drawings or prints are to 
be hung on them, walls should be light and 
delicate. If oil paintings are to be hung, the 
particular pictures should be consulted,^ as far 
as possible, beforehand. It is often said that 
water-color, and oil-color pictures, or either of 
them with photographs and prints, should 
never be hung together on the same wall. But 
it is as well not to make quite so broad a rule. 
We have seen a water-color drawing which erred 
by having too much of one particular color 
hung with good effect by a cool brown Liber 
Studiorum print, and a photograph of a paint- 
ing made to glow with a warm hue by a neigh- 
boring blue. 

ADAPTING THE NEW TO THE OLD. 

* 

If in taking a house you fall heir to 
modes of coloring in paper, wood work or 
paint, which are not good, but which you never- 
theless must keep, modify your further furnish- 
ing so far as you can so as to be in harmony 
with them, even though in itself it is not what 
you would prefer. But, if the forms oi wood 
work, plaster ornaments, etc., be bad,_ do not 
let that influence your further choice. It 
mi^ht lead to consistency, but it would be a 
consistencv of ugliness. Supposing the wood 



148 



DECORATION 



work to be painted white, after the common 
fashion, any system of full coloring for the 
further decorating and furnishing should not be 
attempted. With large spaces of white paint 
or smooth white plastering opposed to large 
spaces of coloring you cannot have a harmo- 
nious result. 

REMARKS ON THE VARIOUS ROOMS. 

The hall it is well to have rather darker 
than the rooms opening from it, on account of 
the agreeable contrast. It is also well to have 
the coloring quiet and grave, without strong 
contrasts and never rising to positive color. 
The ornamental detail should be very restrain- 
ed, it being rather out of order in a place 
which is principally a passage, and more tell- 
ing if kept for other parts of the house. Large 
comparatively blank spaces are in place here, 
the incidents of light and shade often giving 
enough variation. 

Dining-room. — Probably the fashion of 
having a dining-room sober and rather dark 
in its coloring, came about because of the 
table and those around it being the chief 
point of interest, and also of the pleasant con- 
trast of the drawing room. 

When the sideboard is simple in its lines 
and dark and subdued in color, whatever is put 
on it will show to better advantage. 

The drawing-room of course should be 
somewhat light and gay ; fitted to be bright at 
night and should not have any point of con- 
centration, or be too decided in any way. 

The library, where it is a library, should 
contain nothing to distract the attention ; the 
ornament and coloring should be of the most 
quiet kind. Instead of things being so arranged 
as to appeal to the eye, the eye should have to 
search for things. 

Bed-rooms ought to be airy and rather light. 
But curtains hung so as to be easily drawn to 
shut off draughts and light are desirable. If 
the furniture is to be bought in the shops, the 
plainer it is the better. 

GENERAL ADVICE. 

Advice in these things can only be of 
value so long as we remember that it is but 
advice, but the occasion would probably be 
rare when we could not let the following have 
the force of rules. 

North rooms, South rooms, poorly or fully 
lighted rooms, whatever their uses may be, 
should have some attention given to making 
their coloring suit their respective quantities 
and qualities of light. In doing this, that 
kind of contrast between different rooms in a 
house which is always pleasant, is secured. 

Adhere as much as possible to simplicity of 
general arrangement. Avoid on the one hand 
meagreness, and on the other hand what is 
perhaps worse, overcrowding. 

Beware of " hard-finish " and white paint, 



and all large spaces of plain white in carpet, 
curtains, walls, or ceilings ; of brilliant things, 
large mirrors, displays of gilding and marble, 
and elaborate cast metal gas-fixtures, long lace 
curtains, sentimental statuettes and bronzes, 
and an undue abundance of small " artistic " 
things. 

It is better not to indulge a fondness for 
that useless order of things which includes 
"tidies," "mats," worsted embroideries, etc. 
As we usually see them they are harsh, spots 
of white or inharmonious vivid color, and not 
untrying to the nerves of those who do not feel 
at liberty to treat them with disrespect, and 
who do not like " fancy things," although they 
may care for art. 

Finally, do not be disturbed if your house be 
simple, inexpensive, and unpretending; but do 
be disturbed if it be "cheap;" that is, if it be 
evidently not a fine thing, while it makes a 
shallow pretence by being dressed up in the 
fashion of a fine thing. Extreme simplicity 
and great dignity may go together — dignity 
and cheapness never. Remember that a quiet 
harmony of colors, and the simplest mode of 
arranging simple things, are always good, and 
that brilliance, abundance, and extravagance, 
are always, at least, near the perilous borders 
of no-land. 

A FEW GENERAL RULES CONCERNING THE 
DECORATIVE ARTS. 

I. A work of art of any kind is produced 
only when the desirableness of it is seen. It 
is the working out of an idea, and not the 
result of an ambition of making something 
new to attract attention and win applause. 

II. Any work of the decorative arts should 
possess fitness, proportion, harmony, and sug- 
gestiveness. Its fitness, proportion, and har- 
mony should not only concern the relations of 
the various parts to each other, but should 
refer to the occasion of its being, and also to 
everything that accompanies it. Its sugges- 
tiveness should be of that kind which hints at 
what is, for the occasion, most agreeable to the 
mind and eye. Hence, in all good periods, 
forms from the vegetable and animal worlds, 
and the creations of the ideal world, as accept- 
ed at the time, have been favorite subjects ; 
while very small portions of angular or crude 
geometric forms have been allowed. 

III. Whatever quality or condition of beau- 
ty may be agreeable to the eye in nature, will 
be agreeable to the eye when made use of in 
art. 

IV. The primary reason for the decoration 
of surfaces in variously disposed masses or 
hues or colors, is to obtain an agreeable modu- 
lation, tending to gently disturb a sense of 
entire smoothness or flatness. 

V. General arrangements should first be 
cared for, divisions and subdivisions being less 
and less marked and prominent. The treat- 
ment never leading the eye to the study of 
separate parts before recognition of the whole. 



DECORATION 



DEPILATORIES 



119 



VI. Lines should be associated and have 
relationship to each other, and sympathies of 
tendency, radiating, or converging. 

VII. Large, flat spaces, unbroken by lines, 
figures, forms, or colors, or by play of light 
and shade, should be avoided, especially where 
there is firmness or smoothness of texture. 

VOL Purely geometric figures or arrange- 
ments of figures can never be satisfactory un- 
less partially obscured by passages of varying 
light and shade, interrupted by inferior figures 
or forms, or dominated by superior figures or 
forms. 

IX. Mathematical precision in drawing geo- 
metric figures, or in patterns of regular or 
formal design, should generally be avoided. 

X. The conventionalization of forms of 
objects should never be sought for its own 
sake. It should be of the kind made necessary 
by the restrictions of place and means. 

XI. Ornamental figures and forms may be 
subject to geometrical arrangements. But all 
large styles depart more or less widely from 
any too evident geometric arrangement of 
parts. (In ornament, as in verse, a rhythm 
which is too obvious is less agreeable than 
too great irregularity.) 

XII. Material should never be so treated as 
to assert itself for what it is not. 

XIII. Imitations of textures, or accidents 
of surfaces, used to give to one thing the 
character of another thing — such as the imita- 
ting of the figured grain of woods and the 
veins of marble-should be strictly avoided; 
unless used as mere hints in a pictorial arrange- 
ment. 

XIV. Decoration should be applied to neces- 
sary constructions ; but unnecessary construc- 
tions, or imitations of constructions, should 
never be used as decorative in themselves, or 
as a means of introducing decoration. 

XV. In ornamenting a construction, its ex- 
pression of use or purpose as shown by its 
general form, should not be disguised or con- 
tradicted. 

XVI. Positive color should be avoided in 
large uninterrupted spaces, and confined to 
small portions. In fine coloring, the prevailing 
hue is made up of divisions and subdivisions 
of more decided colors. 

XVII. Any arrangement or composition of 
colors which is to stand by itself, and not de- 
pend upon association with other compositions, 
cannot be good if in it any one of the three 
primary colors is wanting. 

XVIII. Color may be applied independent- 
ly of details of form ; as in tHe spots and stripes 
of many flowers and animals. 

XIX. Gold should generally be contrasted 
with dark color. In many cases where bright- 
ness, delicacy and breadth are desired, it may 
be contrasted with light hues or colors. 

XX. Patterns on a ground of different color, 
or degree of intensity of the same color, if 
much broken or minute in parts, or of extreme 
simplicity, may be used without outline or 
edging. 



XXI. Patterns on a ground of a different 
color may be treated with an outline or bound- 
ary of color, contrasting with pattern or ground 
or both. (Examples in Eastern Rugs.) 

XXII. Patterns in gold on colored ground, 
may generally be separated from the ground 
by an outline of darker color or black. 

XXIII. Patterns in color on a gold ground, 
may generally be separated from the ground 
by an outline of a darker color or black. 

It should also be remembered that no«coiors 
in themselves give the appearance of nearness 
or distance (as has been asserted), thus be- 
ing more fitted for the nearer or farther parts 
of a form. We are in the habit of associat- 
ing blueness with distance because of the blue- 
ness of the sky and distant mountains ; but 
the same mountains look no nearer when pur- 
ple ; and the sky, although much bluer at the 
zenith, looks no farther off than at the horizon. 
The red and yellow in the sunset sky appear 
farther off than the blue shirt of the laborer 
returning home from his work. And in the 
house a blue plum appears no farther off than 
a yellow one when with it in a dish. Any color 
may be made to advance in the sense of being 
made to attract the eye, or may be made re- 
tiring in the sense of being "quiet." Hues 
or colors depend on their treatment or associa- 
tions, for their prominence or quietness. 

DEER. {See Venison.) 

DENTIFRICE. {See Teeth.) 

DEODORIZERS. — These might be appro- 
priately classed with disinfectants, but as 
there are times when unpleasant smells may 
require neutralizing which do not necessarily 
point to impurities or infection, we will mention 
here a few methods of deodorizing a room. It 
must not be supposed, however, that when the 
cause of a disagreeable odor comes from im- 
pure or injurious matters the danger can be 
averted by simply masking the smell. Coffee 
is one of the best of deodorizers. The best 
mode of using it is to dry the raw coffee, pound 
it in a mortar, and then roast the powder on a 
moderately heated iron plate until it assumes 
a dark brown tint ; then lay it in a plate in the 
room to be sweetened. Sugar also is excel- 
lent, and a convenient way of using it is to 
bring in a few coals on a shovel and sprinkle the 
sugar over them, renewing it as the smoke 
ceases to rise. Brown paper or cotton rags burnt 
in a room are unsurpa^ed as a deodorizer, and 
purify vitiated air very quickly. For a sick- 
room nothing is more grateful and refreshing 
than to sprinkle cologne around the bed and 
curtains and to blow it through the air of the 
chamber. A pail of clear water set in a newly- 
'painted room will remove the smell of paint, 
and modify the danger of sleeping in newly- 
painted rooms. Vinegar boiled with myrrh or 
camphor and sprinkled in a sick-room is also 
very pleasant and purifying. {See Disinfect- 
ants.) 

DEPILATORIES. — Substances for remov- 
ing superfluous hairs. Many of them are of- 
fered in the drug-stores, but they are mostly 



150 



DEWBERRY 



DIAPHORETICS 



unsafe to use, as they have either an arsenical 
or caustic basis and are consequently highly 
injurious to the skin. Plucking out the hair 
by the roots is by far the best way of removing 
it. In cases where this will not answer, the 
following depilatory is less objectionable than 
any that can be bought already prepared : 
Take of best lime, slaked, one pound ; orpi- 
ment in powder, one ounce ; mix and keep in a 
well corked bottle. To apply, mix a small 
portion with water to the consistence of cream, 
spread it upon the hair and let it remain about 
five minutes, or till it begins to burn the skin ; 
then remove it with an ivory or bone paper- 
knife, wash the part with water, and apply a 
little cold cream. 

DEWBERRY.— A variety of the blackberry 
sometimes called running blackberry, because 
of its growing on a vine which creeps along 
the surface of the ground. Dewberries ripen 
rather earlier than blackberries, and in sunny 
situations attain a large size and have a pecu- 
liarly sweet and agreeable flavor, approaching 
that of the strawberry more nearly than any 
other fruit. They are seldom found in the 
market in any quantity, as they are not often 
plentiful enough to pay for systematic picking. 
They may be prepared for the table in any of 
the ways that blackberries are. 

DIABETES. — A disease in which a very 
large quantity of saccharine water is passed 
daily by the patient, accompanied by great 
thirst and general debility. It may attack 
people of any age, but is far more fatal, and 
runs a much more rapid course in children and 
young people than adults or those of advanced 
age ; amongst the latter a small quantity of 
sugar in the urine may be present at one time 
and absent at another, and these cases seldom 
need cause much anxiety. It is at present an 
unsettled question whether the liver or the 
blood is at fault in this disease, nor is it yet 
determined what part the nervous system may 
play in it, but it is an ascertained fact that 
irritation in certain parts of the brain will pro- 
duce sugar in the urine. The kidneys are not 
the seat of mischief : they merely allow the 
sugary urine to pass, and, in doing so, suffer 
more or less in the process. 

The most marked symptoms of diabetes are 
great thirst, dryness of skin, and passing an 
immense quantity of urine. The thirst is so 
great that the patient is- always wanting some 
liquid, and will drink as much as four or five 
gallons of water a day in some cases ; two or 
three gallons is a very common amount. Since 
they pass so much urine, the other tissues of 
the body are dryer than usual ; the skin feds 
dry and harsh, and an eruption is liable to 
break out, and sometimes boils form ; the nails 
are dry and often chip in consequence. The 
bowels are confined, and the motions are gen- 
erally firm and dry. The urine is light in color, 
but rnuch heavier than usual, from the great 
quantity of sugar present in it. Sugar may be 
detected in the urine thus : Take equal quan- 
tities of urine and liquor potassae in a test tube, 



add a few drops of a solution of sulphate of 
copper, and boil; the solution will become 
first yellow, then orange, and finally of a deep 
horse-chestnut color. The test requires, how- 
ever, to be carefully performed by a person 
possessing some experience in animal chemis- 
try — to produce a satisfactory result. The 
appetite is generally good, and even excessive 
in some cases ; the tongue is often dry and red, 
and the temperature rather lower than usual ; 
the patient sleeps well, and the general health 
may go on for a considerable time without be- 
ing seriously impaired. In the course of time 
there is more or less wasting of the body, and 
a liability to disease of the lungs. Cataract is 
also a by no means uncommon complication. 
In young people and children, the disease often 
runs a very rapid course, and may result fatally 
in six weeks after the commencement of the 
symptoms ; much more commonly it lasts for 
two or three years, and, in old people, sugar 
may occasionally appear in the urine without 
any harm resulting. Death often takes place 
by suppression of the urine, followed by stupor, 
coma, and perhaps convulsions; or it may 
occur through general exhaustion, or from 
disease of the lungs. 

Treatment. — The treatment of diabetes 
generally consists in confining the patient to 
a diet from which all starchy or saccharine 
articles of food are, as far as possible, exclud- 
ed. Brown bread, bran biscuits, meat, green 
vegetables, milk, etc., may be allowed, but 
ordinary bread, sugar, rice, potatoes, etc., are 
prohibited. Peisistence in this plan is often 
followed by much relief to the patient, causing 
him to gain strength, lessening his thirst and 
the quantity of urine, but it will not cure him ; 
nor, at present, is any remedy known that can 
eradicate the disease. Since there is so much 
thirst, a large amount of water must be given 
— as much, in fact as the patient likes. Raw 
meat has been found to be beneficial in some 
cases. Various preparations, as diabetic-bread 
and diabetic-biscuit, have been recommended ; 
but few can continue their use long, as they 
eventually tire of keeping to a restricted diet. 

There are certain cases in which persons 
pass a very large quantity of urine without hav- 
ing any sugar in it : they are then said t® be suf- 
fering from polyuria, or diabetes insipidus, a 
disease of much less importance. 

DIAPER. {See Damask.) 

DIAPHORETICS. — Medicines which in- 
crease the insensible prespiration. When they 
act very energetically, they are called sudor- 
ifics. During the administration of these reme- 
dies it is essential that the surface of the body 
should be kept warm ; and for this purpose 
wool is generally employed, in the shape of 
flannel or blankets. Exposure to cold air is 
also to be avoided, as well as the drinking of 
cold water, though this in strong constitutions is 
often productive of extensive perspiration, and 
many people take a glass of cold water at 
night before going to bed, with the view of 
producing perspiration when they feel that 



DIARRHOEA 



151 



they have taken cold. It is a bad plan, in 
order to check excessive sweating, to expose 
the body while bathed in it, or while clothed 
with wet garments ; but these should at once 
be removed and dry ones of a hghter character 
put on, or else the clothing should very gradu- 
ally be made lighter, avoiding any sudden 
transition which would be hkely to produce a 
chill. 

(a.) Antimonial powder (compound powder 
of antimony), 5 grains taken at night, with a 
basin of warm gruel or white wine whey. 

((^.) Dover's powder (compound powder of 
ipecacuanha), 5 to 10 grains, taken at night. 

(c.) Liquor of acetate of ammonia, i ounce ; 
ipecacuanha wine, 10 minims; sweet spirit of 
nitre, 20 minims. Mix, and give at night, or 
oftener if necessary. 

DIARRHOEjA. — Diarrhoea is in many cases 
a symptom rather than a disease. It is present 
in typhoid fever, is a frequent accompaniment of 
consumption and diabetes, and is produced by 
a number of pathological conditions which only 
a physician can understand. In its slight and 
more common forms, it is caused by indigesti- 
ble food, or ordinary food eaten in too great 
quantity ; by change of diet ; by violent men- 
tal emotions : and by sudden changes of tem- 
perature, wet feet, and exposure to cold. 
When indigestion of food is the cause of 
diarrhoea, the purging itself soon removes the 
disturbing substance and the diarrhoea com- 
monly ceases ; if this should not be the case, a 
moderate dose of laudanum (fifteen to twenty 
drops) will generally prove effective. When 
the diarrhoea is produced by exposure to the 
cold or the like, a mild farinaceous diet, rest 
in bed, mustard over the bowels, and the use 
of laudanum or laudanum and brandy in small 
doses, may be had recourse to ; in such cases 
too, the patient is generally benefited by wear- 
ing a flannel bandage around the abdomen, 
which may be retained after the attack to 
prevent recurrence. 

In Children. — When diarrhoea appears in 
infants and young children, as it is very apt to 
do in the summer, it should be attended to at 
once ; not always stopped immediately, since 
it is often an effort of nature to throw off 
something which is better away, but if allowed 
to run on it speedily becomes dangerous. The 
question as to when the discharges from the 
bowels should be stopped and when they 
should be assisted is a very difficult one to 
decide ; but the following observations may be 
useful to mothers. 

A diarrhoea which consists simply of stools 
rather loose, but otherwise of natural appear- 
ance is the least important ; when they become 
quite watery, and their several ingredients 
seem separate and unmixed, it is more grave. 
Very watery discharges, especially when ac- 
companied by vomiting, are symptoms which 
should cause a physician to be summoned at 
once. When the disease attacks a nursing 
infant, the discharges should be carefully ex- 
amined, and if curds appear in them the prob- 



ability is that they are caused by over-feed- 
ing ; the child nurses too long, or too often ; 
and the stomach is only able to curdle the 
milk without digesting it completely. The 
remedy for this condition is to nurse the child 
at longer intervals, or to give it less at a time : 
and it is most probable that both a longer 
interval and a smaller quantity are needed. 
The sleeping room should be well ventilated, 
and at least once every day the child should be 
carried out to walk, or ride, so as to be 
thoroughly refreshed. If these dietary meas- 
ures do not check the diarrhoea, resort may be 
had to chalk mixture (containing no paregoric), 
of which from half to a whole teaspoonful may 
be given once every two or three hours. This 
medicine should always be shaken up before a 
dose of it is poured out : and, as during warm 
weather it is apt to ferment, about half an ounce 
of the compound tincture of cardamons should 
be added to every four ounces. With this, 
the dose of the mixture may be made a little 
smaller. 

When diarrhoea occurs in a child that is nursed 
in part and fed in part, it should at once be con- 
fined to its mother's or nurse's milk, even at 
the expense of some drain upon her. This 
will by itself generally effect a cure, but the 
chalk mixture may also be used if necessary. 

If the child is weaned a milder diet must be 
tried. Its milk must be boiled and skimmed, 
and perhaps reduced in quantity. If this ap- 
pear still to irritate the bowels, it may be well 
to try changing to the milk of another cow, and 
when all these fail, or sooner if convenient, a 
nurse should be found. The child that is 
weaned, however, very soon forgets how to 
nu^se and cannot be made to take the nipple ; 
in such a case the nurse's milk should be 
drawn and fed to the patient. 

For a child that is older and that has 
become accustomed to a solid diet, the same 
general treatment must be adopted. All sub- 
stances which are not easily digested should be 
at once abandoned. The diet must be limited 
both as to its elements and its quantity. Rice 
is one of the articles most frequently resorted 
to, and when it is rehshed is beneficial ; 
but it often becomes disagreeable to the child 
if given continuously, and other articles can be 
selected which are equally useful. The sweet 
potato is one of these, but it should be 
thoroughly ripe and perfectly sound, and 
should never be given even to a healthy child 
if it has become in part black or has the smell 
of rose-water. Arrowroot is good, and so are 
very light wheat bread, and crackers. Still, 
the child will often require something besides 
this diet. Boiled milk is a very good addition to 
it ; and when this does not agree with the 
stomach, soups, broths, chicken and beef-tea, 
may be resorted to, and these may be thicken- 
ed with rice. When any meat is used, the fat 
should be carefully skimmed off. As to med- 
icines, a child that has been accustomed to a 
solid diet must be treated much as younger 
children, though somewhat more powerful 



152 



DIET 



astringents may be added to the chalk mix- 
ture. Dr. Parker recommends this combina- 
tion : Take of chalk mixture three ounces ; of 
tincture of kino (or catechu), half an ounce ; of 
compound tincture of cardamoms, half an 
ounce. Of this, the dose for a child two years 
old is one teaspoonful every two hours, if the 
discharges are very frequent, and at longer in- 
tervals if not— care being taken to shake the 
bottle before pouring out the medicine. It is 
well, however, to give first a teaspoonful of 
syrup of rhubarb, especially if any undigested 
food has been passed. 

A child with diarrhoea should be limited in 
its use of cold drinks and especially of water, 
of which it will drink large quantities and 
very frequently if allowed to do so. Its milk 
should be given as warm as it will bear it, as 
should its broth and other liquids, except in 
very rare cases when vomiting is excessive. 
But it is not necessary to compel the child to 
suffer from thirst ; little pieces of broken ice 
may be put in its mouth occasionally. The 
child should be kept as quiet as possible, and 
if the diarrhoea is very bad should be compelled 
to lie upon its back. If there is any pain, the 
bowels should be covered with hot flannels ; and 
while a diarrhoea lasts, and longer, a piece of 
flannel should be worn over the bowels, and if 
the child is delicate a flannel shirt should be 
put on. When vomiting and diarrhoea com- 
mence at the same time, there is reason to 
apprehend that the disease is cholera infan- 
tum, and a physician should be summoned at 
once. {See Cholera Infantum.) 

DIET. — The subject of food in general, and 
of the nature and constitution of the different 
substances used by man for that purpose, is 
discussed in the article on Food ; under the 
present head, we shall only treat of the cir- 
cumstances under which special kinds of food 
are most favorable to health, of the relation of 
food to bodily conditions, and of those general 
principles by which man must be guided if he 
would provide himself with those classes of 
food most appropriate for his special purposes. 
Even when thus divided off, the subject of 
diet is so comprehensive, so complex, and so 
constantly modified by circumstances, that we 
cannot even attempt, in a work like this, a 
systematic survey of it, but must confine our- 
selves to such detached hints as appear to us 
capable of being turned at once to practical 
use. 

The simplest and most powerful agent in 
determining the character of our food is 
climate. In cold countries the requirements 
of man are very different from those felt in 
the tropics, and from the Esquimaux, who, 
according to Dr. Kane, will drink ten or twelve 
gallons of train-oil in a day, to the Peruvians 
and other tropical nations for whom the ba- 
nana sufficies for nearly all seasons of the year, 
there are various gradations in which the con- 
stituents of the diet bear a very direct relation 
to the prevailing temperature. In cold regions, 
man requires such food as not only sup- 



plies him with nutriment, but also with heat ; 
as oil, butter, fat, sugar, and other substances 
in which carbonaceous elements predominate. 
In warm countries, on the contrary, it is one 
of the most essential conditions of good 
health, that his food should be as little heat- 
ing as possible. In our own climate this law 
holds good as between summer and winter ; 
in the latter season, plenty of lean meat, butter, 
potatoes, eggs, sugar, and similar food, are 
necessary to keep the animal machine in work- 
ing order, while in summer the diet should 
consist chiefly of those substances of which 
nitrogenous or flesh forming elements compose 
the largest part. There is probably no other 
cause so fruitful in producing the dyspepsia 
and similar diseases of which Americans, as a 
nation, are in a peculiar degree the victims as 
the neglect to harmonize the food with the 
changing seasons. {See Food.) 

The next most important question in deter- 
mining the character of our food is that of its 
digestibility ; and it must be borne in mind that 
the nutritive value and the digestibihty of food 
have no necessary relation to each other. A 
food may have a very high nutritive value and 
yet be so indigestible as to be practically use- 
less, and on the other hand it may be very 
easily digested and worth little or nothing for 
nutrition. No general rules as to the digesti- 
bility of different foods can be laid down, be- 
cause it depends very largely upon individual 
habits and conditions. Persons who have a 
strong constitution, and take sufficient exer- 
cise, may eat almost anything with apparent 
impunity ; but young children who are forming 
their constitutions, and persons who are deli- 
cate, and who take but little exercise, are very 
dependent for health upon a proper selection 
of food. As a general thing, when the body 
requires a given kind of diet, specially demand- 
ed by brain, lungs, or muscles, the appetite 
will crave that food until the necessary amount 
is secured. If the food in which the needed 
aliment abounds be not supplied, other food 
will be taken in larger quantities than needed 
until that amount is gained ; for all kinds of 
food have supplies for every part of the body, 
though in different proportions. Thus, for 
example, if the muscles are worked a great 
deal, food in which nitrogen abounds is re- 
quired, and the appetite will remain unap- 
peased until the requisite amount of nitrogen is 
secured. Should food be taken which has 
not the requisite quantity, the consequence 
will be that the vital powers will be needlessly 
taxed to throw off the excess. There are 
other kinds of food which are not only nour- 
ishing but stimulating, so that they quicken 
the functions of the organs on which they 
operate ; the condiments used in cookery, 
such as pepper, mustard, and spices, are of 
this nature. There are certain states of the 
system in which these stimulants may be ben- 
eficial and even necessary; but persons in per- 
fect health, and especially young children, 
never receive any benefit from such food, and 



DIET 



153 



just in proportion as condiments operate to 
quicken the action of the internal organs, they 
tend to wear down their powers. The same 
observation applies to the use of wines and 
other spirituous and malt liquors. Under cer- 
tain conditions where the vital powers are low, 
they are a highly important addition to ordi- 
nary food ; but when used habitually, their 
temporary stimulation is gained at the expense 
of permanently weakening the digestive or- 
gans which finally refuse to perform their work 
without some such external aid. It follows 
from the above that the requirements of food 
in each individual case may in a normal condi- 
tion of things be left to the individual taste ; 
and also that much more attention than the 
subject usually obtains should be given to the 
selection and preparation of such food as is 
indicated by experience to be most appropriate. 

With regard to the quantity of food to be 
taken, this also depends upon individual con- 
ditions and cannot be formed into a general 
rule. Where hunger is felt it may safely be 
assumed that when the hunger has been fully 
appeased sufficient food has entered the stom- 
ach. Such are the circumstances of civilized 
life,, however, that in most cases hunger is a 
very rare sensation ; and food is prepared and 
eaten more to gratify the palate than because 
nature demands it. On this point each indi- 
vidual is and must be a law unto himself, and 
we can only point out the consequences of 
eating a larger quantity than is needed. When 
too great a supply of food is put into the 
stomach, the gastric juice only dissolves that 
portion of it which the wants of the system 
demand ; most of the remainder is ejected in 
an unprepared state, the absorbents take por- 
tions of it into the circulatory system, and all 
the various bodily functions dependent on the 
blood are thus gradually and imperceptibly in- 
jured. Very often, indeed, intemperance in 
eating produces immediate results, such as 
colic, headache, indigestion, and vertigo ; but 
the more common result is the gradual under- 
mining of all parts of the human frame, short- 
ening life by thus weakening the constitution. 

As to the hours of meals these are of no 
importance provided they are regular and come 
at regular intervals. This interval should 
never be less than five hours, as the stomach 
requires at least three hours to digest its sup- 
ply of food, and not less than two hours 
should be allowed it for rest and recuperation. 

Eating between meals is a most injurious 
practice, the source in children, especially, of 
endless stomachic disorders. It may be well 
to give children under ten years of age one 
more meal during the day than the three which 
adults in this country usually allow them- 
selves ; but these, as we have said above, 
should be at regular times and with stated in- 
tervals between them. 

After taking a full meal, it is very important 
to health that no great bodily or mental exer- 
tion be made till the labor of digestion is over. 
Muscular exertion draws the blood to the mus. 



cles, and brain work draws it to the head ; and 
in consequence of this the stomach loses 
the supply which is necessary to it when per- 
forming its office, the adequate supply of 
gastric juice is not afforded, and indigestion is 
the result. The heaviness which is felt after 
a full meal is a sure indication of the need of 
quiet ; when the meal is moderate, the process 
of digestion will be sufficiently advanced in an 
hour, or an hour and a half, to justify the re- 
sumption of bodily or mental labor. This 
completes what we have to say on the subject 
of diet in general, but under special circum- 
stances there are some suggestions which may 
be found useful. Such is the case with those 
who lead a sedentary life, and on this point we 
can not do better than quote from Dr. Edward 
Smith's excellent treatise on Practical Dietary. 

" Persons of sedentary habits," he says, 
"are liable to become either thin, feeble, and 
dyspeptic, or else to grow stout, according as 
the original state of their constitution and the 
attendant conditions of life have led. A cer- 
tain amount of exertion is necessary to enable 
a person to breathe the pure air in sufficient 
quantity to carry on the function of digestion 
and other vital actions in activity and vigor ; 
and when this is not obtained, the quantity of 
food which is supplied must be reduced, or 
fulness of the system, or derangement of di- 
gestion and general health, will follow. If the 
reduction of the appetite for, and the digestion 
of, food be greater than the necessary wants 
of the system can tolerate, the former result 
occurs ; but if they remain good, the system 
will, at least for a time, store up fat within it, 
and the person will become stout. When 
with the sedentary occupation, the person be- 
comes thin, feeble, and dyspeptic, it is neces- 
sary that the same plan should be adopted 
which has been laid down for persons of feeble 
constitution, viz : the frequent supplies of small 
quantities of hot food; and, as animal food 
excites the vital actions more than vegetable 
food, it should be preferred, and the quantity 
of it gradually increased. There are many in 
this state who hesitate to take milk and eggs, 
from having felt uncomfortable after their use ; 
but they should be encouraged to take them, 
nevertheless, in the form which is least disa- 
greeable to their taste. Milk in puddings or 
with chocolate, and eggs fried or made into 
herb omelettes, are the best forms of food. 
Meat is not objected to ; but care in its cook- 
ing and flavoring, and variety of meat (exclud- 
ing pork, and perhaps veal and fish), are 
necessary. Meat should be eaten twice a day ; 
and, at the tea meal, potted meats, ham or 
eggs, should be added. Curries are valuable, 
and all the rest should be hot, fresh, and 
seasoned. So long as the sedentary habit is 
continued, the total quantity of food which is 
supplied should be less than would be requis- 
ite under other conditions; but it should be 
largely of an animal nature." 

The diet of brain-workers, whether literary, 
professional, or business men, should be ex- 



154 



DIGESTION 



ceptionally liberal and nutritious, because labor 
of the brain exliausts the system to a greater 
extent than labor of the muscles. Professor 
Houghton estimates that three hours of hard 
study cause more important changes of tissue 
than a whole day of muscular labor. The ex- 
haustion that one feels after hard study, or 
any kind of strenuous brain-work, is the result 
of waste of tissue, and this waste can only be 
repaired by food. For this reason bram- 
workers as a class require more nutriment 
than any other workers; but owing to their 
sedentary habits and consequent lack of ex- 
ercise their powers of digestion are more lim- 
ited, and it is necessary to select such articles 
of food as contain the requisite aliment in the 
largest relative proportions. It has long been 
one of the pet theories of popular physiology 
that fish and other substances composed largely 
of phosphorus are the most appropriate diet 
for brain-workers ; but it is now conceded 
that the best food for the brain is that which 
best nourishes the whole body with special 
reference to the nervous system, viz : fat and 
lean meat, eggs, milk, and the cereals. Dis- 
cussing this point in a recent treatise, Dr. 
George M. Beard says : " The diet of brain- 
workers should be of a large variety, delicately 
served, abundantly nutritious, of which fresh 
meat, lean and fat, should be a prominent con- 
stituent. In vacations, or whenever it is desired 
to rest the brain, fish may, to a certain extent, 
take the place of meat. We should select 
those articles that are most agreeable to our 
individual tastes, and, so far as possible, we 
should take our meals amid pleasant social 
surroundings. In great crises that call for 
unusual exertion, we should rest the stomach, 
that for the time the brain may work the hard- 
er; but the deficiency of nutrition ought al- 
ways to be supplied in the first interval of re- 
pose." 

The diet of persons who are either too lean 
or too fat should be nitrogenous (flesh-forming), 
or the contrary, according to the object to be 
accomplished. Plenty of lean meat, bread, 
butter, starchy substances, and sugar, will 
make a lean person fat provided the amount 
consumed (and digested) affords a consider- 
able surplus of vital force over the amount 
required for daily use. The approved method 
of reducing corpulence is described in the 
article on Banting's System. On this point 
Dr. Lankester says in Good Food : " A whole- 
some receipt for a stout person is, eat no butter 
at breakfast, and no bread at dinner." 

The subject of general diet for the sick is 
treated of under Sick-room; and where a 
special diet is desirable it is suggested under 
the different diseases for which it is recom- 
mended. 

DIGESTION. — The alimentary canal is the 
great channel whereby new material is intro- 
duced into the blood, and it is in this canal 
that the important function of digestion takes 
place. A man swallows daily a certain amount of 
meat, bread, butter, water, vegetables, &c., and 



it has been computed that the amount of chem- 
ically dry solid matter taken daily by a man of 
average size and weight amounts to about 
8000 grains ; he also absorbs by his lungs 
about 10,000 grains of oxygen every twenty- 
four hours, making a total of 18,000 grains (or 
nearly two pounds and three-quarters avoirdu- 
pois) of daily gain of dry solid and gaseous 
matter. Of this quantity about 800 grains, or 
one-tenth part of solid matter, leaves the body 
daily as excreta, and as no solid matter in any 
quantity leaves tlie body in any other way, it fol- 
lows that in addition to the quantity of oxygen 
absorbed by the lungs, about 7200 grains of solid 
matter must pass out of the body in gaseous or 
liquid secretions, supposing the man to keep the 
same weight. The urine, perspiration, and 
the expired air from the lungs, carry off nearly 
all this quantity in their secretions. All the 
substances used as food may be classed under 
four heads. i. Proteids, or Albuminous com- 
pounds — bodies which are made of carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and some- 
times a little sulphur and phosphorus ; in this 
class must be placed such substances as the 
white of an egg, the gluten of flour, the fibrin 
of the blood, the lean of meat, the casein of 
cheese, and other allied preparations. 2. Fats, 
or fatty and greasy compounds, which contain 
no nitrogen, but are made of carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen ; butter, lard, fat, all oils, and 
animal and vegetable fatty matters come under 
this head. 3. Amyloids, or starchy com- 
pounds, made also of carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen, and like the last group containing no 
nitrogen ; starch is an important member of 
this group, and it is met with in all cereals and 
farinaceous bodies, as wheat, barley, arrowroot, 
rice, and potatoes. Sugar also belongs to this 
division, and is intimately allied to starch in 
chemical composition ; the latter body is con- 
verted into sugar by the process of digestion be- 
fore it is absorbed into the blood. Gum and dex- 
trine are also members of the group. These 
three groups are all derived at present from 
the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and are 
produced by the agency of living beings. 4. 
Minerals are produced from the inorganic or 
non-living world ; the salts of various minerals 
come under this head ; common salt is the 
chief member of the group, and is taken daily 
in our food ; nearly all the various foods above 
mentioned contain more or less salt of some 
kind. Finally, water is taken in varying quan- 
tity so as to dissolve these solid materials, and 
prepare them for absorption into the system. 
When these different foods are swallowed vari- 
ous changes take place. Starchy compounds are 
very insoluble, but the saliva converts these 
during mastication into sugar, and this passing 
down into the stomach is easily soluble ; hence 
arises the necessity for well masticating bread, 
biscuits, potatoes, toast, rice, and arrowroot, 
etc., so that all the starch may be thoroughly 
converted, or else indigestion may ensue. Al- 
buminous compounds, as the lean of meat, etc., 
should be well masticated so as to tear up eacb 



DIGESTION 



DINNER 



155 



portion into minute pieces and enable it to be 
easily acted upon by the gastric juice when it 
gets into the stoma,ch ; no chemical change 
takes place in the mouth with regard to this 
group, nor with the next two groups either ; the 
only change is a mechanical one, and by this 
means the food is well mixed together and 
divided. The oesophagus is merely a tube to 
convey the food from the mouth to the stomach, 
and takes no part in digestion. The stomach 
is a dilated chamber where the food remains 
for a time to be digested and to be acted upon 
by the gastric juice. This important secretion, 
poured out from the walls of the stomach in 
great quantity during digestion, renders solu- 
ble all the proteids or albuminous compounds, 
and the more finely divided these bodies are, 
the easier does the process go on ; when meat 
is swallowed hurriedly, or when tough, fibrous, 
and indigestible food is taken, the action of 
the gastric juice is lessened jand indigestion 
results. Thus, in the course of three or four 
hours after a meal, the stomach contains all 
the proteids, amyloids, and minerals, in a state 
of solution, for water in some form is always 
taken with food ; only the fatty matters as yet 
are unaffected. Passing down into the small 
intestine the food is now called chyme, but it 
does not go far when it meets with the bile and 
the pancreatic juice, which, acting on the fatty 
matters, form an emulsion, whereby the oily 
particles are so minutely divided as to render 
them capable of being absorbed by the lacteals 
and vessels of the small intestines. 

Thus, either in the mouth, stomach, or in- 
testinal canal, the various kinds of food are so 
acted upon as to render them capable of ab- 
sorption, and this process goes on not only in 
the stomach but all the way down the intes- 
tines, so that the blood is supplied after every 
meal with a fresh stock of food to make up for 
the losses which are continually going on in 
other parts of the body. There is, however, 
always a residue of indigestible matters in the 
food, so that all the chyme is not absorbed, 
but the remainder is excreted daily and known 
as fceces. As the coat of the intestines is in 
part made of muscle, it is constantly contract- 
ing in waves and gently pushing the chyme 
forward so as to bring it in contact with differ- 
ent parts of the canal, and finally to expel the 
indigestible remainder. If this process go on 
too rapidly then diarrhoea will result, and if it 
continue the patient will lose flesh because 
those substances escape which ought to be 
absorbed by the blood ; or again, if there be 
disease of the mesenteric glands, or walls of 
the intestines, as in some cases of wasting 
disease in children, in cancer of the bowels, 
etc., then absorption will not go on properly 
and emaciation will be the consequence. Foods 
vary very much in their degree of solubility, and 
hence arises the importance of careful diet in 
those who have a weak digestion, or who are 
convalescing from sickness. By bearing in 
mind in early life the importance of mastica- 
tion and digestion,' much suffering may be 



avoided in after years, and many of those who 
are confirmed invalids and martyrs to indiges- 
tion might have been free from disease had 
they paid more attention to diet. Not only 
should the food be easily digestible, but it 
should not be swallowed too hastily; it should 
always be taken at regular intervals, and rest 
after a meal for a short time is advisable ; also 
too much should not be taken at once, so as to 
make the individual feel distended and uncom- 
fortable. {See Diet and Food.) 

DIMITY. — A kind of cotton cloth of a thick 
texture, and generally striped or otherwise 
ornamented in the loom. It is chiefly used 
for articles of female dress, and for bed-furni- 
ture and window-curtains, and is very rarely 
dyed. There are two qualities of it, one being 
twilled and the other plain. 

DINNER. — This article is about good din- 
ners. But everybody's dinner ought to be as 
good as it can, and nobody who cannot take all 
the hints here given need for that reason de- 
cline to take any that he can, if he likes them. 
On ordinary occasions, where incomes are not 
above the average, circumstances generally de- 
termine what folks shall have for dinner. A 
very modest meal, however, may be tastefully 
spread and served, and there is no reason why, 
so far as they are available, it should not have 
the benefit of the principles that apply to the 
most elegant banquets. 

On the other hand, where people spend no 
end of money, they are apt to have tastes of 
their own regarding the elaborations of a din- 
ner, and not to care any more for hints open 
to everybody else than for pictures of which 
everybody has a copy. But even on the points 
essential to a good dinner, as distinct from 
either a plain or an extravagant one, there is 
much difference of taste. It is not best, 
though, to confuse our suggestions by much dis- 
cussion of disputed points, but to confine our- 
selves as far as possible to the particulars re- 
garding which most people agree, and not to 
attempt to advise those who are beyond the 
need of advice. 

In the first place, a good dinner need not be 
expensive, though (as is not always the case 
where much money is spent) there is no end to 
the expense that may be indulged in without 
preventing the result being good. 

To one philosophizing much on the subject, 
the order of the fundamental courses of a good 
dinner is apt to suggest the old saw of " fish, 
flesh, fowl, and good salt herring." Expand 
flesh to mean all edible flesh but game-birds, 
restrict fowl to mean only game-birds, interpret 
good salt herring as meaning something pun- 
gent—the whole range of salads (herring 
salad if you like it), keep in mind what 
everybody knows — that before dinner comes 
soup and after it dessert, and you have the 
key to the whole subject— fish, flesh, fowl, and 
good salt herring. All beyond this is mere 
elaboration, and all that requires variation 
from it is exceptional. Give a man more, and 
he should feel honored ; give him this, and he 



156 



DINNER 



should feel contented, for he cannot say that I 
he has not had a good dinner. 
Now for the elaborations. 

I. Five small raw oysters, opened (on the 
deep shell, so as to retain the hquor) just before 
dinner, and put at each plate before the dining- 
room is opened. A colored doiley may be put 
under them on each plate. If oysters are not 
in season, substitute small round clams. If 
weather is quite warm, let them rest on each 
plate in. a bed of cracked ice. In either case, 
quarter of a lemon on each plate. With clams, 
red pepper within reach. 

II. After fish, either patties, bits of toast, 
each supporting a single selected mushroom 
and saturated with brown sauce, or some sim- 
ilar trifle. Whatever is used, let but one be 
put on each plate, and before the plates are 
handed. 

III. If you have more than one meat, let the 
first be relatively substantial, and the second 
of a lighter character. For instance — a filet 
of beef might be followed by chicken cro- 
quettes, or a boiled turkey (which is never 
really good without oyster sauce) by mutton 
chops with almond paste. Other things even, 
let a roast precede a boil, but put the heavier 
thing first. 

IV. After meats, Entrees, such as cro- 
quettes, calves' brains, devilled kidneys, oys- 
ters fried or broiled, etc. 

V. Before game, a small glass of sorbet to 
each to be brought in m the glasses. 

VI. After sorbet, where there are no ladies 
present to whom they are apt to be disagreea- 
ble, cigarettes. 

VII. With game, jelly; though true epi- 
cures don't take it. The salad is frequently 
served with the game, though for those who 
wish both jelly and salad, this is awkward, if 
jelly be served. 

VIII. After salad, cheese, either one of me- 
dium strength, or two kinds— one pungent, one 
mild. The waiter had best hand both kinds to- 
gether (previously cut up) for the company to 
choose. With this, hard crackers. 

IX. If you elaborate your dessert, let the 
order be ; pastry or pudding, ices, fruits, nuts, 
and raisins, bon-bons. 

X. Black coffee in small cups. Sugar (in 
lumps) to be passed separately. This is quite 
frequently reserved till the ladies have left the 
table and served to them in the parlor, and to 
the gentlemen in the dining-room. 

WINES. 

The temperature at which they should be 
drunk is treated elsewhere, under the titles of 
the wines themselves. Their order is given 
below. 

The fundamentals (both of food and wine) 
are printed in capitals. Of course no list 
could include everything. This one merely 
attempts to give what can frequently be re- 
alized. If you care for anything more, you 
have probably already so far studied the sub- 
ject as to be beyond the need of any aid. 



BILL OP FARE. 

Raw Oysters or clams. 



SOUP. 



Olives. 

FISH. 

Olives, Dressed cucumbers, 

etc. 



Either Bouchees a la Reine, 
Mushrooms on toast, or some- 
thing similar. 



MEAT. 
If more than one, roast 
first, or the heavier first. 



Entrees ( any light made- 
dishes not sweet.) 



Sorbet. 



GAME. 



SALAD. 
Olives, Pickles, etc. 



Cheese, Crackers. 



DESSERT. 



Pastry. 



Ices. 



Fruit. 



Nuts and Raisins. 



Bon-bons. 



Black Coffee. 



TVINES. 

Sauteme, or any light white 
wines. 



SHERRY. 



Latour, Blanche, Chablis, 
Chateau, Yquem, or other 
white wine with a body. Some 
like a substantial white wine 
with oysters. 



CHAMPAGNE. 



CHAMPAGNE. 



Cigarettes. 



RED WINE NOT 
SWEET, 

i e., Claret or Burgundy, etc. 



Port. 



Still white wine, any named 
above. 



Liqtteurs, Brandy, cordials, 
etc. 



If you omit any of the courses indicated by 
capitals, let them be game first, then fish, then 
salad, last soup. 

SETTING THE TABLE. 

To raise feeding from the grade of an ani- 
mal function into that of a fine art is worth 
anybody's while, and almost anybody can do 
it — certainly anybody apt to read this book. 
It need cost but a little polishing of glass and 
metal, and a handful of flowers, to make a very 
plain table pleasing to even the critical eye. 

Have a thick, soft blanket under the table- 
cloth. It prevents noise from laying things 
down, and gives a pleasant feeling to the hand 
resting on the table. 

Decoration. — The first rule for setting a 
table well, is not to put on it anything to eat. 
Exception may be made in favor of a few or- 
namental plates containing bright colored 
pickles, olives, fruits, and confectionary. These 
are admissible only in so far as they are dec- 
orative. Let each course be brought on and 
removed separately after the guests are seated. 

Now here is a very important matter, 
which even good dinner-givers sometimes neg-- 
lect. Do not let the ornament in the centre 
be so high as to prevent people naturally 
seeing each other across the table. If you 
do, it will confine the talk to people sitting 
next each other, and seriously impede general 
and lively conversation. There is no denying 
that a high centre-ornament is decorative, and 



DINNER 



157 



excellent for a supper where people stand. 
But a little taste and ingenuity will devise low 
ones suitable for dinners that will not inter- 
fere with the distinctively human enjoyment — 
conversation. Flowers, of course, are gener- 
ally the most available material. They should 
not be gathered, however, into a single flat 
mass, but should be placed at a height of 
two or three inches on small plates or the 
narrow troughs now to be found at the crock- 
ery stores, and grouped around some object 
not much over a foot high in the centre. 
This central object can be a bouquet, a stand 
of fruit, or any other tasteful thing that ingen- 
uity may suggest. In warm weather, ice, either 
in a large clear block, or several pieces too 
large to melt out of proportion during the 
meal, combined with ferns or flowers, is sug- 
gestive, and may be made very beautiful. The 
writer wishes to state, most emphatically, that 
generally, on noticing that dinner is passing off 
with peculiar spirit, he has also noticed that 
the ornaments are so disposed as not to im- 
pede intercourse. 

A small bouqiiei de »orsage at each lady's 
place, and a flower with a leaf tied to it at each 
gentleman's, for his button-hole, are very agree- 
able. 

Chairs. — Avoid cane seats in a dining-room. 
Where fine fabrics and laces are kept on them 
so long a time continuously (longer than any- 
where else) they play havoc. 

Plates. — One should be at each seat. The 
raw oysters or clams, on a separate plate, are 
placed on the first plate. So with the soup. 
The first plate is exchanged for the plate with 
the fisl^ Always have a stock of plates in 
reserve sufficient for all the courses and prop- 
erly heated. The most decorated plates are 
best enjoyed about the time of salad or cheese 
and at dessert. 

Knives and Forks. — It saves the waiter's 
time to start with at least two forks, and two 
knives by each plate. It is not bad to have 
three. One knife should be of silver, for the 
fish. Silver knives are, of course, essential 
for fruit. 

Napkins are never supposed to appear a 
second time before washing. Hence napkin 
rings are domestic secrets, and not for com- 
pany. 

Wines that can be drunk at the temperature 
of the room may be on the table from the start 
and they add to the decoration. 

Wineglasses. — Three or four with the water 
glass, are enough to start with. If you have 
more wines, bring the glasses on with them, 
and substitute them for the sherry-glass, sau- 
terne-glass &c. Provide colored glasses for still 
white wines. Americans pretty generally set 
their glasses in a row at the right of the plate, 
in a direction across the table. The French 
quite generally set theirs in front of the plate, 
parallel with the edge of the table. Liqueur 
glasses come on with the liqueurs. 

Clams {Dont forget the ice in warm 
weather) should always be on the table before 



the company comes in. The plates with ice 
are too ticklish for the waiter to pass over 
shoulders. Taking up the plates is easier. 

Ice Pitchers are not articles of dinner- 
table furniture, except that in very hot weather 
one may be used from a side table. 

Caraffes and cracked ice should be within 
everybody's reach. 

Cards on Plates, bearing the names of the 
company, so as to seat them with reference 
to congeniality, are very important. For host 
or hostess to marshal them after they are in 
the dining-room is not nearly so easy as for 
them to marshal themselves by the cards, and 
the host and hostess are sure, in the confusion 
of the moment, to get people placed exactly as 
they did not intend to have them. 

Bread. — Cut pieces about four inches long, 
two wide, and two thick, and always place a 
piece beside each plate in setting the table. 

Finger Bowls are to be passed after pastry 
on plates with doileys between the plates and 
the bowls. The plates are to be used for 
fruit and nuts, if there are any. If none are 
handed, the finger-bowl will not be taken from 
the plate. The finger-bowl should be filled 
about one-third, contain a slice of lemon, and 
in very warm weather, a bit of ice. 

Fruit. — It is well to have a dish, atone side, 
independent of any that may be on the table, 
with grapes cut into small bunches, and oranges 
and large fruits halved. If fruit decorating the 
table is to be used, let it be removed and so 
prepared before it is passed. 

GENERAL HINTS. 

Never let two kinds of animal food or two 
kinds of pastry be eaten from the same plate ; 
make a fresh course of each. 

Always change knives and forks, or spoons 
with plates. As before stated, it is well to 
start with two or three relays of implements by 
the plates. 

Don't have over two vegetables with a 
course. Let them be offered together on the 
same waiter. At a large dinner, you can have 
two varieties in the satne course,- i. e., two 
soups, two fish, two meats, etc., letting the 
waiter offer the guest a plate of each at the 
same time, the guest choosing between them. 

Everybody is always out of bread ; prevent 
it if you can. 

One good waiter is worth much more than 
two poor ones. 

Don't let a wineglass stand empty. If one 
is empty, it proves that the guest likes that 
wine. 

Champagne is always too warm, but ice m 
the glasses is a poor remedy, so use the small- 
est glasses that are proper. They will not let 
it lose sparkle and coolness as readily as the 

large ones. z /- *i 

Pour out the wine for each course before \.hQ 

course is served, unless you have waiters 

enough to do it simultaneously. 

Two hours and a half is long enough to 

serve any dinner that Christians ought to eat, 

three hours and a half is too long. 



158 



DINNER 



The host goes in first with the lady whom 
he seats at his right. The hostess goes in 
last with the gentleman whom she places at 
her right. 

The worst torture that survives the inquisi- 
tion is a dad iorma.1 dinner. A worse torture 
than any known to the inquisition is any for- 
mal dinner (the better the dinner, the worse 
the torture) inefficiently served. 

Fish at dinner must never be fried or broil- 
ed, let it be baked or boiled. An exception 
may be made in favor of a delicacy, such as 
smelts or trout. 

If Jinybody says champagne ought not to 
come in early, don't believe it. 

Fresh pork and veal are seldom seen at 
the tables of those who know how to dine 
or to digest. But a ham baked with sugar, 
or champagne, is an honorable companion 
after fish, all the way down to game. It 
is onfy an accessory, though, never the 
basis of a decent dinner. It should be handed 
around sliced, after the regular course is served. 

In place of salad, some specially nice vege- 
table, such as asparagus, green corn, or a well- 
cooked cauliflower may tastefully be served as 
a separate course. In fact there is much to 
be said in favor of always serving separately a 
vegetable which does not, like potatoes, stewed 
tomatoes, beans, peas, etc., seem the natural 
accessory of some meat. 

Many an appreciative soul will be grateful 
if he finds his sherry cold ; and probably none 
of those who usually take it tepid, will feel 
hurt. 

Chesterfield's idea that a dinner party 
should not include fewer than the graces or 
more than the muses, has the approval of 
later generations. Especially commendable 
is the rule where waiters are scant. A super- 
latively good waiter in a well-ordered house 
can manipulate eight people, if he has an as- 
sistant in the pantry to prepare everything 
for him. If you ask one person more, you'll 
spoil the fun of nine, unless you get another 
waiter. 

Last and not least, dining rooms are always 
too hot 

We append bills of fare — six for entertain- 
ments and twelve for family dinners. Although 
they are scattered through the seasons, they 
are almost all available at any season, ancl, 
with the help of the separate article on Bills 
OF Fare, will probably aid the housekeeper in 
answering the constantly recurring question, 
" What shall we have for dinner ? " 

MENU FOR I 6th JANUARY. 

Soup. (Sherry.) 

Bouchees of lobsters. (Sauterne.) 
Boiled cod, with anchovy sauce. 
Potatoes a la maitre d'hotel. 
[ Braised turkey, with chestnuts. ) r-i. 
\ Canned asparagus. \ Champagne. 

I Chicken livers stewed. 
! Cauliflowers. 



j Quails, broiled with a slice of fat pork. ) Chateau 

] Celery salad. J Lafitte. 

j Rice souflee. 

( Chocolate pudding. 
Neapolitan cream, cakes. 
Coffee, fruits, nuts, etc. (Port.) 

MENU FOR 24TH FEBRUARY. 
Mock turtle, vermicelli, clear. (Sherry.) 
Pates a la Reine {ckicken). 
Lobster farcie. 

Striped bass, with shrimp sauce. 
Fillet of beef, with stuffed potatoes. (Champagne.) 
Roast chickens, with beans. 

Sweetbreads, larded and served on a thick puree 
of spinach. 

Sorbet. 
Prairie fowls, with brown sauce. (Chablis.) 
Endive salad. 
Lemon ice-cream. 

Whipped cream, with preserved strawberries. 
Coffee, nuts, fruits. (Chartreuse.) 

MENU FOR 15TH MAY. 
Green turtle. (Madeira.) 
Fried perch, with olives. 

Boiled leg mutton, oyster sauce. (Champagne.) 
Cutlets of chicken, a la Bechamel. 
Hare, red currant jelly. (Claret.) 
Potatoes a la creme. 
Plum-pudding, brandy sauce. 
Salade. 
Coffee, with whipped cream. 

MENU FOR 19TH JULY. — (A " Fish Dinner.") 
Oysters on the half-shell. Select carefully at this 
Cream of fish. [season. (Rhine wine.) 

Trout, with clam sauce. (Champagne.) 

j Baked black-fish, with claret. | Chateau 

\ Fried potatoes. S Margeaux. 

Fillets of halibut, bread-crumbed and broiled, with 
stewed peas. 

( Clams in their shells. I Red Hermitage. 

( Lettuce and endive mixed. ) 
Roman punch. 
Strawberry cream. 
Almond cakes. 
Fruits, nuts, and coffee. 

MENU FOR 1ST SEPTEMBER. — (A " Game Dinner.") 

Oysters en fricassee. 
Puree of grouse. 
Salmon au court bouillon. 
Roast pea-fowl. 1 
Braised wild duck. > Heidsick. 
Artichokes. ) 

Pates of field-larks in fillets. ) gjHery 
_ I,obster salad. f 

Roast pigeons. 
Lettuce. 

Biscuits glaces, vanilla ice-cream, coffee, fruit, 
Noyeau. 

MENU FOR DECEMBER. 
Oysters on half-shell. Hungarian wine. 
Chicken. Madeira. 
Sardines, olives, cheese, and pickles. 
( Mackerel a la maitre d'hotel. ) Missouri Catawba. 
\ Mashed potatoes. ) 

( Roast turkey, cranberry sauce, ) Steinberg 
I Braised ribs beef, with vegetables. ) Cabinet. 
Breast of pigeon, larded, brown mushroom sauce. 
Sorbet. 



DIPHTHERIA 



159 



( Ortolans, with fried oysters. 
I Celery, with mayonnaise. 

[Montebello. 
Plum-pudding, rum sauce. 



Pumpkin pies. 
Mince pies. 
Fruits, nuts, coffee. 
Vanilla ice-cream. 



FAMILY DINNERS. 



JANUARY 4TH. 

Beef soup, with vegetables. 
Bream, with oyster sauce. 
Boiled potatoes. 
Corned beef, with carrots. 
Stewed kidneys. 
Spanish puffs. 

FEBRUARY i8tH. 

Bouillabaisse. 

Boiled chicken. 

Fried parsnips, caper .^auce. 

Fillets of bass, with pickles. 

Mince patties. 



MARCH 2IST. 

Oysters, with lettuce. 
Roast sirloin of beef. 
Potato croquettes. 
Cabbage boiled with cream. 
Baked lemon pudding. 

APRIL 3D. 

Fried oysters, sliced cucum- 
[bers. 
Smelts fried with fat salt pork. 
Baked potatoes. 
Lamb chops, with baked mac- 
[caroni. 
Pumpkin pie and coffee. 

MAY 20TH. 

Clam soup. 

Boiled leg of mutton, tomato 
[sauce. 
Mashed potatoes. 
Oyster plant in batter. 
Lettuce and green onions. 
Raisin pudding, sherry sauce. 
• 

JUNE I2TH. 

Salmon. Puree of beans. 

Chicken soup, with barley. Broiled herring, Dutch sauce. 

Cold roast mutton, with boiled Ribs of beef 

cauliflower. [mixed. Boiled potatoes. 

Lettuce, with cives and olives Stewed tomatoes. 
Charlotte Russe. IPumpkin pie. 



JULY lOTH. 

Consomme aux Nouilles. 

Rock bass, with fried pota- 
toes. 

Tomatoes.with slices of chicken 
dressed in mayonnaise. 

Peaches and cream. 



AUGUST 14TH. 

Clams on the half-shell, pickles. 
Broiled porterhouse steak. 
Green peas and asparagus. 
Strawberry shortcake, coffee. 

SEPTEMBER 24TH. 

Oyster soup. 

Broiled eels, with cucumbers. 

Braised fowl. 

String beans. 

Celery, with capers, [cream. 

Currant tart, with whipped 

OCTOBER 25TH. 

Pot-au-feu. 

Halibut, with parsley sauce. 

The beef, with the vegetables. 

Potato salad. 

Tapioca pudding, sauce au 

quatre fruits. 
Cream-cakes. 

NOVEMBER 30TH. 

Mock turtle. 

Turkey, cranberry sauce. 
Rice croquettes. 
Egg-plant stuffed. 
Snipe, fried oysters, [edeggs. 
Water-cresses, with hard-boil- 
German puffs. 

DECEMBER I4TH. 



DIPETTHERIA. — A disease, occurring gen- 
erally in epidemic form, and characterized by 
a peculiar inflammation of the mucous or lining 
membrane of the fauces, pharynx, and upper 
part of the air-passages ; sometimes the dis- 
ease spreads to other parts of the mucous mem- 
branes. Diphtheria is often confounded with 
croup and scarlet fever, and it was not until 
recent epidemics that its distinctive character 
had been clearly and generally recognized. 
Children and young people are more liable to 
it than adults, and more girls suffer from it 
than boys ; women also, are more liable to it 
than men, and the weakly of either sex more 
than the strong and healthy. Climate and 
season do not seem to have any influence on 
the disorder ; it is equally severe in the sum- 
mer as in the winter months, and in its symp- 
toms and mortality it is the same in hot as in 



cold countries ; yet various epidemics differ in 
severity and in extent. It is quite clear that 
the disease is contagious, but in what way is 
not so manifest ; at one time an isolated case 
will appear in a village and not spread widely, 
while on another occasion a whole district will 
suffer severely ; if one inmate of a house be 
attacked most of the others will suffer too, if 
they come in contact with the patient. The 
infectious matter is capable of diffusion into 
the air, and may be carried to distant parts, but 
it is more common for those to be infected who 
inhale the patient's breath, or who are in close 
contact with him. It is very doubtful if the 
disease can be taken from one house to an- 
other by an unaffected person, but the pres- 
ence of one sick person in a house is suffi- 
cient for its communication to another, though 
the two be kept as separate as possible. Al- 
though every care be taken to purify an apart- 
ment in which a patient has suffered from this 
disorder, yet the infection will sometimes chng 
to it with remarkable tenacity. A case is re- 
ported in which a visitor to a country-house in 
Scotland, caught the disease while occupying 
a chamber in which a case of diphtheria had 
occurred eleven months before. The infection 
may be disseminated for some time after con- 
valescence has been established. There 
seems to be a predisposition on the part of 
some people to take this disease ; those who 
are highly nervous or who bave undergone 
much mental activity, and those who have 
suffered from exhaustion or bodily fatigue are 
more liable than others. The disease seems 
to attack indifferently all classes of society. 
The time between the first exposure to the 
disease and the appearance of the disorder, 
varies from thirty hours to several days. 

Symptoms. — The onset of an attack is 
marked by lassitude and prostration, aching 
in the back and legs, pallor of the skin, and 
pain in the throat ; in children, there may be 
diarrhoea, headache, giddiness, and a stupid 
condition. The pulse becomes quick and may 
beat 120 or 140 times a minute, but the respira- 
tions are not particularly increased. The 
tongue is moist and slightly coated, the appe- 
tite is impaired, and there is more or less 
thirst. The throat is sore, and it is difficult 
and even painful to swallow, and this pain ex- 
tends often to the ears, and there is a feeling 
of stiffness in the muscles of the neck. On 
looking inside the mouth there will be found 
some swelling and redness of the soft palate 
and tonsils, and the back part of the throat. 
If the inflammation extends upward into the 
nasal passage there may be a glairy discharge 
from the nose, or, if it spreads downward into 
the larynx, symptoms similar to those met with 
in croup will appear. There will then be 
hoarseness and weakness of voice, with cougk 
and crowing inspiration, and if the obstruction 
be very great there will be imperfect expan- 
sion of the chest, pallor of the face, and lividity 
of the lips. When the inflammation extends to 
the larynx, the mortality, especially in children, 



160 



DIPHTHERIA 



DISINFECTANTS 



is very great ; in adults, this extension of the 
disease "is less dangerous, and they are often 
able to expectorate large pieces of the false 
membrane. The most characteristic appear- 
ance in diphtheria is the presence of a mem- 
brane which covers more or less of the sur- 
face about the upper or back part of the 
mouth ; this membrane is soft and of ashy- 
grey color, and when removed leaves behind a 
red and raw surface, and then it rapidly forms 
again. The swelling of the mucous membrane 
and the amount of false membrane may be so 
great as to prevent swallowing, and to endan- 
ger life by preventing enough air from enter- 
ing the lungs. The inability to swallow is 
often very great, and when fluids are taken in 
this condition they are apt to come back 
through the nose ; complete inability to swal- 
low seldom comes on before the third or fourth 
week of the disease, and it arises from a par- 
alysis of the muscles of deglutition. This 
condition is a very serious one and adds much 
to the danger of the case ; the pulse may be- 
come weak and slow, and death may occur 
suddenly from fainting or any undue exertion. 
Loss of power and irregular action of the 
muscles of the pharynx is the earliest and 
most common form of nervous affection in this 
disease, and it may disappear rapidly and leave 
no mischief behind, but sometimes it lasts for 
weeks or months and retards convalescence. 
Every case of diphtheria must be regarded 
with anxiety, as it is attended with considera- 
ble danger ; and any extension of the deposit 
in the fauces, the onset of a hoarse voice, or 
croupy breathing, or the occurrence of hem- 
orrhages, are serious symptoms. 

Treatment. — There is no drug which can 
be looked upon as a specific for diphtheria, nor 
are there any means of eliminating the disease 
when once it has attacked an individual ; yet, a 
great deal may be done at the outset if the 
disease is recognized sufficiently early. As a 
local remedy a solution of nitrate of silver should 
be thoroughly applied to the diseased surface of 
the throat, but not so forcibly as to rub off the 
membrane and cause bleeding to follow. Hy- 
drochloric acid and honey have been used for a 
similar purpose, but in all cases medical advice 
must at once be sought, as it is dangerous to 
depend on merely domestic treatment. The 
patient should be placed in a well-ventilated 
room, and the air should be between 60° and 
65'' Fahrenheit, and kept constantly moist by 
letting steam escape from a kettle of boiling 
water. Complete rest must be obtained as 
there is always great prostration, and any ex- 
ercise or movement on the part of the patient 
should be avoided so as to store up all his 
strength. Milk may be given to the extent of 
three or four pints a day, and brandy can be 
mixed with it, if it is necessary. Beef-tea, 
chicken-broth, and eggs may also be given ; it 
is of no use giving solid food, as the patient will 
not care for it, and it will create pain in sv/al- 
lowing. Great care must be taken that the 
food is given in small quantities at a time, and 



slowly, because in consequence of the paraly- 
sis of the muscles of deglutition which often 
ensues, the act of swallowing is rendered 
dangerous. Where there is much obstruction 
in the larynx the operation of tracheotomy may 
be resorted to, but this proceeding is attended 
with a very small amount of success, and is 
nearly always followed by a fatal result in very 
young children. When convalescence begins, 
the return to soHd diet must be slow and grad- 
ual ; for many weeks the nutriment should be 
light and wholesome, and not too much should 
be taken at a time. As soon as the patient 
can be removed with safety, and without carry- 
ing infection to others, removal to country air or 
the sea-side is most beneficial, and it is the 
more needful in these cases as there is so 
much prostration and anaemia for many weeks 
afterwards ; yet, even in bad cases, the health 
will in time be thoroughly restored. Cold 
bathing, tonic medicines, moderate exercise, 
or even a sea voyage, are very valuable aids in 
restoring the health. In cold weather a bath 
is not advisable unless the chill is taken off 
the water, but in .summer time it is most re- 
freshing and strengthening ; carriage exercise 
may at first be taken, or a short walk during 
the fine part of a day, but no great exertion 
should be made, and the patient should rest as 
soon as a tired feeling comes on. Although 
this disease is not so communicable by the 
clothes as scarlet fever and some other disor- 
ders, yet it is always advisable that any articles 
of clothing should be thoroughly disinfected 
before being worn again, and for this purpose 
they may be placed in an oven and exposed to 
a high temperature ; a similar remark will 
apply to the bedding, curtains, sheets, etc., of 
the room in which the patient has lain. When 
possible, the house in which the disease has 
broken out should be well cleansed and fumi- 
gated ; it may be kept empty for this purpose 
for a week or ten days, and chloride of lime 
may be sprinkled about the rooms on the 
floors. 
DISHES. {See Earthenware.) 
DISINFECTANTS. This term is confined 
here to substances used for destroying noxious 
odors or vapors or whatever may produce in- 
fection. A large variety of disinfectants are 
sold in the drug stores, and in summer time, 
especially, some one of them should be in 
frequent use in every house. The best disin- 
fectants are, of course, fresh air (abundant ven- 
tilation) and an abundance of water (thorough 
cleansing) ; but with our defective drainage 
something more is frequently necessary. The 
following suggestions are from a circular of the 
Board of Health of New York : — 

I. To disinfect diarrhoeal discharges, and 
to purify water-closets, privies, drains, and 
cesspools, dissolve ten pounds of sulphate of 
iron (copperas) in five gallons of water, and add 
half a pint of common carbolic acid. Keep a 
small quantity of this solution in the vessel 
which is to receive the discharges. Pour a 
pint of the solution into the pan of the water- 



DISLOCATIONS 



161 



closet three or four times a day, or add half 
the entire quantity to the contents of an or- 
dinary privy-vault. If this practice is made 
general in all private dwellings, not only will 
the house-drains of such dwellings be disin- 
fected, but the benefit will extend even to the 
public sewers 

II. During the prevalence of cholera, all 
diarrhoeal discharges should be received in 
vessels containing some of the disinfecting 
fluid, before being thrown into the privy- 
vault or pan of the water-closet. 

III. Clothing, sheets, towels, etc., from pa- 
tients with infectious diseases, should be im- 
mediately boiled ; but, when this is impractica- 
ble, they may be thrown into a tub of water, in 
which have been dissolved eight ounces of 
sulphate of zinc, with one or two ounces of 
carbolic acid to every three or four gallons of 
water, or in water containing sufficient per- 
manganate of potash to maintain a light-pur- 
ple color, until the articles can be boiled. 

IV. To absorb moisture from damp cellars, 
closets, courts, and sunken areas, use fresh 
stone hme finely broken, and suitably distrib- 
uted, or placed on plates in the places to be 
dried. Whitewashing should be done with 
pure fresh Hme. Putrid and offensive gases 
may be destroyed by chloride of lime. {See 
Fumigation.) 

DISLOCATIONS. — In most cases of dis- 
location it will be best to wait for medical aid, 
which should be immediately summoned ; but 
when this cannot be obtained at once, of course 
some effort must be made to relieve the sufferer. 
Before anything is done, however, make yourself 
very sure that it is a dislocation and not a fracture, 
for any mistake may result in serious injury. 

Elbow (Dislocation of). — This is caused by 




Dislocation of the Elbow. 



a fall on the hand, one or both bones of the 
arm being driven backward. Seat the patient on 
a low seat, or on the ground ; place your knee 
inside the bend of the elbow, then grasp the arm 
firmly just below the elbow with one hand, 
and the wrist with the other (if another person 
is present let him take the wrist) ; pull firmly, 
and at the same time bend the arm gently in- 
wards, and the bone will in most cases return 
to the socket without difficulty. 

Hip (Dislocation of). — When this happens, 
the leg is shortened, and the foot turned in- 
wards so as to rest upon the other one ; but be 
sure it is out before attempting anything. In 
case of need, lay the patient on his back, and 
seat yourself beside him on the injured side ; 
take off your boot and place your foot between 
the legs, protecting the parts with a folded 
towel ; catch hold of the ankle or knee and pull 
hard until the bone slips into its place. This 
plan, however,' will seldom succeed unless the 
operator is taller and stronger than his patient. 
If the accident happen to a muscular man, pass 
a towel round the upper part of the thigh (catch 
hold of it on the inside of the leg), let one or two 
assistants grasp the leg itself, and all pull firm- 
ly but gently downwards for some time until 
the muscles of the limb relax. 

Jaw (Dislocation of.) — Wide yawning, 
laughing, etc., may cause this. The mouth is 
wide open, and cannot be closed ; the chin is 
thrown forward, speech and swallowing are very 
difficult, if not impossible ; and in front of the 
ear is an unnatural hollow. Place your hand 
on each cheek, and insert your thumbs, pro- 
tected with a napkin, into the mouth as far 
back as possible ; then press the thumbs down- 
wards and backwards, and at the same time 
raise the chin with the outer fingers of the 
hands. If these movements are made with 
sufficient force, and at the same moment, the 
jaw will slip into its place. A small walking 
•stick, used like a bit in a horse's mouth, may 
be tried instead of the thumbs. 

Neck (Dislocation of). — This is caused by 
a heavy fall on the side of the head. The head 
is turned to one side and fixed, and of course 
immediate action is necessary. Lay the person 
gently upon his back, plant one knee against 
each shoulder ; grasp the head firmly ; pull 
gently upwards from the shoulder, and at the 
same time turn the head into its proper place. 

Shoulder (Dislocation of ). — In this form of 
injury the arm-bone is displaced from its con- 
tact with the blade-bone. The arm cannot be 
moved without pain ; the shoulder seems flat- 
tened ; the elbow stands out from the side, can- 
not be made to touch the ribs, nor can it be 
brought up easily to a level with the shoulder ; 
and the head of the bone, rounded in shape, 
may be felt in the arm-pit if the fingers are 
pushed well up while the arm is slightly moved 
outwards. Lay the patient flat on his back and 
sit down beside him on the injured side ; pull 
off your boot, place your heel in the arm-pit, 
take hold of the arm with your hands, or a long 
towel fastened to it and passed round your neck. 



162 



DISLOCATIONS 



DOGS 




Dislocation of the Shoulder. 

and pull steadily. After pulling some time, 
tell the patient to turn round ; while he is try- 
ing to do this, give a sudden strong pull, jerk 
your heel against the head of the bone in the 
arm-pit, and it yviH probably return to its socket 
with a snap. 

Hamilton recommends, in his Surgery, the 
method of treating dislocation of the shoulder 
shown in the above cut. Push the shoulder 
gently but firmly forward, and at the same time 
raise the arm upwards and backwards. 

Thumb or Finger (Dislocation of). — A sur- 
geon's assistance should be sought for this, as 
it is somewhat difficult to manage. If such as- 
sistance cannot be had, get a strong person to 




Dislocated Thumb. 

hold the wrist, or if alone, lay the patient on 
his back. Rub some powdered resin on the 
hand to prevent slipping ; pull steadily at the 
thumbs or finger for a minute or two ; then 
turn it backwards, and at the same time push it 
into its place with the other hand. 

Wrist, Knee, or Ankle (Dislocation of). — 
When such dislocations occur they are gen- 
erally so severe that they should be at once 
placed under a surgeon's treatment. When 
this is not practicable, however, the method of 
action is the same in all cases. By pulling and 
stretching the limb for some time, the muscles 
will become so relaxed that the joint can be 
pushed back into its proper place. 



DIURETICS. — Medicines which augment 
the secretion and promote the flow of urine. 
In slight stoppages of this secretion there is no 
harm in trying mild diuretics, such as the follow- 
ing : (i) Nitrate of potass, ten grains; sweet 
spirits of nitre, one drachm ; spearmint water, 
one ounce ; mix, and give a tablespoonful twice a 
day. Or (2) a strong infusion of the peel of the 
young branches of the elder-tree may be made, 
with the addition of half an ounce of cream of 
tartar to each pint ; and of this infusion two or 
three ounces may be given three times a day. 
Where the disturbance is great, however, it is 
best to consult a physician, as much mischief 
may be done by stimulating diuretic in case of 
inflammation of the kidneys. 

DIZZINESS,— (6"^'^ ^'ERTIGO.) 

DOESKIN.— A compact kind of heavy twilled 
broadcloth, three-quarters of a yard wide, much 
used for men's pantaloons and vests. The best 
is the French, though the English is very good 
in the finer qualities and has the reputation of 
being most durable. Doeskin is generally black 
in color, and should be well shrunk before cut- 
ting into clothing. 

DOG. — The dog shows the most valuable and 
complete conquest ever made by man over the 
brute creation. Even in civilized countries he 
is only less useful than the horse, though in the 
cities his position is chiefly that of a household 
pet. The Newfoundland is the choicest and 
noblest of all breeds of the dog, and of this the 
St. Bernard variety is the best ; they are very 
large and powerful, extremely docile, and their 
intelligence is in some respects almost human. 
Next to these the English Spaniel is perhaps 
the finest species of dogs ; but for a watch or 
yard dog none is equal to the bull-dog, whose 
ferocity is at times more like that of a wild 
animal than anything else, and whose strength 
makes him a terrible foe even to man. The 
choice, however, is almost unlimited, and the 
satisfaction which a dog will afford depends 
always more on the individual than on the breed. 
The small pet clogs, such as pugs, poodles, 
Italian greyhounds, King Charles' breed, etc., 
are perhaps the most degenerate productions of 
the genus, and striking instances of that modify- 
ing influence to which man subjects all nature. 
Dogs should always be kept out of doors as much 
as possible ; and in the cities, where the limits 
within which they are confined are necessarily 
very narrow, they should be taken out for a daily 
romp or walk. If kept indoors too constantly 
they lose all that vigor and high spirit which 
distinguishes them from all other domestic 
animals. 

Distemper in Dogs. — This is almost the 
only disease to which dogs are liable which they 
cannot cure themselves" if allowed to run at 
large. It is contagious, and seems to be nearly 
always imparted by contact. The symptoms of 
it are readily recognized. The eyes become 
red, weak, and watery ; the nose hot and dry ; 
any movement in the air excites a cough or a 
sneeze ; and there is a general fever and loss of 
appetite. The running from the nose, as the 



DOILY 



DOVER'S POWDER 



163 



disease proceeds, becomes after some days 
mucous or purulent, loading the eyes and ob- 
structing the nostrils. It then lodges in the 
bronchial tubes, preventing the free access of 
air to the lungs ; and if it reaches this stage is 
very likely to prove fatal. A good remedy for 
distemper in its earlier stages is to force the 
dog to inhale the fumes of burning sulphur for 
five or ten minutes every day until distinctly 
relieved. The following, however, is the sur- 
est medicine : Take three grains of antimonial 
powder, ten grains of nitre, and three grains 
of powdered ipecacuanha: make into a ball 
and force down the throat two or three times 
a day. If there is much cough, add from half 
a grain to a grain of digitalis, and every three 
or four days give an emetic. Two to four 
grains of tartar emetic in a meat ball forms an 
emetic. 

Hydrophobia. — When a dog is suffering 
from this disease he becomes solitary, morose, 
and sullen ; and after a day or two begins to 
run about wildly, biting at whatever comes in 
his way. As the disease advances, he becomes 
more furious, he breathes quickly and heavily, 
his mouth is continually open, the tongue hangs 
out, and fhe lips and jaws are covered with 
froth. As soon as any of these symptoms 
appear the dog must be killed. There is no 
truth in the prevalent idea that hot weather is 
the cause of hydrophobia. (For the disease 
in man, see Hydrophobia.) 

DOILY. — A small napkin, generally figured 
and fringed, usually placed on a plate under 
the finger-bowl with the dessert at dinner. It 
is manufactured in pieces, containing a fixed 
number of doilies, and is generally so bought. 

DOMESTIC ANIMALS. {See Cat, Cow, 
Dog, Horse, Pig, and Poultry.) 

DORY. — A species of fish much prized in 
England as food, but extremely rare in our 
markets. One variety known as " bristly dory" 




or " blunt-nose shiner" is occasionally offered 
for sale in the fall and winter months. Its flesh 
is delicate and sweet, though the quantity is 
small compared to the amount of bones. Large 
dories are best boiled ; smaller ones fried. 
DOSES. {See at end of article on DRUGS.) 
DOUCHE BATH. {See Bath.) 
DOUGHNUTS. — Take :-Y.g^^, 4 ; sugar, 
%. lb ; butter, 2 oz ; flour, I lb ; boiled milk ; nut- 
meg, cinnamon, and a few drops of some es- 
sence. Beat together four eggs with half a 
pound of sugar; stir in two ounces of melted 



butter, and then add a pound of flour and 
enough boiled milk to make a rather stiff 
dough ; flavor to taste with nutmeg, cinnamon, 
and a few drops of some essence ; cut into 
shapes with tumbler or knife, and fry brown, 
in hot lard. When done, sift sugar over the 
top and serve hot. 

Isle of Wight. — Take .-—Flour, 4 lbs .; 
lard, 4 oz; brown sugar, % lb; allspice, 2 
tablespoonf'ils ; cinnamon, i drachm ; cloves, 
}4. drachm; mace, 2 large blades; brewer's 
yeast, 2 tablespoonfuls ; milk ; currants. 

Work smoothly together, with the hand four 
pounds of flour and four ounces of good lard ; 
add half a pound of fine brown sugar, two 
tablespoonfuls of allspice, one drachm of ' 
pounded cinnamon, half a drachm of cloves, 
two large blades of mace beaten to powder, 
two tablespoonfuls of fresh yeast, and as much 
new milk as will make the whole into a rather 
firm dough ; let this stand till tender (a little 
over an hour) near the fire, then knead it well 
and make it into balls the size of a very small 
apple ; hollow them with the thumb, and en- 
close a few currants in the middle ; gather the 
paste well over them and when light, drop the 
doughnuts into a sauce-pan half filled with boil- 
ing lard. When they are equally colored to a 
fine brown, lift them out and dry them before 
the fire on the back of a sieve. The lard should 
boil only just before they are dropped into it, 
or the outside will be scorched before the inside 
is sufficiently done. 

Raised. — Take :Svig?ir, i lb; milk, i qt ; 
home-made yeast, i teacupful ; flour, 3 pts ; 
eggs, 4; salt, I teaspoonful ; cinnamon, 2 tea- 
spoonfuls ; mace or nutmeg, i teaspoonful ; 
butter, 3^ lb. 

Beat together a pound of sugar, and three 
quarters of a pound of butter ; add a quart of , 
new milk, a teacupful of yeast, and three pints 
of flour ; set to rise over night. In the morn- 
ing beat four eggs to a light froth, and stir 
them into the batter with a teaspoonful of salt, . 
two teaspoonfuls of cinnamon, and one tea- 
spoonful of mace or nutmeg ; add enough flour 
to make a stiff dough ; set to rise three hours. 
or until light ; then roll out, cut into shapes, 
and fry in hot lard till brown. Sift sugar on 
the top while they are hot. 

DOVE. — The turtle-dove is smaller, but in 
general appearance very similar to the wild 
pigeon, of which it is probably the original 
stock, and in point of flavor is one of the best 
game-birds known ; but in the eastern markets, 
it is seldom found for sale, except as a pet.. 
Doves are at their best in August and Sep- 
tember, but may be had occasionally through- 
out the winter. Cook like wild pigeon. 

DOVER'S POWDER. — Compound Ipecac- 
uanha Powder. It contains ipecacuanha and 
opium, a grain of each, rubbed up with ten grs. 
of sulphate of potash, and so it must be pre- 
scribed with a due regard to the quantity of 
opium it contains. Ten grains of the powder is 
the usual full dose. It is a powerful diaphoretic , 
— that is to say, it promotes free perspiration. 



164 



DOWN 



DRAINAGE 



and is consequently of great service in many 
maladies. It does not agree with everybody, 
and at all times it is advisable to take precau- 
tions against cold after its use. In the feverish 
stage of a common cold, Dover's Powder is 
remarkably effective, and frequently cuts short 
the malady. When the patient is cold and 
shivering, but the skin hot and the nose stuffed, 
ten grains of the powder at bedtime, putting 
the Feet into hot water at the same time, and 
promptly getting covered over with the bed- 
clothes, will generally cause a profuse sweat, 
and will probably benefit the patient greatly. 
A cold sponge bath is advisable next morning, 
and the bowels must be seen to if confined. 

DO'WN. — There are several kinds of down ; 
thit called gray down or white down is ob- 
tained from the common goose, and eider down 
from the eider duck. This last is taken partly 
from the bird itself, and partly from the nest 
in which it broods, and is brought to this 
country from Greenland, Iceland, Northern 
Russia and the circum-polar regions. It is 
very expensive and should be used only for 
bed-coverings ; to sleep on it destroys its elas- 
ticity, without which it is valueless. 

DRAFT. {See Bill of Exchange.) 

DRAINAGE. — Every house should have a 
:suitable drain for the removal of its liquid 
wastes, — such as the outflow from the kitchen 
sink, and all mannerof foul waters. The charac- 
ter of the interior drainage must, of course, de- 
pend on the circumstances,conditions and means 
of the owner ; but no house is a safe or fit 
habitation which has not some well devised and 
soundly constructed exit-drain. 

It may almost be said that the less complete 
the interior arrangements and the smaller the 
amount of liquid to be drained away, the more 
care must be given to the exit-drain. If in ad- 
dition to the kitchen waste, it carries a plentiful 
supply from water-closets, bath-rooms, wash- 
bowls, etc., it is much more likely to keep itself 
clean than if the only liquid reaching it is that 
flowing from the kitchen sink containing a con- 
siderable amount of hot and melted fat, which, 
as soon as it loses its heat, congeals and 
attaches itself to the sides of the drain, arrest- 
ing the organic refuse that floats in the water, 
and, sooner or later, inevitably choking the 
passage. 

One common mistake with regard to house 
drains is that they are made too large. It is 
incorrect to suppose that a very large drain is 
safer than one of moderate (but sufficient) size, 
because the smaller the drain the more con- 
centrated the flow, and the more thorough the 
■lushing when larger amounts of water are 
passed through it, (as on washing day). If the 
liquid is received direct from the kitchen with- 
out any provision for stopping the grease, a 
twelve inch drain will soon be filled to a certain 
depth and the water-way will assume a broad 
flat form, over which the flow will spread itself 
and become too thin and too slow to produce 
the proper scouring effect. 

A much smaller pipe would have this ac- 



cumulation of grease confined within a narrow- 
er chaimel and the whole of a copious flow, 
being concentrated upon it, would have a much 
better chance to cut it away and remove it. It 
may be taken as a fixed rule that no private 
house, no matter how large, can possibly need 
for its drainage a pipe larger than four inches in 
diameter. Neither would it ordinarily be pru- 
dent to use a pipe smaller than this for any 
house, and this size may, therefore, under ordi- 
nary circumstances, be taken as an invariable 
one for private houses. 

The drain should be as straight as possible. 
Every turn increases friction, and increases the 
danger of obstruction. Also, it is easy, with a 
straight drain, to pass through a stiff wire, 
from the outer end, and thus remove any ac- 
cumulation. 

The drain should have always as much fall 
as possible. Even an angle of forty-five de- 
grees would not be too steep; but if the pipes 
are laid with care, if an absolutely uniform 
inclination is secured, even so little descent as 
one foot in one hundred feet will suffice. 

The question of j?taterial is a very impor- 
tant one, especially with drains intended for 
the carrying off, other matter than pure water. 
These should be not only straight and uniform 
in bore, but they should be made of a smooth, 
impervious material. The common stone drain 
(" blind drain ") is in every way bad. Its chan- 
nel is irregular and rough ; its inequalities ac- 
cumulate deposits of fermenting solid matter: 
it gives easy access to rats and mice, which are 
tempted into it by the waste food it contains ; 
and, worst of all, instead of carrying its liquids 
safely and rapidly to the point of outlet, it al- 
lows these to ooze and dribble away into the 
soil, often leaching down under the foundation 
of the house, or finding their way into the well 
from which drinking water is taken. 

It is quite customary with those who wish to 
do thorough work to make the house-drain of 
brick, and this is certainly an improvement upon 
stone, but more cannot be said for it. It is 
necessary to make a brick drain unduly large, and 
it is impossible to make it so entirely true and 
smooth as is necessary for the best efficiency. 
In addition to this, its material is so porous that 
it can never be long relied upon to afford a 
perfectly impervious conductor of the foul 
and dangerous material that it is its office to 
remove. 

The much lauded cement pipe is of good 
form, makes a true joint, and seems at first 
sight to be all that can be asked. It has been 
found, however, that there is a want of uniform- 
ity in the quality of these pipes which renders 
them somewhat unreliable, and they have the 
very important objection fo/ such uses as this, 
that the slight roughness of their interior sur- 
face tends to catch particles of hair or fibre, or 
other material which become a nucleus for fur- 
ther accumulations, which form a firm and close 
attachment with the material of the pipe. 

Experience has pretty well established a be- 
lief that the only entirely safe and reliable ma- 



DRAINAGE 



165 



terial for this use is either iron, which is incon- 
venient to repair, or the vitrified stone-ware 
pipe, now universally used where the best work 
is done. 

Not only must the drain be laid in a straight 
line, and on a true fall, but the greatest care 
must be taken that in fitting the ends into the 
sockets the bore is brought to a true line, and 
that in closing the joints, (while they are tight- 
ly and securely cemented so that there can be 
no possible leaking,) no cement is forced through 
to the interior of the pipe to create roughness 
in the water-way. Too much care cannot be 
given to the foundation upon which these pipes 
are laid, and it is never safe (unless they are 
laid in a heavy bed of concrete) to put them on 
land that has for any purpose, even within so 
long as a year, been dug and refilled below the 
level to which they are to lie, for the reason 
that the slightest settling of thie ground, coup- 
led with the heavy pressure of the earth above, 
is quite sure to cleflect the pipes sufficiently 
to crack open their joints, and cause a leakage. 



Where there is plumbing work in the house, 
which will furnish a considerable flow of water, 
it is best, where practicable, unless a flush tank 
is used at the kitchen inlet, to admit the kitchen 
outlet, at a point between the outlet of the drain 
and its connection with the soil pipe, for the rea- 
son that the soil pipe is more often flushed, and 
carries a larger proportion of pure water which 
will, by its cleansing action, have a tendency 
to remove any deposit from the kitchen outflow. 

At the same time, whatever precaution is 
taken in the way of flushing the drain, it is al- 
ways wise to adopt some form of grease trap, 
that is to say, to receive the kitchen outflow im- 
mediately on its delivery from the sink into a 
vessel that has its outlet through a bent pipe, 
the mouth turning down below the surface of 
its water. This trap need not be more than 
eighteen inches in diameter, and a foot deep, 
and should be covered and have a ventilating 
pipe, for its odors will not be pleasant. This 
mass of water will be cold enough to congeal 
the grease at once, and this will float about the 




Ai^^<.\i.'.r.-.-r.. - - ~- -^ vA 



Fig. A. 



level of the outlet, which will deliver only water 
fit to be admitted to the drain. In addition to 
this grease trap, (or in lieu of it, where the 
proportion of fatty matters is small), it is a 
capital plan to use a modern invention known 
as Field's flush-tank, shown in Fig. A, which is 
simply a vessel having its outlet by a siphon so 
arranged as to come into action whenever the 
tank is sufficiently filled, flowJhg copiously until 
it is emptied, and then accumulating the drib- 
bling waters until it is filled again for another 
discharge. This arrangement secures the drain 
against the slowly trickling stream that has so 
great a tendency to deposit silt in its course, 
and secures the important condition that when 
any foul water is flowing through the drain it 
shall move forward in a rapid rush that will 
prevent the halting of solid matter by the way. 
The final disposal of house drainage is in 
every way a serious matter, and it practically 
makes less difference than is generally suppos- 
ed whether the water to be got rid of is onlv 



the kitchen waste, or the whole offscourings of 
a house with complete plumbing appliances. 
What we have to deal with in both cases is the 
organic matter that has been brought into the 
house, as food, etc., and whether this matter 
has passed through the additional process of 
digestion or not does not materially affect the 
results of its final decomposition after its re- 
moval. The only added danger when water- 
closets are discharged through the drain, arises 
in the case of excreta from patients ill with 
such diseases as typhoid fever, cholera, diar- 
rhoea, etc. Practically, it is no more safe to 
make a careless disposition of the waste from 
a small kitchen than that from the whole of a 
large house with complete water works. 

If the house can be brought into connection 
with a public sewer, this course will naturally 
be followed, and the sanitary questions arising 
are dependent very much on the condition of 
the sewers, — the discussion of which would be 
out of place here. In those cases where there 



166 



DRAINAGE 



is no public outlet the question of the disposal 
of liquid wastes becomes extremely serious. 

It may be set down as an invariable rule, ap- 
plicable to almost all conditions, that it is never 
safe to allow household wastes to accumulate 
in leaching cess-pools from which their liquid 
is constantly oozing into the soil, with the dan- 
ger that it will reach wells, or cellars, or that it 
will accumulate in the earth beyond the capaci- 
ty of this to disinfect and decompose its tilth. 

If there is no land about the house and no 
sewer for discharge, the only safe plan is the 
very inconvenient and costly one of accumulat- 
ing the whole liquid in an absolutely tight and 
thoroughly ventilated cistern, — to be pumped 
out as occasion requires. 

Where there is land, even of small amount 



the best system is that by Mr. Moule, (See Fig. 
B) the inventor of the earth closet, to "divide 
and Conquer." This system, which is called 
stib-soil irrigatioti has now been used sufficient- 
ly long and is sufficiently introduced and rec- 
ommended by the highest sanitary authorities 
to make it entirely safe to recommend its adop- 
tion. Its simplicity and cheapness, and the 
small amount of care that it requires, commend 
it to general attention. The amount of land 
needed for its application is by no means large. 
Two hundred square feet will be quite sufficient 
for an ordinary household, though there are 
certain advantages in extending the area where 
circumstances allow. Indeed by the use of a 
rigorous vegetation especially the sunflower, 
the Jerusalem artichoke, or the common grape, • 




Fig. B 



it will be possible to get on with much less than 
the area specified. 

Only sufficient inclination of the surface is 
required to secure a flow :n the drains and one 
foot in one hundred feet will be fall enough to 
accomplish this, especially where the flush-tank 
is used. The application of the system is as 
follows : 

Let the tight drain deliver into a tightly 
cemented small cistern, say four feet by four 
feet, discharging through a bent overflow pipe 
of which the inlet is twelve inches below the 
point at which it leaves the wall of the cistern 
(near its top) Fig C. This will secure room 
for the deposit of solid matters at the bottom 
and for the floating of scum at the top. Once 
or twice a year it may be necessary to clean out 
the solid accumulation at the bottom, which is 
always worth the cost of removal as manure. The 
outlet should be not more than twelve inches 



below the surface of the ground, and should be 
continued through open jointed land-drain tiles 
say two inches in diameter, laid on a foundation 
of narrow boards or of inverted horse shoe 
tiles, also open jointed, and nowhere more than 
about twelve inches below the surface. This 
drain may be contmuous, or it may be the main 
for any number of longer, or shorter branches, 
-^the whole system acting as a means for con- 
veying the foul liquid to all parts of the area 
used for irrigation, and delivering it at a point 
within the reach of the roots of plants. It 
would probably be best, when a single long line, 
is not sufficient, to lay the lateral drains about 
four feet apart. 

It will depend on the degree to which the 
grease trap, and the tight cistern withhold solid 
matters whether the drain will require cleaning 
at long or short intervals. The writer found 
his own irrigation drains arranged as shown in 



DRAINAGE 



167 



Fig. B to work perfectly for five years. They 
were then cleansed and repaired at a cost of less 




Fig. C. 

than five dollars. A chief advantage of the 
boards or horse-shoe tiles is to afford a true 
bed that will facilitate the taking up and relay- 
ing when the cleansing is done. In cleansing 
it is only necessary to open from the upper end 
to a point where the drain has functions that 
are found to be quite clear. 

By this simple process liquid matter of the 
foulest and most dangerous character is distrib- 
uted thinly, and evenly through earth that is 
occupied by the roots of plants, and that is con- 
stantly permeated by the atmospheric air on 
which it depends for its oxydizing and disin- 
fecting properties. 

Means having been secured for the cleans- 
ing of the drain by regular flushing or by the 
use of a wire, or in whatever way may seem 
best, and all danger of the leaching away into the 
soil near the house or well, of the contents of 
this drain being avoided, our next attention 
should be given to the disinfecting of the air of 
the drain itself, and to preventing the ingress 
of this air into the house. The great disin- 
fectant under all such circumstances is com- 
mon air, and there is no way in which we can 
nearly so well secure ourselves against the 
production of dangerous gases in a drain as 
by the establishment of a free current of air ^ 
within it. 

In this work, as in almost everything else, 
the simplest way is the best. When the drain 
runs only from the kitshen sink, then a separ- 
ate air pipe should be carried from its house 
end well above the top of the house, (not near 
to the top of a chimney nor to a window), and 
be furnished at its upper end with a ventilating 
cowl that will tend to keep up a good current. 
There should be some means for admitting 



fresh air at the outer, or cistern end of the 
drain, to supply the current. Where there are 
plumbing works within the house, the drain 
may be connected directly with the soil pipe, 




Fig. D. 

and HO trap of afiy sort should be used in its 
course, but- the soil pipe should be continued 
of its full size out through the top of the house 
(See Fig. D) and be furnished with a ventilat- 
ing cowl. There will then be no trap in the 
course of the pipe to arrest solid matters and 



168 



DRAINAGE 



DREDGING 



hold them for decomposition, and there will be 
a steady current of fresh air sufficient to prevent 
tho. poisonous decomposition of the refuse matter 
contained in the pipe or drain, — which if de- 
prived of sufficient air would enter into a putre- 
faction that would be likely to evolve dangerous 
gases. The supply of air to the lower end of 
the drain may come from the sewer or from the 
cistern, if these are well ventilated. If there is NO 
sufficient ventilation of these, then there should 
be a trap near the lower end of the drain, and 
an inlet for fresh air into the drain above it. 
In cold climates, this inlet should be by a small 
pipe (say i 1-2 inches diameter), and it should 
run under ground for a sufficient distance to 
become somewhat warmed. 

To sum up, the leading principles to be fol- 
lowed are these : — to carry the refuse matter 
from the house through an absolutely tight 
drain to a tight cistern where their organic 
parts will rise to the surface, and where any 
heavy matter contained will settle at the bot- 
tom. To make the outlet from this cistern 
from a point between the scum and the sedi- 
ment, — where only liquid will be supplied ; to 
discharge this matter into open jointed drains 
extending through such an area of soil as will 
prevent the concentration at any point of 
enough liquid to filter away into the sub-soil, 
and at a point so near the surface that it will be 
subjected to the disinfecting action of the soil 
and of vegetation ; to furnish, in all cases, a di- 
rect current of fresh air through the drain ; and 
where a soil pipe is used to continue the direct 
current through this latter also. 

Drain Traps. — What are commonly known 
as drain traps would be better named " man- 
traps." 




Fig. E. 

If the necessary other means are adopted to 
prevent the ingress of foul air into houses, then 
it is very well to use immediately under the out- 
lets of wash-basins, sinks, etc., some form of 
water-seal trap, which shall be to a certain ex- 
tent a barrier against bad smells generated im- 
mediately within the waste pipe ;. but, as a main 
dependence these traps are a delusion and a 
snare. 

The usual form given to them is that shown 
in the accompanying figures, E F G. Figure G 
represents the common bell trap so often used 
over the outlet pipe of the kitchen sink, &c. 
Its movable part is very easily taken off, and is 
very apt to be left off, 'and even when it is in 
place it offers such a very slight resistance to 
the pressure of foul air as to be at all times in- 
efficient and quite generally to be, as a trap, 
simply nothing at all. 

The great objections to all water-seal traps 
are, first, that the resistance they offer to the 



pressure of sewer gas is so slight that a trifling 
change in the temperature of a sewer or cess- 




Fig. F. 

pool, the sudden filling of the sewer with water 
during heavy storms, or even the influence of a 
strong wind blowing against its outlet, or suck- 
ing strongly at a chimney flue, will suffice to 
open them ; and, second, that water is a very 
imperfect disinfectijig barrier. Fresh water in 
a trap may for a few moments absorb all the 
foul gases presented to it, but accompanying 
the absorption at the sewer end, there is, too 
often, — almost always, — a giving off at the 
house end. As soon as the water is saturated 
with the gas, and sometimes even before this, 
there is a rapid delivery of gas at the house end 
of the trap ; careful experiments have shown 
that carbonate of ammonia exposed at the sew- 
er end of a trap will produce its chemical reac- 
tion on colored liimus paper exposed at the 




Fig. G 

house end within fifteen minutes, and that even 
the heavier and more poisonous gases so com- 
monly produced in foul drains are all transmit- 
ted in their full force within a very short time, 
— even sufficiently to produce the corrosion of 
metals exposed at the house end. 

The real and effective drain trap is the same 
as the real and most effective disinfectant ; — a 
free circulation of common air. Safety is to be 
sought, not through a shutting out of the foul 
gases formed in the sewer, and drain, but in the 
prevention of this formation, by the free admis- 
sion and circulation of air. This being secured 
there is little to be apprehended, if the ordinary 
bent tube filled with water is used as a trap in 
branch pipes in such a way as to prevent the 
too rapid transmission of such odors as mav 
still be formed in the pipe. If there is no suf- 
ficient ventilation of pipes and sewers it is mad- 
ness to suppose that we can live safely in rooms 
which are protected frftm the invasion of pois- 
onous gases only by water-seal traps. 
DRAWERS. (^^-^ Undergarments.) 
DREDGING.— This is an important item 
connected with roasting, and requires a tin box 
with a perforated lid, called a "dredger." 
This usually contains wheat flour orilv, but for 



DRESS 



DROWNED 



169 



some joints the flour is mixed with grated 
breads dried herbs, or grated le»ion or orange 
peel. The dredger is shaken over the roast at 
short intervals, so that its contents remain on 
the surface and form, with the fat oozing out, a 
kind of coating, which is sometimes inten- 
tionally made verj' thick, as for hare. But 
these coatings are not so common now, or so 
fashionable, as thev were a few years ago. 

DRESS.— (6V^ Clothing, Waist, Skirt, 
Princess Dress, Cutting and Fitting and un- 
der the other respective names of garments.) 

DRILLING-. — A kind of coarse, hea\y. 
twilled linen cloth, much used for men's outer 
clothing in summer. It is a yard wide, and 
nearly always white or buff-colored. There is 
also a cheaper variety of drilling made of cotton. 

DRINKS. (See Beverages.) 

DROPS (Lemon.) — Mix together a quarter 
of a pound of loaf sugar, a quarter of a pound 
of butter, six ounces of flour, the }'olk of one 
egg. a teasponful of cold water, and a little 
lemon peel minced fine. Drop lumps of this 
mixture, the size of a walnut, on a .buttered 
tin plate, and bake it in a quick oven. 

Ratafia Drops. — Beat the whites of three 
eggs to a stiff froth, add ten ounces of powder- 
ed sugar, two ounces of bitter and six ounces 
of sweet almonds, blanched and pounded : mix 
well, drop in small spoonfuls on white paper ; 
sift powdered sugar over each cake and bake 
in a quick oven. 

DROPSY. — A s\-mptom of numerous dis- 
eases characterized by the collection of water 
or serous fluid in one or more of the closed 
ca\-ities of the body, independent of inflam- 
mation. Dropsy is caused either by pressure 
upon some part or the whole of the venous 
system, or by an altered condition of the 
blood. In the vast majority of cases it 
depends upon diseases of the liver, the heart, 
or the kidneys, and in these the original 
disease must be reached before a cure can be 
obtained. There is no treatment for dropsy 
that can be ventured upon without skilful 
medical ad\'ice. 

DROWNED. — fTo restore the appar- 
ently, i — The Royal National Life-boat Institu- 
tion, after extensive inquiries amongst medical 
men, medical bodies, and coroners, throughout 
Great Britain, published (in 1864) the following 
directions for restoring the apparently drowned. 
They are founded on those of Dr. Marshall 
Hall, combined with those of Dr. H. R. Syl- 
vester. 

I. Send immediately for medical assistance, 
blankets, and dry clothing, but proceed to treat 
the patient instantly on the spot, in the open 
air, with the face downward, whether on shore 
or afloat : exposing the face, neck, and chest 
to the ^\-ind, except in severe weather, and re- 
moN-ing all tight clothing from the neck and 
chest, especially the braces. 

The points to be aimed at are — first and iin- 
mediately. the restoration of breathing : and 
secondlv, after breathing is restored, the pro- 
motion of warmth and circulation. 



The efforts to restore breathing must be 
commenced immediately and energetically, and 
persevered in for one or two hours, or until a 
medical man has pronounced that life is ex- 
tinct. Efforts to promote warmth and circu- 
lation, beyond remo\-ing the wet clothes and 
drying the skin, must not be made until the 
first appearance of natural breathing: for if 
circulation of the blood be induced before 
breathing has recommenced, the restoration to 
life will be endangered. 

II. To Restore Breatliing. — To Clear 

the Throat. — Place the patient on the floor or 

ground, with the face downward, and one of 

the arms under the forehead, in which position 

' all fluids will more readily escape by the mouth, 

i and the tongue itself will fall forward, lea\-ing 

j the entrance into the windpipe free. Assist 

this operation by wiping and cleansing the 

I mouth. If satisfactory breathing commence, 

use the treatment described below to promote 

warmth. If there be only slight breathing, or 

no breathing, or if the breathing fail, then — 

To Excite Breathing. — Turn the patient well 
and instantly on the side, supporting the head, 
and excite the nostrils with snuff, hartshorn, 
and smelling salts, or tickle the throat -with a 
feather, etc., if they are at hand. Rub the chest 
and face warm, and dash cold water, or cold 
and hot water alternately, on them. If there 
be no success, lose not a moment, but in- 
stantly — 

To Ifnitate Breathing — Replace the patient 
on the face, raising and supporting the chest 
well on a folded coat or other article of dress. 
Turn the body ven,- gently on the side, and a 
little beyond, and then briskly on the face, and 
back again, repeating these measures cautiously, 
efficiently, and perseveringly, about fifteen times 
in the minute, occasionally varj-ing the side. 
By placing the patient on his chest, the weight 
of his body forces the air out : when tiu^ned on 
the side, this pressure is removed, and air 
enters the chest. This process is shown in 
Figs. I and 2. (^.See next page.") 

On each occasion that the body is replaced 
on the face, make uniform but efficient pres- 
sure, with brisk movement, on the back, be- 
tween and below the shoulder-blades or bones 
on each side, remo\-ing the pressure imme- 
diately before turning the body on the side. 
The first measure increases the expiration, the 
second commences inspiration. The result is 
respiration or jiatural breathing, and, if not 
too late, life. Whilst the above operations are 
being proceeded with, drj- the hands and feet, 
! and as soon as dn- clothing or blankets can be 
; procured, strip the body, and cover or gradually 
] re-clothe it, but take care not to interfere with 
the efforts to restore breathing. 
I Should these efforts not prove successful in 
I the course of from two to five minutes, proceed 
I to imitate breathing by Dr. Sylvester's method, 
as follows : — 

Place the patient on the back on a flat sur- 

I face, inclined a little upwards from the feet ; 

raise and support the head and shoulders on a 



170 



DROWNED 




Fig. I. Treatment of the Apparently Drowned. 



small firm cushion or folded articles of dress 
placed under the shoulder blades. Draw for- 
ward the patient's tongue, and keep it project- 
ing beyond the lips ; an elastic band over the 
tongue and under the chin will answer this pur- 



pose, or a piece of string or tape may be tied 
round them, or by raising the lower jaw, the 
teeth may be made to retain the tongue in that 
position. Remove all tight clothing from about 
the neck and chest, especially the braces. 




Fig .2. Treatment of the Apparently Drowned. 



To Imitate the Movements of Breathing.— 
Standing at the patient's head, grasp the arms 
just above the elbows, and draw the arms gently 
and steadily upwards above the head, and keep 
them stretched upwards for two seconds. {By 
this means air is drawn into the hnigs.) 
Then turn down the patient's arms, and press 
them gently and firmly for two seconds against 
the sides of the chest. {By this means air is 
pressed out of the lungs) This process is 
shown in Figs. 3 and 4. {See next page.) 

Repeat these measures alternately, deliber- 
ately, and perseveringly, about fifteen times in 
a minute, until a spontaneous effort to respire 
is perceived, immediately upon which cease to 
imitate the movements of breathing, and pro- 
ceed to induce circulation and luarmth. 

3. Treatment after Natural Breathing 
has been Restored. — To Promote Warmth 
and Circulation. — Commence rubbing the 



limbs upwards, with firm grasping pressure and 
energy, using handkerchiefs, flannels, etc. {By 
this 7neasure the blood is propelled along the 
veins tozuards the heart.) The friction must 
be continued under the blanket or over the dry 
clothing. 

Prornote the warmth of the body by the ap- 
plication of hot flannels, bottles, or bladders of 
hot water, heated bricks, etc., to the pit of the 
stomach, the arm-pits, between the thighs, and 
to the soles of the feet. 

On the restoration of life, a teaspoonful of 
warm water should be given ; and then, if the 
power of swallowing has returned, small 
quantities of wine, warm brandy and water, or 
coffee, should be administered. The patient 
should be kept in bed, and a disposition to 
sleep encouraged. 

General Observations. — The above treat- 
ment should be persevered in for some hours ; 



DROWNING 



DRUGGET 



171 




Fig. 3. Treatment of the Apparently Drowned. 



it is an erroneous opinion that persons are irre- 
coverable because life does not soon make its 
appearance, persons having been restored after 
many hours of continued effort. The struggle 
should not be given over until a physician pro- 
nounces death to have unmistakably occurred. 
Cautions. — Prevent all unnecessary crowd- 
ing of persons round the body, especially if in 
an apartment. 



Avoid rough usage, and do not allow the 
body to remain on the back unless the tongue 
is secured. 

Under no circumstances hold the body up 
by the feet, or roll it over a barrel. 

On no account place the body in a warm 
bath unless under medical direction, and even 
then it should only be employed as a momen- 
tary excitant. 




Fig. 4. Treatment of the Apparently Drowned. 



DROWNING. — (To save a person from).— 

Never approach a drowning person from the 
front, but take him from behind, by the hair ; 
and never allow him to grasp any part of your 
body if you can possibly prevent it. Should 
you find yourself so seized, sink at once 
to the bottom, when the hold upon you will 
probably be released. Only a good swimmer 
should attempt to rescue a drowning man in 
deep water ; for a novice to try it is simply to 
imperil a second life without reasonable chance 



of saving the first. Better hasten to secure a 
rope or pole, which, thrown quickly to the per- 
son in danger, will give him a much surer 
cliance of escape. If possible let one going 
to the rescue have a rope tied under his own 
arms and held by those on shore. Young 
swimmers should use especial caution. 

DRUGGET. — A coarse woollen cloth of a 
rather flimsy te.xture, sometimes made wholly 
of wool, and sometimes with woof of wool and 
the warp of flax thread. Drugget is stronger 



172 



DRUGS 



and has less nap than baize, and, among other 
uses, is employed instead of carpets for cover- 
ing floors, or to spread on carpets to preserve 
them from being damaged ; for this purpose it is 
woven from a yard and a half to two yards 
and a half wide. 

Milled Drugget is printed in bright showy 
colors, and being very thick and strong serves 
very well as a substitute for carpets in small 
apartments. It is manufactured in pieces from 
a yard to two yards wide. 

DRUGS. — In purchasing drugs, whether in 
the raw state or in the form of extracts, tinc- 
tures, etc., it is very important to obtain them 
from a reputable chemist, who will take care 
that the article is genuine and properly labelled. 
The adulteration of drugs is carried on to an 
enormous extent, and, as commonly sold by 
irresponsible parties, the strength is seldom 
above one half of what it ought be. Besides 
this there is the danger of substituting a 
cheap drug for a dear one. Drugs are most of 
them soon spoiled by keeping, and in all cases 
they should be preserved in well-stoppered 
bottles — with the exception of Epsom salts, 
nitre, soda, 'and some few others, which will 
keep without injury for an indefinite time. All 
vegetable medicines lose their virtues in the 
course of a few months, if not carefully closed 
from the air ; and even in bottles they seldom 
keep good for a year. It is desirable, there- 
fore, to purchase them in small quantities at a 
time, and to renew them at intervals of twelve 
months. Most drugs simply lose their strength 
with time ; but laudanum on the contrary be- 
comes stronger, especially if it be left uncork- 
ed ; the spirit evaporates, leaving almost pure 
opium. This must be guarded against, as the 
most fatal results might occur from giving a 
dose much greater (in point of strength) than 
was intended. 

Some drugs requiring extended notice are 
given under separate titles in this work. 

The additional ones given below are least 
liable to abuse, in family use. Each is intro- 
duced in alphabetical order with its properties 
and effects given under the respective heads — 
(a) Physical properties j {b) Therapeutical 
effects; (c) Use ; and (d^ Dose, and mode of 
administration. Extracts, tinctures, and all 
such compounds as will bear keeping, and are 
likely to be useful in a family, are better when 
bought of a good druggist than as made at 
home. They are therefore given without direc- 
tion to manufacture. It should be borne in 
mind, however, that drugs of any kind should 
be used very sparingly except by direction of a 
physician. See Weights and Measures. 

Acid, Acetic. — Vinegar distilled from wood, 
and purified. 

{ti) Physical properties. — Limpid, colorless, 
volatile ; odor, pungent and fragrant ; taste, acid. 

{b) Therapetitical effects. — Stimulant, escha- 
rotic, but when diluted with water, cooling. 

(<:) Used in lotions for cooling purposes 
diluted with water, also in ringworm and re- 
moving warts. 



id) Dose. — It IS not given internally, except 
in combination with other medicines. 

Acid, Acetic {diluted). — Diluted acetic 
acid, prepared from the acid just described. 

{a) Physical properties. — A clear acid fluid. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Astringent, dia- 
phoretic, cooling, and antiseptic. It is useful 
in making the acetate of lead more soluble. 
Externally, it is stimulant in its full strength, or 
when mixed with water, cooling. 

(c) Used in fevers internally ; or as a gargle 
with capsicum ; or as an inhalation in sore 
throat. A useful lotion when mixed with spirit 
and water, in bruises, sprains, and burns. 

id) Dose. — Half a drachm to one drachm. 

Acid, Benzoic. 

{a) Physical properties. — White and shin- 
ing crystals, with flakes of a fragrant aromatic 
odor, and acid taste. Sparingly soluble in 
water, but is easily dissolved in alcohol. When 
heated, is completely evaporated, with an agree- 
able and peculiar odor; but if the tempera- 
ture is raised too high, it takes fire, and burns 
with a yellow flame. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant and ex- 
pectorant. 

{c) Used in chronic bronchitis. 

\d) Dose. — Five grains to half a drachm twice 
a day. 

Acid, Carbolic {pure and i)>ipure). — A pow- 
erful antiseptic substance, obtained from coal- 
tar oil. 

{a) Physical properties. — The pure anhy- 
drous acid is in long, colorless, prismatic crys- 
tals, turning a pale pink on keeping. It rapidly 
deliquesces in moist air. The imptire is a 
more or less brown liquid. Both strongly re- 
semble tar in smell. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Strongly antisep- 
tic, antifermentative, and caustic. 

{c) The pure acid is applied on cotton for 
allaying tenderness and pain in decaved teeth. 
Being a caustic, it should be carefully kept 
from touching anything but the tooth ; when 
properly used, it is the best application for 
toothache arising from this cause, and is indeed 
a specific. 

Dose. — About a grain of the acid is enough 
for toothache. One drachm of carbolic acid to 
a pint of water is strong enough for disinfectant 
purposes. 

Acid, Citric, prepared from the juice of 
lemons. 

{a) Physical properties. — Sharp acid taste, 
white semi-transparent crystals of a rhomboidal 
shape. Decomposed by heat ; soluble in twice 
their weight of cold, and half tJieir weight of 
boiling water. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Refrigerant. 

{c) Used in febrile and inflammatory com- 
plaints ; dissolved in water as a substitute for 
lemon-juice, and added to soda to form the 
common effervescing draught. 

(d) Dose. — lo grains to i scruple ; 15 grains 
of the acid neutralize 20 grains of bicarbonate 
of soda, to form the effervescing draught. 

Acid, Gallic, prepared from galls. 



DRUGS 



173 



(a) Physical properties. — A powder of near- 
ly colorless semi-crystalline appearance : dissi- 
pated by heat ; dissolves in water and spirit. 

{c) Used in discharges of blood and in diar- 
rhoea, and in other mucous discharges. Also 
in hemorrhoids. 

{d) Dose. — 2 to 5 grains. As an injection 
half a drachm dissolved in one ounce of water ; 
an ointment, 20 grains are mixed with an ounce 
of lard, with the addition of 30 or 40 grains of 
powdered opium. 

Acid, Hydrochloric {diluted). — Hydro- 
chloric acid, mixed with three times its bulk 
of water. 

{a) Physical properties. — -Taste, intensely 
acrid and caustic ; smell acrid and suffocating ; 
the acid is colorless when pure, but usually is 
of a straw color, with the presence of peroxide 
of iron, or nitrous acid. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Tonic, antiseptic, 
and partially diuretic, by promoting all the 
secretions. 

(c) Used, when combined with diluted nitric 
acid, in affections of the liver ; also with bit- 
ters, to prevent the generation of worms ; in 
gargles for sore throat. 

(d) Dose. — 20 minims to 40. 

Acid, Sulphuric {diluted). — Sulphuric acid 
mixed with about eleven times its bulk of 
water. 

{a) Physical properties. — Strong acid taste, 
inodorous, colorless, and transparent. Specific 
gravity, 1.103. I 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Tonic, astringent, | 
and antiseptic. 

(c) Used in dyspepsia, also to check sweat- 
ings, salivation, and diarrhoea ; likewise as a 
gargle. 

{d) Dose. — 10 minims to 30, diluted largely 
(2 drachms to 8 ouncesj as a gargle, with honey, 
sage, etc. , 

Acid, Tartaric. 

{c) Physical properties. — Colorless imper- j 
feet crystals, inodorous, very acid, soluble, | 
largely in water. I 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Refrigerant, an- 
tiseptic, diuretic, and slightly aperient. 

(t) Used in fevers, etc., with some soda or 
potass, as ^n effervescing draught, instead of 
citric acid ; the proportions being the same. 

iEther, Sulphuric. 

('.') Physical properties. — -A limpid, volatile, 
inflammable fluid, without color, produces great 
cold by evaporation : taste, peculiar, but hot 
and pungent ; sparingly soluble in water, readily 
so in alcohol. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — A diffusible stim- 
ulant, afterwards narcotic and antispasmodic ; 
externally cooling ; when inhaled producing 
anesthesia. 

{c) Used in hysteria, faintings, asthma, and 
other spasmodic complaints. 

{d) Dose.— 20 minims to 60, in water. 

Aloes, Barbadoes. — The inspissated juice 
of the cut leaf of the Aloe spicata, imported 
from the Cape of Good Hope and West In- 
dies. I 



{a) Physical properties. — Of a dark brown 
color, and shining resinous surface, with a 
strong disagreeable odor, and very bitter taste ; 
very difficult to powder, and soluble in diluted 
alcohol. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — A stimulating pur- 
gative, producing its chief effects on the lower 
bowels. Apt to produce and aggravate hemor- 
rhoids. 

{c) Used in dyspepsia and in head-affections : 
also as a common purgative. 

{d) Dose. — One-fourth of a grain to 5 grains, 
well powdered, or dissolved in hot water. 

Alum. 

{a) Physical properties . — A semi-trans- 
parent, rough, irregular mass of saline matter. 
Taste, acid-astringent. Soluble in 18 parts of 
water at 60 degrees, and in a little more than 
an equal weight of water at 212 degrees. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Astringent and 
styptic. 

{c) Used internally in haemorrhages ; exter- 
nally in opthalmia, or as a gargle. 

((-/) Dose. — ID grains to 20. As gargle — one 
drachm' to a pint of water. 

Ammonia, Liquor of. — Ammonia condensed 
in water. 

{a) Physical properties. — A stimulating so- 
lution. Blisters the skin. 

{b) Therapejitical effects. — Stimulating, dia- 
phoretic, anti-acid, when given internally. Ex- 
ternally, irritant and escharotic. 

{c) Used when largely diluted, in faintings, as- 
phyxia, hysteria, spasms, acidities of the stom- 
ach ; and externally, as an irritant of the skin. 

{d) Dose. — The aromatic spirits of ammonia 
is the usual form for internal use. Dose from 
15 to 40 minims. 

Ammonia, Sesqui-Carbonate of. — ^Am- 
monia united with carbonic acid. 

{a) Physical properties. — A mass of irreg- 
ular crystals, somewhat resembling white sugar, 
but more transparent and striated. Smell, 
pungent ; taste, sharp and alkaline ; soluble in 
four times its weight of cold water ; becomes 
opaque and friable on exposure to the air. 

{b) Therapetitical effects. — Stimulating, an- 
tispasmodic, diaphoretic, and anti-acid. 

{c) Used in dyspepsia, hysteria, and all dis- 
eases requiring a rapidly acting diffusible 
stimulant. Externally, to the nostrils in syn- 
cope. 

{d) Dose. — 2 grains to 5, in pills or dissolved 
in any fluid. 

Antimony, Potassio-Tartrate of. — Tartar 
emetic. 

{a) Physical properties. — A colorless, tran- 
sparent, inodorous, crystaUized salt, with a 
slightly metallic taste. Soluble in fifteen times 
its weight of cold water, and twice its weight of 
boiling water ; insoluble in pure alcohol, but 
soluble in proof spirit or wine. The aqueous 
solution becomes decomposed by keeping. 

{b) TJierapeutical effects. — Emetic in large 
doses ; diaphoretic in small ones ; expectorant, 
.■^■lightly aperient and alterative : externally ap- 
plied, produces a crop of pustules. 



174 



DRUGS 



(c) Usedio evacuate the stomach to slow the 
circulation, and to produce profuse perspira- 
tion. Externally applied in the form of an oint- 
ment, to produce counter-irritation. 

{d) Dose. — As an emetic, i grain to 4 grains 
in solution ; in pneumonia, y^ a grain to 3 
grains, often repeated ; as an expectorant, or 
diaphoretic, ^ of a grain to ^ a grain. 

AssafcEtida, Gum. 

{a) Physical properties. — A mass of irreg- 
ular pieces, varying in color from red or red- 
dish-brown to white ; odor resembling garlic, 
but more fetid ; taste, bitter and slightly acrid ; 
difficult to powder, unless rubbed with carbon- 
ate of ammonia. Forms a milky mixture with 
water. 

(/;) Therapeutical cpfecis. — Antispasmodic, ex- 
pectorant, anthelmintic. 

{c) Used in hysteria, flatulence, colic, etc. 

\d) Dose. — 5 to 10 grams. 

Bismuth, Trisnitrate of.— The metal bismuth 
united with nitric acid. 

{a) Physical properties. — A white, tasteless, 
inodorous powder, very slightly soluble in 
water. 

ib) Therapeutical effects. — Antispasmodic, 
stomachic and tonic. 

(f) Used much in dyspepsia, attended with 
pain of the stomach, and water-brash, and diar- 
rhcca. 

{ii~) Dose.- — 5 to ID grains. 

Borax. — Biborate of soda. 

{a') Physical properties. — Sweetish, shining, 
efflorescent crystals, soluble in twelve jDarts of 
cold, and two parts of boiling water. 

(/;) Therapeutical effects. — Absorbent, cnoling, 
and alterative. 

{c) Used in intestinal irritation of infants. 
Externally applied to thrush, and to cutaneous 
diseases. 

(c/) Dose. — 5 grains to 30. Externally ap- 
plied, dissolved in eight times its weight of 
honey or mucilage, or better, in pure water. 

Calomel. See Mercury. 

Camphor. A peculiar substance, obtained 
by distillation from the wood of the Laurus 
camplior. 

[a) Physical properties. — In large white 
semi-transparent cakes, with a strong peculiar- 
ly fragrant and aromatic odor ; taste, bitter 
and acrid ; insoluble in water ,• soluble in alcohol, 
ether, acetic acid, and the fixed oils. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant, dia- 
phoretic, sedative ; externally, soothing. 

{c) Used in hysteria, asthma, chorea, and 
generally in spasmodic diseases. Externally, 
in muscular pains, bruises, etc. 

(d) Dose. — 3 grains to 5, in pills. When 
dissolved in water as camphor mixture, the 
quantity is scarcely appreciable. 

Cantharides, Plaster of. — Blistering plas- 
ter. Sometimes prepared in the form of a 
tissue paper, imbued with the active principle. 

{a) Physical properties. — The plaster is a 
firm preparation requiring the warmth of the 
hand to enable it to be spread upon leather or 
calico. It soon spoils by keeping; and if 



more than a month old should, after spreading,, 
be dusted over with powdered cantharides. 

{b) Therapeutical effects.— To raise the cuti- 
cle from the cutis, producing at the same time 
a large secretion of serous fluid. The time 
varies from 3 hours to 12, or even more. In 
babies the blister should always be carefully 
watched after 3 hours, as it often rises rapidly 
and would be liable to produce severe ulcera- 
tion of the skin. Blistering may be promoted 
by applying a poultice after the removal of the 
cantharides. 

Capsicum. 

(a) Physical properties. — Berries of a red 
color, and an extremely pungent odor and 
taste, which is yielded to alcohol, ether, vin- 
egar and water. 

(b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant, stom- 
achic, and rubefacient. 

{c) Used in dyspepsia, flatulence ; externally, 
as an ingredient in gargles for relaxed sore 
throat. 

{d) Dose. — 3 grains to 5 grains, in pills ; 2 
drachms to 8 ounces form the strength for using 
as a gargle diluted largely with water. 

Castor Oil, obtained from Ricinus com- 
munis. 

{a) Physical properties. — A pale yellow- 
colored, transparent and viscid oil, with a faint 
odor and nauseous taste. 

(b) Therapeutical effects. — Mildly aperient. 

{c) Used in colic and in those cases of con- 
stipation which will not bear drastic purga- 
tives ; also for mixing with gruel for the ordin- 
ary enema. 

id) Dose.- — A teaspoonful to one or two 
tablespoonfuls ; an ounce is the proper quan- 
tity for mixing with gruel to make an enema. 

Cerate. — A species of ointment made rather 
hard with wax. 

{a) Simple Cerate. — Add 20 ounces of melt- 
ed wax to a pint of olive oil, and mix while 
warm, stirring till cold. 

[b) Cerate or Spermaceti. — Melt together 
eight ovuices of white wax and ten of sper- 
maceti ; then add a pint of olive oil, and stir 
together till they cool. 

{c) Cerate of Acetate of Lead. — Melt four 
ounces of white wax in eight fluid ounces of 
olive oil ; then gradually add four c'.rachms of 
powdered acetate of lead, previously rubbed 
with two fluid ounces of olive oil. and stir with 
a spatula till they unite. 

{d) Cerate of Resin. — Mix together 15 
ounces each of resin and wax, and melt them 
over a slow fire ; then add a pint of olive oil, 
and press the cerate, while hot, through a linen 
cloth. 

Chalk, prepared. — Friable carbonate of 
lime, rubbed into a fine powder and washed. 

{(i) Physical properties. — An inodorous, in- 
sipid, white, friable powder, heavy, and insolu- 
ble in water. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Anti-acid, astring- 
ent, and absorbent. 

{c) Used in acidities of the stomach and 
bowels, and to correct the irritation v/hich is 



DRUGS 



175 



established in diarrhoea. Externally, as a mild 
application of sores and burns. 

{d) Dose. — ID to 15 grains. 

Camomile Flowers. 

{a) Physical properties. 

The flowers are small, with a strong, fragrant 
odor, and bitter aromatic taste, and some slight 
degree of warmth. Water and alcohol both 
absorb the virtues of this plant. 

(b) Therapeutical effects. — Tonic, stomachic 
and carminative. The warm infusion, when 
weak, is emetic. Externally soothing. 

{c) Used in dyspepsia, hysteria, flatuknce, 
and also to work off emetics. 

{d) Dose of the powder. — 30 to 40 grains 
twice a day. 'J~he infusion — a half ounce to a 
pint of water — is usually preferred. 

Chloride of Zinc. — A combination of zinc 
with chlorine. 

(a) Physical properties. — In solid piece, 
snow-white, incJdorous, having a strongly styptic 
and metallic taste. 

(/;) Powerfully caustic, destroying the vitality 
of the part with which it is in contact, and 
causing very severe pain. In solution it is used 
as a disinfectant, appearing to act more ener- 
getically than chlorinated soda or lime, with 
a less disagreeable odor of chlorine. 

{c) Used as a caustic in cancer and fungoid 
disease. In solution, it is applied to cutaneous 
diseases, and to mucous membranes, but re- 
quires great caution in its use. As a disin- 
fectant, it must be largely diluted, {See Dis- 

INFECTAXTS.) 

Chinchona Bark {yellow). 

{a) Physical properties. — Larger, thicker, 
and less rolled than the pale bark. Externally 
of a brownish yellow, and internally of a 
cinnamon brown. The fracture is fibrous ; taste 
bitter, and less aromatic than the pale, with 
scarcely any degree of astringency. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Astringent, tonic, 
antiseptic, and febrifuge. 

{c) Used in typhoid fevers, and in all low 
states of the system, being in such cases su- 
perior to quinine. 

{d) Dose. — 10 grains to 50, in wine or wine 
and water. 

Cinnamon. — Bark, oil, and water, used as a 
warm and cordial spice to prevent the griping 
of purgatives, etc. 

Cod-Liver Oil.^Prepared from the liver of 
the cod-fish." 

{a) Physical properties. — An oil of three 
different colors ; pale yellow, pale brown, and 
dark brown. The pale brown appears to pos- 
sess the highest virtues. 

{b) Therapeiitical effects. — Nutritive and act- 
ing also on the general system. 

if) Used largely in consumption and chronic 
bronchitis to diminish the secretion from the 
lungs, and arrest, to some extent, the waste in- 
cident to these diseases ; in nervous affections 
as a nerve-food, and in some skin diseases ; also 
in other exhausting diseases. 

(^) Dose. — I drachm carried up to 4 in any 
convenient vehicle, as infusion of cloves. 



Colocynth. — The peeled fruit of the bitter 
cucumber. 

{a) Physical properties. — A white, soft, po- 
rous, medullary substance, investing the seeds 
with an intensely bitter, acrid, and nauseous 
taste. 

{b) Therapeiitical effects. — Powerfully ape- 
rient. 

{c) Used, with warm cordial spices, as an or- 
dinary aperient. {See Extracts.) 

(d) Dose. — 5 to 10 grains. 

Conium (Hemlock). — The leaves of Conium 
maciilatmn, an indigenous plant. 

{a) Physical properties. — Has a heavy nar- 
cotic smell, with a bitter, nauseous, and herba- 
ceous taste ; color, dull green ; powers soon 
destroyed by light. Should be gathered just 
as the plant comes into flower, and dried in the 
sun, or in a stove. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Sedative, narcotic 
— in some cases alterative, and even tonic. 

{c) Used in scirrhous and cancerous affec- 
tions externally, and internally for neuralgia 
and pulmonary complaints ; also in scrofulous 
complaints of children, especially in ophthal- 
mia — in all cases requiring great caution ; ex- 
ternally as a poultice, made by scalding the 
fresh leaves. 

{d) Dose. — 2 to 3 or 4 grains. 

Copaiba Balsam. 

{a) Physical properties. — 'A liquid of a 
transparent yellowish color, and peculiar smell 
and taste, which is pungent, acrid, and nause- 
ous ; when fresh, of the consistency of linseed 
oil, gradually becoming thicker by exposure to 
the air, till at last it is as solid as resin ; soluble 
in ether and alcohol. 

{b) Therapeutical effects.~St\Tcm\2int, diuretic, 
purgative in large closes ; allays irritation of 
the mucous membranes, and especially those 
of the urinary passages. 

{c) Used in chronic bronchitis, spasmodic 
asthma, whooping-cough, and in chronic in- 
flammation of the bladder, etc. 

{d) Dose. — 10 minims to 30 in emulsion, or 
in the gelatine capsules in which it is sold. 

Creasote. — A peculiar liquid prepared from 
pyroxilic oil. 

{a) Physical properties. — An oily, colorless, 
transparent fluid, with a disagreeable smell, re- 
sembling somewhat the odor of badly-smoked 
meat. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Tonic, stomachic, 
diaphoretic, antiseptic, and styptic. 

{c) Used internally in phthisis ; also in 
troublesome vomiting, from any cause not 
readily understood, as seasickness. 

Decoction of Chinchona. 

{a) Boil 10 drachms of bruised yellow 
chinchona in a pint of water for ten minutes, in 
a closed vessel, then strain. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Antiseptic, as- 
tringent, tonic, febrifuge. 

(<:) Used in fever, malignant sore throat, dys- 
pepsia. 

yd) Dose. — \]4. to 3 ounces twice or thrice 
a day. 



176 



DRUGS 



Decoction of Dandelion. 

{a) Boil 4 ounces of bruised dandelion in i % 
pints of distilled water to a pint, and strain. 

(b) Therapeutical effects. — Diuretic, slightly 
aperient, and specially acting on the liver. 

(r) Used in torpid conditions of the liver, 
jaundice, habitual constipation, etc. 

(d) Dose. — 2 or 3 ounces twice or thrice a 
day. 

Decoction of Iceland Moss. 

{a) Boil s drachms of Iceland moss in a pint 
and a half of water down to a pint, and strain. 

{b) Therape7itical effect. — Tonic, emollient, 
slightly astringent. 

(c) Used in consumption and dysentery. 

(d) Dose. — -I to 2 ounces. 
Decoction of Logwood. 

{a) Boil 10 drachms of sliced logwood in 
I Yz pints of water to a pint, and strain. 

(^) Therapeutical effects. — Astringent and 
tonic. 

{c) Used in diarrhoea and dysentery. 

{d) Dose. — I ounce to 2 ounces after each 
action of the bowels. 

Decoction of Poppyheads. 

{a) Boil 5 ounces of bruised poppyheads in 
3 pints of water for a quarter of an hour, and 
strain. 

(^) Therapeutical effects. — Anodyne and 
soothing. 

(r) Used as 2, fomentation in painful swell- 
in js and inflammation. 

Decoction of Sarsaparilla {simple.^ 

(a) Boil 4 ounces of sarsaparilla in 4 pints 
of water to 2 pints, and strain. 

(^) Therapeutical effects. — Alterative, dia- 
phoretic, and tonic. 

(f) Used in cutaneous diseases, chronic 
rheumatism, and scrofula. 

{d) Dose. — 2 ounces, twice or thrice a day- 
Decoction of Sarsaparilla {compound). 

{a) Mix 4 pints of boiling decoction of sar- 
saparilla, ID drachms of sliced sassafras, 10 
drachms of guaiacumwood shavings, 10 drachms 
of bruised stick-liquorice, and 3 drachms of 
mezereon bark ; boil for a quarter of an hour, 
and strain. 

ip) (c) id) Therapeutical effects. — The same 
as the last, but warmer, and therefore better 
suited to weak stomachs. 

Dill Water. — Prepared from, Dill seeds by 
distillation. 

{a) Physical properties. — An aromatic odor, 
with a pungent agreeable taste. 

{b) Therape7itical effects. — Carminative and 
stimulative. 

{c) Used in the flatulence and gripings of 
children. 

(.'/) Dose. — Yz drachm to i >^ ounce. 

IJxtract of Gentian. 

{a) Made from the gentian root. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Tonic and stom- 
achic. 

{c) Used in dyspepsia. 

Id) Dose. — 5 to 20 grains. 

Extract of Henbane. — Prepared from the 
leaves of Hyoscyanius ftiger. 



(a) Physical properties. — An extract of a 
dingy olive color, and a peculiar, disagreeable 
smell ; taste, bitterish and saline. 

(b) Therapeutical effects. — Narcotic, ano- 
dine, and antispasmodic. 

{c) Used instead of opium, in irritability of 
the nervous system, or mucous surfaces, or in 
combination with purgatives to prevent their 
griping, as it does not cause constipation. 

{d) Dose. — 5 to 8 grains. 

Extract of Hop. 

(a) Physical properties. — A dark-colored 
bitter extract, without much smell. 

(b) Therape7itical effects. — Tonic and se- 
dative. 

{c) £/J^^in chronic dyspepsia and loss of sleep. 

\d) Dose. — ID to 15 grains. 

Extract of Sarsaparilla {liquid). Pre- 
pared from sarsaparilla, and used for the same 
purposes as the decoction. It is sold both as a 
simple and compound extract. 

{a) Dose. — 30 drops to i drachm two or 
three times a day in water. 

Gamboge. — A gum resin, of a purgative na- 
ture, but too powerful for domestic use. 

Horseradish (the fresh root). 

{a) Physical properties. — Pungent odor, bit- 
ing, acrid taste ; communicates its active 
principles partially to water, but completely to 
alcohol. 

(])) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant, diuretic, 
sudorific, emetic. 

if) Used in paralytic affections and chronic 
rheumatism. 

{d) Dose. — I to 2 drachms, cut into small 
pieces, or made into an infusion. 

Infusion of Chamomile. 

Chamomile tea. 

{a) Macerate 5 drachms of chamomile flow- 
ers in a pint of boiling distilled water for ten 
minutes, in a closed vessel, and strain. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Tonic, stomachic ; 
emetic, when warm. Externally soothing. 

(<:) Used in dyspepsia, and to assist the opera- 
tion of emetics. 

(//) Dose. — I to 2 ounces. For emetic pur- 
poses, a weaker infusion is used in large 
quantities. 

Infusion of Cloves. 

(a) Macerate 3 drachms of bruised cloves in a 
pint of boiling water, in a covered vessel, and 
strain. 

{b) Thei'apeutical effects. — Stimulant, stom- 
achic, slightly tonic. 

(c) Used as a vehicle for more active tonics, 
especially cod-liver oil. 

{d) Dose. — I ounce to 2 or 3. 

Infusion of (3re\\t\sii\{co»ipoufid). 

(a) Macerate 2 drachms of sliced gentian, 2 
drachms of dried orange-peel, and 4 drachms 
of lemon-peel in a pint of boiling water for an 
hour, in a covered vessel, and strain. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stomachic and 
tonic. 

{c) Used in dyspepsia and general debility. 

{d) Dose. — lY to 2 ounces two or three 
times a day. 



DRUGS 



177 



Infusion of Linseed {compound). 

Linseed tea. 

{a) Macerate 6 drachms of bruised linseed 
and lo drachms of sliced fresh liquorice in a 
pint of boiling water, for four hours, near the 
fire, in a covered vessel, and strain. 

(p) Therapetitical ejfects. — Soothing, especial- 
ly to the mucous passages. 

if) Used in chronic bronchitis and strangury. 

(d) Dose, ad libitu7n. 

Infusion of Orange-peel {compoimd^. 

(a) Macerate half an ounce of dried orange- 
peel, two drachms of lemon-peel, one drachm of 
cloves bruised, in a pint of boiling water, for a 
quarter of an hour, in a covered vessel, and 
strain. 

(d) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant, stom- 
achic, and tonic. 

(<:) Used in dyspepsia, and as a vehicle for 
other remedies. 

(d) Dose. — I ounce to 2 or 3, at short inter- 
vals. 

Infusion of Quassia. 

{a) Macerate 10 scruples of quassia sliced, 
in a pint of boiling water for two hours, in a 
covered vessel. 

{b) Therapetitical effects. — Tonic and stom- 
achic. 

(c) Used in dyspepsia. 

(1^) Dose. — I >< to 2 ounces. 

Infusion of Rhubarb. 

(a) Macerate 3 drachms of sliced rhubarb 
root in a pint of boiling water for two hours, in 
a covered vessel, and strain. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stomachic, tonic, 
and aperient. 

{c) Used in dyspepsia accompanied with con- 
sipation, especially in combination with gentian. 

(d) Dose. — %, ounce to i>^ ounce. 
Infusion of Roses (compound^. 

(a) Put three drachms of the dried red rose 
leaves into a pint of boiling water, then add a 
fluid drachm and a half of diluted sulphuric 
acid. Macerate for two hours, and strain the 
liquor ; lastly, add 6 drachms of sugar. 

(b) Therapeutical effects.— Astringent, refrige- 
rant, and antiseptic. 

(c) Used as a drink in fevers ; also as a vehicle 
for sulphate of magnesia, quinine, etc. 

(d) Dose. — I >^ to 2 ounces. 
Infusion of Senna {compound). 
Senna tea. 

{a) Macerate 15 drachms of senna leaves, 
and 4 scruples of bruised ginger in a pint of 
boiling water for an hour in a closed vessel, 
and strain. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Aperient. 

\c) Used as a vehicle for more active purga- 
tives, which it assists ; or by itself as a mild 
purgative. 

{d) Dose. — I to 3 ounces. 

Ipecacuanha, the root. 

{a) Physical properties. — In pieces of three 
or four inches in length, with a resinous frac- 
ture ; an acrid aromatic somewhat bitter taste, 
slightly nauseous ; peculiar odor ; yields its 
active principle to water, spirit, and wine. 
12 



{b) Therapeutical effects. — Emetic, diaphor- 
etic, expectorant, and acting peculiarly on the 
liver. 

{c) Used as an em.etic ; also as an expectorant 
in bronchitis, asthma, etc., as a nauseate in 
pneumonia, diarrhoea, dysentery ; as a diaphor- 
etic in various diseases, and in torpid liver, to 
promote its proper secretions. 

{d) Dose. — As an emetic, 1 5 to 30 grains ; as 
a nauseate, 2 to 4 grains ; as a diaphoretic, i 
grain, with a small dose of opium ; as an expec- 
torant or for torpid liver, >^ to i grain. 

Jalap, the root. 

{a) Physical properties. — Thin, transverse 
slices, or round masses ; solid, hard, and heavy ; 
dark-gray color, striated appearance ; sickly 
smell ; taste sweetish, but nauseous. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Actively aperient. 

{c) Used in obstinate constipation, worms, 
dropsy ; requires a carminative to prevent grip- 
ing and nausea. 

id) Dose. — 10 grains to 30. 

Laudanum. — See Opium. 

Liniment of Ammonia. 

{a) To I fluid ounce of the solution of am- 
monia add 2 fluid ounces of olive oil, and shake 
together. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant and ru- 
befacient. 

{c) Used in sore throat externally, also to 
chronic rheumatism, with friction. 

Liniment of Camphor. 

{a) Dissolve i ounce of camphor in 4 fluid 
ounces of olive oil. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant. 

(r) Usedxn chronic rheumatism, with friction. 

Liniment of Camphor {compotind). 

{a) Dissolve 2>4 ounces of camphor and i 
drachm of oil of lavender in 17 fluid ounces of 
rectified spirits of wine ; then add 3 fluid ounces 
of the strong solution of ammonia, and shake 
well together. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant. 

{c) Used with friction in the same way as the 
simple liniment, but it is more powerful. 

Liniment of Turpentine. 

{a) Shake well together 2 ounces of soft soap, 
and an ounce of camphor, with 16 fluid ounces 
of the spirit of turpentine, until mixed. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant. 

{c) Used in paralytic affections and chronic 
rheumatism ; also to burns and scalds. 

Liquor of Acetate of Lead.— Sold by the 
druggists. 

{a) Therapeutical ^^c/j. — Sedative and 
astringent when applied externally. 

{b) Used as a lotion to inflamed surfaces when 
largely diluted with water. Goulard water is 
prepared from it, by adding a fluid drachm and 
a half of it and 2 fluid drachms of proof spirit 
to a pint of distilled water. 

Magnesia, Carbonate of. 

{a) Physical properties.— K solid, white, 
tasteless, inodorous powder, insoluble in v/ater. 

{b) Therapeutical ^_^^^/j-.— Anti-acid and pur- 
gative. 

{c) Used in dyspepsia with costiveness, in the 



178 



DRUGS 



constipation of children and delicate grown per- 
sons. 

id) Dose. — % drachm to i drachm or 2. 

Magnesia, Sulphate of. — Epsom salts. 

{a) Physical properties. — Small pointed crys- 
tals of a transparent, colorless appearance ; in- 
odorous, with a disagreeable bitter taste ; dis- 
solves readily in water. 

(b) Therapeutical effects. — Purgative. 

(c) Used as a cooling laxative, washing the 
bowels out, but not searching them. 

{d) Dose. — I drachm to I ounce. 

Marsh Mallows. 

{a) Physical properties. A root ; long cylin- 
drical ; grayish without, white within ; inodor- 
ous ; taste sweetish. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Soothing. 

{c) Used to make a soothing drink in irritation 
of the mucous membranes, or as a fomenta- 
tion ; boiling the leaves and roots to form it. 

Mercury, Ammonia-chloride of. — White 
precipitate. 

(a) Physical Properties. — A white inodorous 
powder ; insipid, insoluble in water and alcohol. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Used externally, 
only ; it is detergent. 

{c) U»ed for cutaneous diseases, and for de- 
stroying lice, etc., in its powdered condition. 

Mercury, Mild Chloride of. — Calomel. 

{a) Physical properties. — A white semi- 
transparent crystalline mass, inodorous, insipid, 
and insoluble. Usually sold as a heavy white 
powder. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Alterative, purga- 
tive, and producing absorption. 

{c) Used in chronic diseases of the liver and 
general torpidity of the stomach and bowels ; in 
dropsy, in combination with other medicines. 
A most dangerous medicine when employed by 
those who are not aware of its powerful ef- 
fects. 

(d) Dose. — I grain twice a day as an altera- 
tive, 4 to 5 grains as an aperient, combined 
with, or followed by, some mild vegetable pur- 
gative. 

Mercury, Nitric Oxide of. — Red precipi- 
tate. 

{a) Physical properties. — A powder of a 
briUiant red color insoluble in water. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant, exter- 
nally. 

{c) Usedio old ulcers, and to heal inaolent 
sores of all kinds, when made into an ointment 
with lard. (See Ointments.) 

Mint-water. — Prepared from peppermint or 
.spearmint. These are sold in the shops. 

{a) Therapeutical effects. — Both are carmi- 
native and slightly stimulating. Spearmint- 
water is also diuretic. 

{b) Used as a vehicle for other remedies. 

Mixture of Chalk. 

{a) Rub Yz ounce of prepared chalk and 3 
drachms of sugar with a fluid ounce and a half 
of mixture of acacia, and 8 fluid ounces of cin- 
namon Avater. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Anti-acid, absorb- 
ent, and astrinsfent when iriven in diarrhcea. 



[c) Usedm diarrhoea. 

{a) Dose. — A tablespoonful every two hours. 

Mixture of Iron {Compound.) 

{a) Rub 2 drachms of powdered myrrh and i 
drachm of carbonate of potass with a fluid ounce 
of spirit of nutmeg ; to these, while rubbing, 
add 18 fluid ounces of rose-water, 2 drachms of 
sugar, and z% scruples of powdered sulphate 
of iron. Put the mixture in a well-stoppered 
bottled. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stomachic, as- 
tringent, tonic, emmenagogue. 

{c) Used in chlorotic girls, and in all the de- 
fective secretions of young females. 

{d) Dose. — I to i^ ounce 

Ointment of Creasote. 

{a) Rub half a fluid drachm of creasote with 
an ounce of lard, until they are incorporated. 

(b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant. 

{c) Used in scald head, etc. 

Ointment of Galls {Compound). 

{a) Mix 6 drachms of finely powdered galls, 6 
ounces of lard, and lyi drachm of powdered 
opium. 

{b) Astringent and anodyne. 

{c) Usedior hemorrhoids ; but one-quarter 
of the quantity of gallic acid answers much bet- 
ter. 

Ointment of Green Iodide of Mercury. 

{a) Mix from 30 grains to i drachm of green 
iodide of mercury with I ounce of lard. 

{b) Used in scald head, for which it is very 
efiicacious. 

Ointment of Nitric Oxide of Mercury. 

{a) Rub I ounce of finely powdered nitric 
oxide of mercury with 10 ounces of wax, and 6 
ounces of lard. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant. 

{c) Used to indolent ulcers. 

Ointment of Zinc. 

{a) Mix I drachm of oxide of zinc with 6 
drachms of lard. 

{b) Used as a cooling, astringent, and drying 
ointment. 

Olive Oil. 

{a) Physical properties. — A transparent fixed 
oil, of a yellowish color ; inodorous and without 
much taste. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Soothing, and 
slightly aperient. 

{c) Used in bronchial irritation ; also as a ve- 
hicle for other medicines in the form of lini- 
ment. 

{d) Dose. — I to 2 drachms. 

Peruvian Balsam. 

{a) Physical properties. — Of the consistence 
of honey ; color, brown ; agreeable smell, and 
hot, acrid taste. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant, expec- 
torant ; externally applied to indolent ulcers. 

{c) Used in catarrh and chronic rheumatism. 

{d) Dose. — 15 minims to half a drachm. 

Pill of Mercury. — Blue pill. 

{a) The metal partially oxydated, and mixed 
with confection of roses. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Alterative and 
purgative, acting especially on the liver. 



DRUGS 



179 



(c) Used in dyspepsia, torpidity of the liver, 
and constipation. 

(d) Dose. — I to 5 or 6 grains. 
Pill of Rhubarb (Compound). 

(a) Made up of rhubarb, aloes, and myrrh. 

{d) Therapeutical effects. — Laxative. 

if) Used in dyspepsia and constipation. 

{k) Dose. — Two at bed time. 

Pitch, Burgundy. — The impure resin of the 
Norway spruce fir. 

(«) Physical proper-ties. — A tenacious mass, 
of fragrant odor,semi-transparent,and unctuous. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant and 
rubefacient. 

{c) Used externally in the form of plaster in 
bronchitis, hooping-cough, etc. 

Poultice of Charcoal. 

{a) Macerate for a short time before the fire 
2 ounces of bread in 2 fluid ounces of boiling 
water; then mix, and gradually stir in lo 
drachms of linseed meal ; with these mix 2 
drachms of powdered charcoal, and sprinkle a 
drachm on the surface. 

{b) Antiseptic and digestive. 

{c) Used in gangrene. 

Poultice of Hemlock. 

(a) Make a poultice of linseed meal ; then 
add I ounce of extract of hemlock previously 
softened with water, or 4 ounces of the fresh 
leaves scalded and bruised. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Anodyne and dis- 
cutient. 

if) Used in glandular swellings and cancerous 
sores. 

Poultice of Linseed. 

(a) Put into a basin enough meal to form a 
poultice, making a hole in its centre ; then pour 
upon it boiling water to fill that hole, and stir 
rapidly with a'kitchen knife. This will gener- 
ally be sufficient to make the poultice of the 
proper consistency. It is always better to add 
enough water at first, as it is not so smooth if 
added piecemeal. 

{b) Therapeutical ^/"^c/j-.— Stimulant, and yet 
soothing. 

(f) Used for abscesses and ulcers when in- 
flamed. 

Poultice of Mustard. 

(a) Make either a bread or a linseed-meal 
poultice, then sprinkle over it enough flour of 
mustard to conceal its surface, and wet it with 
a little boiling water. Some people add hot 
vinegar to wet it with. 

(b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant, and 
often inclined to blister the skin. 

{c) Used as a rapid counter-irritant. 

Poultice of Yeast. 

{a) Mix 5 ounces of yeast with an equal quan- 
tity of water, at 100 degrees ; with these stir up 
a pound of flour, so as to make a poultice ; place 
it by the fire till it swells, and use. 

(b) Stimulant, emollient. 

{c) Used to indolent abscesses and sores. 

Powder of Ipecacuanha {covtpoutid). — Do- 
ver's powder. 

{a) Physical properties. — Compound of 
opium, ipecacuanha, and sulphate of potass. 



{b) Therapeutical effects. — Diaphoretic, ano- 
dyne, and narcotic. 

(c) Used to produce perspiration in rheuma- 
•■ism and dysentery, etc. 

(a) Dose. — 5 to i o grains. 
Quinine, Sulphate of. 

{a) Physical properties. — Colorless, inodor- 
ous, lustrous, bitter efflorescent crystals, totally 
soluble in water previously acidulated with 
sulphuric acid. 

(b) Therapetctical effects. — Stomachic, stimu- 
lant, febrifuge, and tonic. 

(c) Used in general debility, neuralgia, and 
after fever. 

{d) Dose. — I to 3 grains. 

Rhubarb. — The root, whole and powdered. 

{a) Physical properties. — The root is in firm, 
flattish, irregular pieces, occasionally pierced 
with large holes ; color, bright yellow, external- 
ly; odor, peculiar and aromatic; taste, bitter, 
astringent, and somewhat nauseous ; imparts 
its virtue to water and alcohol. The powder is 
of a reddish yellow. 

(b) Therapetitical effects. — Purgative and 
stomachic ; acting on the small bowels. 

{c) Used as a mild purgative in the constipa- 
tion of children and adults. 

(/■/) Dose. — ID to 30 grains. 

Saffron. — {a) A coloring matter obtained 
from the Crocus sativus. 

Senna. — The leaves. 

{a) Physical properties. — Leaves of a pale 
green color; leaflets broad, lanceolate; the 
two sides unequal ; odor faint, somewhat like 
green tea; taste, nauseous and bitter. Yields 
its properties to spirit and water. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Cathartic. 

\c) Used in constipation, and to lower the 
system. Made into the infusion. 

id) Dose. — 5 grains to 25, rubbed down with 
ginger and sugar. 

Soda, Bicarbonate of. 

{a) Physical properties. — A heavy white 
powder, without smell, and tasting slightly 
soapy. Entirely soluble in water. 

(b) Therapeutical effects. — Anti-acid. 

(<r) Used in the manufacture of effervescing 
draughts, and for acidities of the stomach. 

{d) Dose. — 5 to 30 grains. 

Soda, Sulphate of.^ — Glauber's salts. 

{a) Physical properties. — Crystals, of an ex- 
ceedingly bitter taste, and without smell. Soki- 
ble in water. 

{b) Therapejitical effects. — Purgative and 
diuretic. 

{c) Used in costiveness. 

\d) Dose. — Yz to I ounce. 

Spirit of Ammonia {aromatic). 

{a) Physical properties.— A compound, con- 
taining carbonate of ammonia and aromatics, 
with spirit ; and possessing an aromatic, warm, 
and alkaline taste. Miscible with water, which 
it renders milky. 
{b) Therapeutical effects.-Si\rm\\3.nt and cordial. 
{c) Used as the ordinary diffusible stimulus 
in faintings and hysteria ; also added to senna 
1 to prevent griping. 



180 



DRUGS 



(d) Dose. — 30 to 60 drops. 

Spirit of Ammonia [fetid). 

(a) Physical properties. — The same as the 
above, with the addition of asafoetida. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant and an- 
tispasmodic. 

{c) Used'vsx hysterical fits. 

{d) Dose. — 30 to 60 drops. 

Spirit of Horseradish {compound). 

(a) Mix 20 ounces of sliced horseradish, 
20 ounces of dried orange-peel, 5 drachms of 
bruised nutmegs, and a gallon of rectified spirit 
with 10 pints of water; then distil to a gallon, 
with a slow fire. 

(b) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant, diapho- 
retic and diuretic. 

{c) Used internally in dyspepsia, and in par- 
alysis, externally rubbed into the skin. 

(^) Dose. — I to 2 drachms. 

Spirit of Nitric Ether. — Sweet spirits of 
nitre. 

{a) Physical properties. — A colorless, trans- 
parent, volatile, inflammable fluid, of an ethereal 
odor. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Cooling, diuretic, 
and diaphoretic ; also slio;htly antispasmodic. 

{c) Used in febrile diseases, dropsy, and 
Spasm. 

{d) Dose. — 20 to 60 minims, largely diluted. 

Squill. — The sea onion. 

{a) A root of a pear shape, covered with 
several thin dry tissues, under which are oval, 
flaky, red or white scales ; odor, pungent ; 
taste, acrid and bitter. Imparts its virtue to 
vinegar, spirits and water. 

{b) Therape7itical effects. — Expectorant, emet- 
ic, diuretic. 

(c) Used in chronic bronchitis and asthma. 
{d) Dose. — 2 to 6 grains. Syrup of squills, 

dose, \xo lyi drachms. 

Syrup of Iodide of Iron is used in order 
to preserve the iodide of iron from injury. 

{b) Therapeictical effects. — Alterative, and 
affording the effects of iron and iodine. 

{c) Used in scrofulous diseases, and in cachec- 
tic states of the system. 

{d) Dose. — 20 to 40 minims. 

Turpentine, Spirit of. 

ia) Physical properties. — A limpid, colorless 
fluid, of a strong odor and hot taste, exceeding- 
ly inflammable. 

(^) Therapeutical effects. — Stimulant, diuret- 
ic, cathartic, and destructive to worms. 

{c) Used in hemorrhages, lumbago, etc., and 
to destroy worms ; also externally as a rubefa- 
cient. 

{d) Dose. — 10 drops to 30 internally, or 2 to 
4 drachms mixed with castor oil as a vermi- 
fuge ; but it should not be given internally 
without the sanction of a physician. 

Tincture of Camphor {compowid.') — Pare- 
goric elixir. 

{a) A tincture containing camphor, opium, 
anise, and benzoic acid. 

(b) Used in coughs. 

(f) Dose. — I drachm. 

Tincture of Ginger. 



Dose. — r drachm. 

Tincture of Iodine. {See Iodine). 
Dose. — 5 to 15 minims. 
Tincture of Myrrh. 

Dose. — 30 to 60 minims. Useful as a wash 
for the teeth, rarely used internally. 

Tincture of Opium. — Laudanum. 

Dose. — 6 to 20 minims. 

Tincture of Quinine. 

Dose. — 'teaspoonful. 

Tincture of Rhubarb {compound). — A very 
warm, useful preparation. 

Dose. — 2 to 4 drachms. 

Tincture of Valerian {covipouttd). 

Dose. — 30 to 60 minims, in dyspepsia and 
hysteria. 

Tolu, Balsam of. 

[a) Physical properties. — Of considerable 
consistence ; reddish-brown in color ; odor, 
very pungent ; taste, warm and sweetish. 

(b) Therapeutical effects. — A stimulant ex- 
pectorant. 

{c) Used in chronic coughs, and also to 
wounds and ulcers. 

(c/) Dose. — 10 grains. 

Valerian. 

{a) Physical properties. — Several long, slen- 
der, dusky-brown fibres, issuing from one head ; 
strong fetid odor; warm, bitterish, subacid 
taste. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Antispasmodic, 
tonic. 

{c) Used in hysteria. 

{d) Dose. — I drachm. 

Wine of Iron. 

{a) Digest for 30 days 2 ounces of Tartar- 
ated Iron in a pint of sherry. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Stomachic and 
tonic. 

{c) Usediht same as other steel medicines. 

(d) Dose. — two tablespoonfuls. 

Wine of Opium. 

{a) Prepared with opium and spices. 

{b) Therapeiitical effects. — Stimulant, after- 
wards anodyne. 

{c) Used chiefly as an application to the eyes. 

{d) Dose. — 10 to 20 minims. 

Wine of Potassio-tartrate of Antimony. — 
— Antimonial wine. 

{a) Dissolve two scruples of potassio-tartrate 
of antimony in a pint of sherry. 

{b) Therapeutical effects. — Emetic and dia- 
phoretic. 

(<:) Used'xn inflammatory diseases. 

{d^ Dose. — 1 5 to 60 minims. 

2inc, Chloride of. — A powerful drug, but 
scarcely adapted to domestic use, except as a 
disinfectant, for which it is sold in solution. 
{See Disinfectants.) 

Zinc, Sulphate of. — White vitriol. 

{a) Physical properties. — Transparent crys- 
tals. 

{U) Therapeutical effects. — Tonic, astringent, 
and emetic. 

{c) Used as a wash or as an emetic. 

{d) Dose. — As an emetic, 10 to 30 grains; 
tonic, 2 grains. 



DUCK 



DUMPLINGS 



181 



Proportionate Doses for different Ages. 

Under ^ year i-i 5th of a full dose 
" I " i-i2th " 

" 2 " i-8th " 

" 3 " I -6th " 

" 4 " i-5th " 

" 7 " i-3d " 

" 14 " i-half « 

" 20 " 2-3ds " 

Above 21 " the full dose 

At 63 " ii-i2ths " 

" ^^ " 5-6ths " 

" 100 " 2-3ds " 

DUCK. — For suggestions about raising 
ducks, see Poultry. There are many breeds 
of ducks which are very fine for the table, among 
which are the Muscovy, top-knot, Cayuga black ; 
a cross between the common and the Muscovy 
produces a very large bird at an early age, 
and is considered the choicest duck. Tame 
Ducks are always in season but are thought to 
be in perfection in June and July. Ducklings 
are in much demand in the Spring when other 
poultry is scarce. In choosing, select those 
with supple feet, and hard, plump breasts. 
Tame ducks have yellow feet, wild ones red. 

Wild Duck can be had at all seasons. The 
choicest is the Canvas-back (i'^^ Canvas-Back), 
Red-head or Pochard, Mallard, and Teal. 

There is a tviile difference of 
taste regarding the extent to 
tvhich ducks should be cooked. 
Epicures prefer them very rare. 
The times given in the recipes 
are those required for thorough 
cooking. Less time can of course 
he given as taste requires. 

Pie (Duck). — Cut off the wings and neck of 
a duck ; boil it a quarter of an hour ; cut it up 
while hot, preserving the gravy that runs from 
it ; then take the giblets, add a tablespoonful of 
butter, a blade of mace, six black pepper-corns, 
two onions, a bit of toasted bread, and a pinch 
of cayenne pepper ; stew these until the butter 
is melted, then add half a pint of boiling water 
and let them stew until the giblets are tender ; 
then strain it, and put the giblets into the pie. 
Let the gravy stand till cold, skim off the fat, 
and put it with what runs from the duck at the 
bottom of. the pie-dish; then put in the duck 
well seasoned with pepper and salt, add a table- 
spoonful of butter in lumps, and cover the 
whole, with a tolerably thick pie-crust. Bake 
in a moderately quick oven. Cold duck will 
do as well, if the skin is taken off. 

Roast Duck. — In preparing ducks for the 
spit, be careful to clear the skin entirely of the 
stumps of the feathers ; take off the head and 
neck but leave the feet on, and hold them for a 
few minutes in boiling water to loosen the skin 
which should be peeled off. Wash the inside of 
the birds by pouring water through them, but 
merely wipe the outsides with a dry cloth. Put 
into the bodies a stuffing made like that for 
turkeys, or simply a seasoning of parboiled 
onions mixed with minced sage, salt, pepper, 
and a slice of butter. Cut off the wings at the 



first joint from the body, truss the feet behind 
the back, spit the birds firmly, and roast them 





Ducks Trussed for Roasting. 

at a brisk fire without placing them sufficiently 
near to be scorched ; baste them constantly, 
and when the breasts are well plumped, and 
the steam from them draws towards the fire, 
dish, and serve quickly with a little good, brown 
gravy poured round them, and some also in a 
tureen. Tender ducks will take from thirty 
minutes to a hour to roast. 

Roast Wild Duck. — As wild ducks are lia- 
ble to have a fishy flavor, it is well to parboil 
them with a carrot or an onion before roasting. 
Stuff with bread-crumbs, seasoned with salt, 
pepper, onion and sage ; roast as above before a 
brisk fire, until brown and tender. When the 
ducks are taken up, thicken the gravy with 
browned flour, and serve it in a tureen. Serve 
currant jelly or some other sweetmeat with the 
ducks. 

Stewed Duck. — I. A duck too tough for roast- 
ing may be used for this dish, though a tender 
one is of course best. Cut it up neatly into 
joints, and arrange these in a wide stew-pan 
in a single layer if possible ; pour in about a 
quarter of a pint of strong cold beef stock or 
gravy ; skim off the scum when it begins to boil, 
then throw in a little salt, onion, and sage, 
and a few thin slices of lemon rind. Simmer 
the joints gently for three-quarters of an hour, 
or longer if they are large ; then stir into the 
gravy a tablespoonful of rice-flour (mixed if 
desired with a wineglassful of port wine); in 
ten minutes after, dish the stew and send it to 
table at once. 

II. Stewed with Green Peas. — Half roast 
the duck ; skin it, and put it into a stew-pan 
with a pint of beef gravy, a few leaves of mint 
and sage cut small, pepper and salt, and half 
an onion shred as fine as possible. Simmer a 
quarter of an hour, and skim clean ; then add 
about a quart of green peas. "Cover tightly 
and simmer about half an hour longer. Add 
a tablespoonful of butter and as much flour, 
give it one boil and remove from fire ; serve 
with the peas around it on the dish. 

Stewed Wild Duck.— Parboil with a car- 
rot or onion for about ten minutes ; then cut 
into joints, put them into a sauce-pan and cover 
with gravy made of the giblets, neck, etc.; 
season with salt and pepper, a bunch of sweet 
herbs, and minced onions, and stew gently for 
half an hour; or until done. Take up the 
duck, thicken the gravy with browned flour, and 
add a wineglassful of wine and a tablespoonful 
of lemon-juice ; boil up once and pour over 
the duck, and then serve at once. 

DUMPLINGS. (Apple.)— I. Pare large ap- 



182 



DUMPLINGS 



DYES 



pies ; scoop out the core ; cover with a thin 
suet or butter crust, made as for puddings ; 
tie up in a cloth and boil from twenty minutes 
to half an hour. Or they may be baked. A 
nice sauce to eat with them, or any dumplings, 
is made by stirring butter and white sugar to a 
light paste; the addition of a little wine to this 
sauce is a great improvement. 

II. Take flour, i qt. ; baking powder, 5 even 
teaspoonfuls ; lard, 2 oz. ; salt, yi teaspoonful ; 
milk, 3 gills. 

Mix and roll the crust an inch thick ; pile the 
centre with sour apples pared, quartered and 
cored ; draw the crust over them and pinch it to- 
gether ; turn upside down on a plate, and steam 
it from three quarters of an hour to an hour. 

Currant Dumplings. — For each dumpling 
take three tablespoonfuls of flour, two of finely 
minced suet, and three of currants ; add a 
pinch of salt, and as much milk or water as 
will make a very thick batter of the ingredients. 
Tie the dumplings separately in well-floured 
cloths, and boil them for a full hour. They 
may be served with wine same as above. (See 
Apple Dumpling i.) 

Indian Dumplings. — Scald a quart of In- 
dian meal with boiling hot water ; let it stand 
until cold ; then wet your hands in cold water, 
stir a tablespoonful of salt into the meal, and 
make up balls, quite hard, the size of a common 
potato ; drop these into boiling water, cover 
them up, and boil half an hour. They are very 
nice to eat with gravy of pork or goose. 

Lemon Dumplings. — Take .--Bread-crumbs, 
10 oz. ; beef suet, yi lb. ; flour, i heaping table- 
spoonful ; lemons, i or 2 ; sugar, 4 oz. ; eggs, 3 
or 4. 

Mix together ten ounces of fine bread- 
crumbs, half a pound of beef suet chopped 
very small, a heaping tablespoonful of flour, 
the grated rinds of two small lemons or one 
large one, four ounces of pounded sugar, three 
large, or four small eggs beaten and strained, 
and finally the juice of the lemons also strained. 
Divide these into four equal portions, tie them 
into well-floured cloths, and boil them an hour. 
These dumplings are extremely light and del- 
icate ; if desired very sweet, more sugar must 
be added. 

Norfolk Dumplings. — This is an English 
dish. Take a pound of dough from a baking 
of very light bread, and divide it into six equal 
parts ; mould these into dumplings, drop them 
into a pan of fast boiling water, and boil them 
quickly from twelve to fifteen minutes. When 
done tear them apart on the top with two forks, 
and serve immediately. This may be eaten as 
a pudding, with a rich sauce, or served as an 
accompaniment to meat. In helping, they 
must be torn apart, never cut. 

Rice Dumplings. — Take :-R\ce.\ apples; 
marmalade, or jelly. 

Cleanse half a pound of rice by rubbing it 
in a towel ; pare and core some sour apples, 
leaving them whole ; put a bit of marmalade or 
jelly, a clove or bit of lemon peel in the centre ; 
dip each one in water, then roll it in the rice 



until thickly coated ; tie each one in a separate 
cloth, drop them in boiling water, cover, and 
boil three quarters of an hour. Serve hot 
with rich sauce or with sugar and cream. These 
dumplings are well adapted to those who can- 
not eat pastry. 

Suet Dumplings. — I . Take .--Bread-crumbs, 
2 cupfuls ; beef-suet, i cupful ; sugar, i table- 
spoonful ; eggs, 4 ; soda, y^ teaspoonful ; salt, 

1 teaspoonful. 

Mix together two cupfuls of bread-crumbs 
wet with milk, one cupful of beef-suet minced 
very fine, one teacupful of sugar, four eggs, 
white and yolks beaten separately, one-third 
of a teaspoonful of soda dissolved in boiling 
water, and one teaspoonful of salt ; add milk 
enough to make a thick paste. Mould into 
balls ; tie up in dumpling cloths well floured, 
and boil irom. forty to fifty minutes. Serve 
hot with wine sauce. 

II. (With Bread.)— r«/^^. --Grated bread, 
^ lb ; suet, yi lb ; lemon, i; moist sugar, ]^ lb. ; 
eggs, 2. 

Take half a pound of grated bread, half a 
pound of suet cut small, the juice and grated 
rind of a lemon, a quarter of a pound of 
moist sugar, and two eggs. Mix all together, 
and make into five dumplings ; boil them in 
floured cloths half an ho7ir, and serve with 
sweet sauce in the dish. 

Yacht Dumplings. — Take .--Bread-crumbs 
Yz lb. ; cold milk, 3 gills ; butter, 2 oz. ,- brown 
sugar, 4 oz; cinnamon, I teaspoonful ; cloves, yi 
teaspoonful ; lemon (grated rind), i ; eggs, 3 ; 
currants, X lb ; raisins (stoned) % lb. ; citron, 

2 oz. ; 

Pour two-thirds of the milk over the bread, 
cover and let it soak fifteen minutes, melt the 
butter in the rest, and add it with the spice, 
fruit, sugar and yolks of the eggs ; add the 
whites, beaten to a stiff froth ; bake in butter- 
ed cups ; serve upside down with a thick rich 
sauce poured over them. 

DUTCH SAUCE. (^^^ SAUCE.) 

DUTCHMAN'S PIPE.— A fine climbing 
plant with large leaves and peculiar flowers. It 
is hardy, and very easy to cultivate. Plant in 
the spring by digging a hole two feet in diam- 
eter, filling it widi rich loam, and setting the 
roots in the centre. It requires to be watered 
during hot weather, but will take care of itself 
in winter. 

DYES. — Colors are simple and compound. 
The simple colors are blue, red and yellow, and 
cannot be produced by the mixing together of 
different colors. Compound colors may be 
produced by mixing together two or more col- 
ors in different proportions. Thus, purple is 
formed by mixing red and blue ; green, by mix- 
ing blue and yellow ; orange, by mixing red and 
yellow ; and the various shades of these depend 
upon the proportions of the colors so mixed. 
What is called "giving a ground " in dyeing is 
communicating one color to a fabric with the 
intention of applying another upon it, and thus 
producing a compound color. It is highly 
important that the water used in dyeing should 



DYES 



183 



be pure ; if it be muddy, or if it contain putrid I 
substances, it will be impossible to procure 
pure colors by it. 

Re-dyeing, even in the practised hands of the 
dver by trade, is an uncertain process, and the 
colors of re-dyed articles are generally very 
fleeting. Every color will dye black, whether 
blue, yellow, red, or brown ; and black will 
always dye black again. All colors will take 
their own colors again ; and blue can be made 
green or black ; green may be made brown, 
and brown green ; and any color on re-dying 
will take a darker shade than its own. 

Directions for dyeing leather, including kid 
gloves, are given at the end of this article. For 
dyeing feathers, see Feathers; for staining 
wood, metals, ^f^ory, bone, horn, and grasses, see 
Staining. 

In dyeing, depth of color and uniformity of 
tint, with fastness of color are the points princi- 
pally aimed at. Fastness is determined by the 
nature of the dye and mordants. A dye is con- 
sidered fast when it resists the action of soap 
water, of weak acids, or alkalies, and of light 
and air. Colors remaining unchanged under all 
these tests are not common, but all gradations 
are known. The aniline (or, more correctly 
coal tar) colors are the most brilliant, but as 
a general rule are more liable to fade than most 
of the colors obtained in the old way, by more 
elaborate processes with weld, fustic, madder, 
&c. The depth of color usually depends upon 
the amount of coloring matter used in the dye 
bath, which must be graduated according to 
the effects desired to be produced. To attain 
uniformity of tint practice is necessary. It is 
usually advisable to cleanse the goods thor- 
oughly before attempting to dye them, and to 
wet them thoroughly before putting them in 
the bath. This is best effected by boiling with 
clean water for a short time, and then wringing 
them out until they just do not drip. To cleanse 
goods, boihng in soap suds and rinsing several 
times in clear water is the best mode. In 
attempting to dye goods which have already 
some color, the general rule may be laid down, 
that the color already on the goods has a ten- 
dency to modify whatever color may be after- 
wards applied, and that some darker color than 
that already on the goods should be aimed at. 

Bleaching may be resorted to in most cases. 
This may be effected by making a solution, in 
water (5 oz. to a gallon,) of bleaching powder, 
to be had at the druggists, in which the goods 
may be worked for a time, and then putting 
them in weak muriatic (hydrochloric) or sulphu- 
ric acid (one fluid oz. commercial strength to i 
gallon water). If the first treatment is not 
efficient, it may be repeated, though too frequent 
an application of these solutions may weaken 
the fibre. Exposure when moist to the fumes 
of burning sulphur is another mode of bleach- 
ing, though often less efficient. After appli- 
cation of either of these methods, the goods 
should be rinsed and then boiled for a short 
time in a weak solution of soda, i oz. to 10 gal- 
lons of water. 



Mordants. — In fixing colors certain substan- 
ces are used which have an affinity for both 
the fibre and the dye. These are of various 
kinds, according to the dye used, or the nature 
of the fibre to be dyed. For instance wool and 
silk take most of the coal tar colors without 
mordant, but cotton goods usually need tannin, 
or a decoction of the leaves and twigs of the 
staghorn sumach, to be present in the dye bath ; 
one part of tannin is equivalent to about eight 
parts of sumach. Cotton goods may be " ani- 
malized " as it is termed, by saturating thorough- 
ly with a cold solution of milk curd in ammonia 
(letting the ammonia absorb all the curd it can), 
or an albumen solution (white of egg stirred 
into water, 2 eggs to a gallon), drying and then 
dyeing hot. After this treatment they will 
take colors in the same manner as woollen 
articles. 

Oil mordants may be used with silk and cot- 
ton goods for fixing madder and coal tar colors. 
A good oil mordant may be made with 4 parts 
olive oil, 1 5 parts alcohol, 2 parts oil of vitriol, 
and 1 5 parts hot water. After thoroughly mix- 
ing, the goods are immersed and worked in this 
for 15 minutes, then wrung out and placed in the 
dye bath. 

Copperas (protosulphate of iron), and acetate 
of iron, made by mixing solutions of " strong " 
perchloride of iron, and acetate of soda, in the 
ratio of 7 to 5 by weight, are also used as mor- 
dants. The effect of iron mordants is usually 
to give a lower (sadder) tone to the colors. 

Linen has less affinity for colors than cotton. 
The treatment should be about the same, but 
the strength of the mordant and the length of 
time the goods are subjected to its influence 
should be increased. 

"Water. — The amount used in the dye bath 
should be sufficient to allow of working them 
about with (preferably j a wooden rod, that every 
part may be uniformly exposed to the action of 
the solutions. Two quarts of water suffice for 
one pound of goods, a7id less water in propor- 
tion for larger afnounts. 

Proportions of the materials to be used are 
given in most cases below, the amoimts itidicat- 
ed being what should be used for ten pounds of 
goods, in about 5 gallotts of water. Generally 
in workiftg '■'■ hoi" the temperature should be 
just under boiling, and the titne of steeping 
should be from twenty to thirty mitmtes. The 
stirring should be at least once every four min- 
utes, and would be better if it were constant. 

Coal Tar Colors. — The amount to be used 
cannot well be indicated, as it depends very much 
upon the intensity of color desired. Of most of 
them an ounce will give a fair medium shade to 
100 lbs. of goods, or would be enough for 50 
gallons of water, hence, as will be seen, it is 
easier to get too much than too little, as those 
dyes are very strong. Particles of undissolved 
dye, or dyewood chips, Qt'c, should not be al- 
lowed to remain in the dye bath while the goods 
are in it. The following are a few processes 
for dyeing the different colors, which may be 
readily applied. 



184 



DYES. 



Black. — The application of aniline black 
which is the best for cotton, is too elaborate 
for convenience in domestic use. A process 
which succeeds best with woollen goods, though 
it may also be applied to silk, is as follows : 
Logwood extract (i lb.) is dissolved in water, 
heat being applied. When entirely dissolved 
cream of tartar (5 oz.) is added, and as soon as 
it is dissolved the goods are introduced and 
worked once every 3 or 4 minutes, being kept 
at a temperature just short of boiling for three 
or four hours or more. They are then taken 
out, allowed to drain, rinsed once in clean 
water, and then placed in a bath containing 
bichromate of potash (5 oz.) where they are 
worked hot as above for half to three quarters 
of an hour. Rinsing in clean water, and drying 
completes the operation. 

Blue (Aniline). — For silk no mordant is re- 
quired. The addition of enough sulphuric acid 
to the dye bath to make it turn blue litmus 
paper red, is beneficial, and gives rather brighter 
shades. For wool sulphuric acid, or sulphuric 
acid with half as much by weight of white vitriol, 
may be added to the bath. For cotton, as with 
silk, sulphuric acid (40Z.) or alum should be 
added to the bath. Work hot an hour and let 
stand till cool. 

Blue (Prussian). — Applicable to silk, wool, 
or cotton. Mix powdered Prussian blue (i lb.), 
with a solution of (9 oz.) tartaric acid, (in 3 or 
4 gallons of water); then add (14 fluid oz.) strong 
hartshorn (ammonia,) and work the goods in the 
mixture hot for about half-an-hour. Hang up 
the goods to drip and leave them until dry, when 
they will have assumed a dirty purplish color. 
Dipping into weak sulphuric acid (i fluid oz. 
oil of vitriol to i gallon water), will then devel- 
op a fine blue color. 

Blue (Saxony) for wool. One-half lb. of the 
best indigo is dissolved in concentrated oil of 
vitriol, and the solution is then poured into 12 
to 20 times its bulk of water. To this bath 
the goods are immediately introduced, and al- 
lowed to remain for twenty-four hours. The 
excess of indigo separates, settling to the bot- 
tom, and may be collected and used over again. 
Boiling the goods for half-an-hour in a weak so- 
lution of sal-soda will then neutralize the acid 
present and set the color. 

Brown. — Silk and wool take aniline, naphtha- 
lene and 'phenyl for Bismarck brown, and 
also isopurpurate of potash (soluble garnet) in 
the proportion of the anilines, without mor- 
dant. Cotton requires mordanting with tannin 
before it will take the first two. A brown may 
be produced on all three kinds of goods by 
simply boiling with 40Z. permanganate of potash 
(chameleon salt). 

Green. — Silk and wool may be dyed with 
iodine green (called also aniline and methyl 
green), which may be toned with picric (carba- 
zotic) acid, or else they are mordanted with 
alum (2 oz.), and then dyed with fustic (^ lb. 
chips), and then with prussian blue as given 
above. Cotton will take a green dye if treated 
with a hot solution of tannin {^ lb. tannin, 



or 2 lbs. sumach, and iodine green, with a 
mixture of picric (carbazotic) acid and iodine 
green, or by dyeing first with fustic ()4 lb. 
chips), and then prussian blue, according to the 
method given under dlue. 

Orange. — For silk and wool use Man- 
chester for aniline) orange without a mordant, 
or (coralline) aniline scarlet with (2 to 4 oz.) 
tannin, or i to 2 lbs. sumach and sulphuric acid. 
Cotton, silk and wool also take an orange color by 
working for half-an-hour in a hot solution con- 
taining (2 oz.) litharge, with sugar of lead (i^ 
oz.), and then for 15 or 20 minutes in a bath 
containing bichromate of potash (i;|- oz.) and sal- 
soda (i}4 oz.) 

Red. — Wool and silk take aniline red (magen- 
ta), or the so-called A^ew Rose (Saffranine), 
which gives a scarlet without mordants. Ma- 
genta with Manchester yellow also gives a 
scarlet. Cotton requires tannin (2 oz.), or the 
liquid derived from boiling i lb. sumach with 
I gallon water, to be added to the bath to fix 
these colors. Wool, silk, or cotton may be 
dyed with madder by mordanting first by boil- 
ing |- to f hour in a bath containing alum (2 
lbs.), and cream of tartar (i lb.), and then keep- 
ing at a simmer for 2 hours in a decoction ob- 
tained from 5 lbs. ground madder root. Cop- 
peras may be used in mordanting instead of 
the alum, when the color will be more of the 
violet or purple order. With the alum instead 
of the cream of tartar, sugar of lead (2 lbs.) may 
be used. 

Aniline scarlet (coralline, aurine) is applied 
by first boiling the goods ten minutes with 
white vitriol (sulphate of zinc, i^ lbs.), and then 
adding asolution containing ^Ib. of the scarlet, 
it being weaker than the other anilines, with 
from J-. lb. to ^ lb. (depending on depth of shade 
desired), of sal-ammoniac (chloride of am- 
monium), keeping in enough ammonia to make 
its odor perceptible, and boiling from ^ hour to 
i^ hours, depending on depth of shade desired. 
When but little of the dyeing solution is used, 
or the last boiling is not sufficiently prolonged, 
a salmon color is obtained. The shade may be 
toned with magenta afterwards if desired. 

Violet. — Aniline violets may be applied di- 
rect to silk and wool, without mordant, or with 
the addition of enough sulphuric acid to turn 
blue litmus paper red, to the bath. Cotton re- 
quires a preliminary mordanting with acetate of 
iron (obtained by soaking the goods in a mix- 
ture of solutions of 7 fluid oz. "strong" per- 
chl-oride of iron, with 5 oz. crystallized acetate 
of soda, in 3 to 4 gallons of water, or with tan- 
nin yi lb. (2 lb. sumach.) Work as for blue. 
See Red. 

Yellow. — Silk and wool take picric acid and 
naphthalene (Manchester or Victoria), yellow 
without any mordant. Cotton may be dyed yel- 
low with fustic {h lb. chips). Silk, wool and 
cotton may also be dyed yellow by first work- 
ing the goods for about half-an-hour in water 
containing sugar of lead (i oz.), and then for 15 
minutes in a hot solution of bichromate of pot- 
ash (^ oz.) the addition of sal-soda ^ oz. to i^ 



DYSENTERY 



DYSPEPSIA 



185 



ozs.), to the bichromate solution gives a tone 
approaching- to orange. 

yellow (Nankeen), may be produced by 
soaking in cold solution of acetate of iron, pre- 
pared as described under violet. The tone 
is brownish if the goods are placed in the 
acetate solution, and then gradually brought 
to a boil, and yellowish if after working in 
the cold solution they are first dried and 
then placed in boiling water, and boiled for 15 
minutes. 



LEATHER AND SKINS 

(including gloves) usually contain tannin, which 
at once fixes aniline colors, and hence All 
Aniline Colors, soluble in water, may usually 
be easily applied. Some skins, however, it may 
be necessary to soak in a decoction of sumach 
for twenty-four hours before attempting to apply 
the colors. 

Brown. {See SCARLET.) 

Blue. — In applying the soluble blue, weak 
sulphuric acid may follow the application of the 
color to set it, but the use of even moderately 
strong acids or alkalies has a very deleterious 
effect upon the strength of the leather or skin, 
and should therefore be avoided. {See Stain- 
ing.) 

Scarlet (Corallin) may be applied to 
leather if desired. The addition of one 
tenth as much borax as corallin to the dye 
bath brightens the shade. All the colors 
may be made more brownish by following 
the dye bath with a solution of bichro- 
mate of potash, or still more darkened by a 
weak nitrate of iron bath. Tawed skins 
may be immersed in a solution of alum to 
mordant them, and if it is desired to apply the 
color to but one side, the color thickened with 
a little starch, or with borax, may be laid on with 
a brush. The temperature of a bath for dyeing 
skins should not be above 90" Fahr. 

DYSENTERY.— A disease, most frequent 
in children, characterized by a constant de- 
sire to go to stool, and by small discharges of 
bloody mucus. There is also considerable 
fever, griping pain usually near the lower 
portion of the intestines, causing the child to 
scream at times as if in fright, and more 
or less of delirium or cold shivers. The 
causes of dysentery are indigestible food, 
unripq or decayed vegetables or fruit, the 
breathing of impure air, exposure to cold, 
strong cathartics or purges, and the use 
of bad or impure water. As soon as symp- 
toms of dysentery are observed in a child, med- 
ical aid should be sought at once ; but if this is 
not to be had, proceed thus : If there has been 
any constipation during the previous day or 
two, give a moderate dose of castor oil ; when 
the bowels have moved as a result of this, dis- 
solve a teaspoonful of gum arable in an ounce 
of peppermint water, and give a teaspoonful 
every half hour. If this does not succeed, 
make the following cordial : Take equal parts. 



by weight, of rhubarb, bi-carbonate of soda 
(or baking soda will do), and pulverized cinna- 
mon, and mix thoroughly ; of this put a tea- 
spoonful into a cup, add about a gill of boiling 
water, cover, and let it stand till cold ; then 
pour off from the dregs, add an equal quantity 
of peppermint water containing the gum arable, 
sweeten with a little loaf-sugar, and give a ta- 
blespoonful (if the child is ten years old, half 
as much if less than five), every 'twenty min- 
utes until the character of the discharges is 
changed. But the treatment most to be relied 
on is this : Make a little thin starch, and to one 
tablespoonful of this add one drop of lauda- 
num, inject it into the child's bowels with a 
small syringe, and keep it there as long as pos- 
sible ; this should be repeated every four hours 
until the disease is arrested. Increase the 
quantity of laudanum by one drop for each 
year of the child's age up to five. From the 
first the child should be kept as quiet as possi- 
ble, as rest and warmth and a recumbent pos- 
ture are essential to comfort and recovery. 

Often great relief for the patient is obtained 
by employing, twice in twenty-four hours, in- 
jections containing one half a grain of nitrate 
of silver to the ounce of water. 

Dysentery is infectious by evacuations, and 
therefore all bed-pans or other vessels used 
by the patient should be scalded each time 
with boiling water. The privy-vaults and 
water-closets should also be disinfected with 
sulphate of iron or carbolic acid. {See Disin- 
fectants.) 

In adults, when dysentery makes its appear- 
ance, if any constipation has previously exist- 
ed, a dose of castor oil, to which a few drops 
of laudanum have been added, may be given ; 
opiates and astringents may afterwards be ad- 
ministered. During the treatment the patient 
should be confined to his bed ; and his diet 
should be of the mildest and most unirritating 
character. When dysentery passes into the 
chronic stage, the stools become more copious 
and loose, and are found to contain pus ; the 
complaint is apt to be tedious and intractable, 
and even after recovery the digestive organs 
remain for a long time feeble and irritable. 

DYSPEPSIA. — This disease, as its name 
indicates, signifies difficult digestion, and 
of course can only be cured by attention 
to whatever promotes, and avoidance of 
whatever hinders, the proper digestion of 
food. The rules which we have laid down in 
the articles on Diet and Digestion apply 
here ; and as timely observance of them would 
render dyspepsia impossible, so also it is in 
that direction that relief must be sought, for in 
most instances medicines can only work harm. 
In a common class of cases, when dyspepsia has 
been long continued, a certain degree of inflam- 
mation of the gastric mucous membrane seems 
to be produced ; the presence of food excites 
pain,which continues so long as the food remains 
in the stomach, and carminatives or stimulants, 
so far from affording relief, aggravate the dis- 
tress. In such cases the diet must be of the 



186 



EAR 



EARTH-CLOSET 



blandest and most unstimulating kind, and the 
amount of food rigidly limited ; restricting the pa- 
tient to milk, diluted with an equal part of lime- 
water, is sometimes attended by great benefit, 
and farinaceous articles are preferable to meat. 
In another and the larger class of cases, there is 
neither inflammation nor irritation present, but 
the powers of the stomach seem enfeebled ; 
here stimulants relieve the distress, and cause 



at least temporary improvement. In such cases 
it agrees better than an exclusively farinaceous 
one, and the patient is benefited by the use 
of bitter tonics, such as gentian, quassia, 
etc. No medicine^ however, should be taken 
for dyspepsia without a physicia7i's advice. 
Change of air, change of scene, change of 
society, and change of diet, are particularly 
beneficial in this disease. 



EAR. — This is a very delicate organ, and 
should be treated with great caution. Almost 
the only thing that is safe is to wash it daily, 
internally and externally, with water only, as 
far as a towel wrapped around the finger can 
reach. The practice of using ear-picks is al- 
ways dangerous and often causes deafness ; 
and fails, moreover, to accomplish its object. 
The wax is nature's medium for protecting the 
ear, and when left to itself dries up into thin 
scales which peel off one by one from the sur- 
face of the passage, and fall out imperceptibly, 
leaving a perfectly smooth, clean surface. In 
health the passage of the ear is never dirty ; 
but in attempting to clean it we infallibly make 
it so. The insertion of a pick, or screwed up 
towel-end, or any solid thing, beside the immi- 
nent risk of rupturing the membrane, only 
drives the wax down upon the membrane and 
by irritation increases the secretion. Often it 
is not only deafness which ensues, but pain and 
inflammation, and then matter is formed which 
the hard mass prevents from escaping, and the 
membrane becomes diseased, and worse may 
follow. Another source of injury to the ear 
arises from the very precautions taken against 
injury. Nothing is more natural than to pro- 
tect the ear from cold by putting a piece of cot- 
ton wool in it ; and this is most useful if done 
only on occasions of exceptional exposure, as 
when a driving storm has to be encountered, 
or when one side of the head is exposed to the 
force of a cutting wind. But it is astonishing 
in how many cases the cotton thus used, instead 
of being removed when the need for it has pass- 
ed, is allowed to remain, and gets pushed down 
into the passage, causing much mischief. The 
way to avoid this accident, besides being care- 
ful not to forget, is to use a large piece of the 
wool and to place it over, rather than in, the 
passage. It should be remembered, however, 
that such things should be resorted to only on 
special occasions, and that constantly covering 
up the ear is certain to prove injurious ; it is bet- 
ter that air should always have free access to it. 

All sorts of substances are sometimes put 
into the ear by children, who do it to themselves 
or each other, in ignorant play. In such cases 
the chief danger lies in undue haste and violence 
in applying a remedy. The foreign bodies 
should be removed by syringing the ear with 
warm water alone. No attempt should be 
made to lay hold of them or move them in any 



other way, or the membrane may be injured. 
It is important that the substance should be 
removed as speedily as is quite safe, but there 
need never be impatience, nor should discour- 
agement be felt if the syringing has to be re- 
peated several days before it effects its end. 
It will almost invariably succeed if persisted in, 
and is most effective if the ear is turned down- 
wards and syringed from below. When there is 
much pain, medical assistance should be called. 

It is very rare that earwigs or other insects 
get into the ear, but when they do they cause 
great pain. The best way to get rid of them 
is to pour a little olive or sweet oil into the ear. 
and let it remain till the insect is smothered. 

13 AR- ACHE. — No pain is much more severe 
than this, it being frequently remembered as 
the great suffering of childhood. Sometimes 
it is apparently caused by some exposure to 
cold air ; and a sufficient remedy in such case 
is often found in merely warming a bit of cot- 
ton and placing it gently in the passage, thus 
shutting out the cold air. If this does not af- 
ford relief, a little sweet oil may be warmed in 
a spoon and half as much paregoric then be 
mixed with it ; of this a drop or two may be 
allowed to run down into the ear and the pain 
will in many cases cease. When the pain is 
very acute and obstinate, fill the ear on the 
painful side with laudanum that has been warmed 
by standing the bottle for a few minutes in 
warm water, and then plug it with a little wool 
or lint. To do this properly the patient should 
lay the head on a table, with the aching side 
upwards ; no fear need be entertained of putting 
too much laudanum in, as it will do no harm. 
Warm water, as warm as the patient will bear it, 
used in the same way, and frequently repeated, 
is the favorite remedy with professional aurists. 

EARTH-CLOSET. — In many cases jt hap- 
pens either that water cannot be obtained in 
sufficient quantities for cleaning the drain, or 
that it cannot be carried away with the deposit 
of the closet to a situation where it will not 
be injurious to health. The latter is especially 
the case in small towns and villages where 
there are no efficient sewage arrangements, 
and where the sewage is either carried into 
open ditches or cesspools, or into covered pits. 
All these are objectionable as being injurious 
to the health either of the inmates of the house 
to which the cesspool or pit belongs, or to the 
neighboring inhabitants. The injury is done 



EARTHEN-WARE 



EEL 



187 



either by noxious vapors thrown off from the 
open pits, or by soakage of their liquid contents 
into adjacent wells or water-courses. To avoid 
these defects a dry earth closet, invented by 
the Rev. Henry Moule, of Dorsetshire, Eng- 
land, has been introduced, which forms one of 
the most useful and valuable of recent additions 
to the convenience of the household. It is 
based on the principle that by covering the 
foecal deposit immediately with dry earth con- 
taining a certain proportion of clay, not only is 
the smell otherwise arising from it destroyed, 
but all noxious vapors whatever cease to be 
given off, being absorbed and neutralized by 
the clay, which it is well known has that pecu- 
liar property. 

The closet consists essentially of a me- 
chanical contrivance, attached to the ordinary 
seat, for measuring out and discharging 
into the vault or pan below a sufificient quan- 
tity of the sifted dry earth to entirely cover 
the solid ordure, and to absorb the urine. 
The discharge of earth is effected by an or- 
dinary pull-up, similar to that used in water- 
closets, or, in the self-acting apparatus, by the 
rising of the seat when the weight of the per- 
son is removed. 

The vault or pan under the seat is so ar- 
ranged that the accumulation may be removed 
at pleasure. From the moment when the earth 
is discharged and the evacuation covered, all 
offensive exhalations entirely cease. Under 
certain circumstances there maybe, at times, a 
slight odor as of guano mixed with earth ; but 
this is so trifling and local that a commode ar- 
ranged on this plan may, without the least an- 
noyance, be kept in use in any room. 

If possible, there should be a small pipe, 
from three to six inches in diameter, leading 
from the space under the seat to a flue ad- 
joining the kitchen fire flue. This secures the 
best kind of ventilation. 

In using the earth-closet the following in- 
structions should be carefully attended to : — 

See that the reservoir is supplied with earth 
of a suitable nature. 

Let one fall of earth be in the pail before 
using. 

The earth must be dry and sifted. Sand 
must not be used. 

No " slops " must be thrown down. 

The handle must be pulled up with a jerk, 
and let fall sharply. 

EARTHEN-WARE. — The various wares 
known as earthen-ware, china, or porcelain, are 
all compounds of clay with bone-earth, flint, 
and other similar materials, ground together 
and baked. According to the proportion of 
clay will be the toughness of the china, and 
the capability of being moulded, while the flint 
and bone-earth gives hardness, whiteness, and 
transparency. 

There are two main divisions of table-ware — 
glazed earthen-ware and china or porcelain. 
Nearly all are originally white, and sorted 
after baking. The finer only are then deco- 
rated and re-baked. When glazed earthen- 



ware chips, the exposed surface becomes 
dark ; in porcelain it remains white. 

The finer Oriental china and that of Sevres 
and Dresden costs from $300 up, for a set for 
twelve persons. The sets generally are for 
eighteen. The ordinary decorated French 
china costs from $45 to $500 per set. The 
white French china costs from $35 to $500, 
depending on quaHty. The decorated Eng- 
lish china costs from $350 up. Broken pieces 
cannot be duplicated here, as the decoration 
is printed on, from designs more elaborate 
than the hand-work of the average French 
sets. The French can be duplicated here at a 
few weeks notice. The English is heavier and 
much more durable. Both the French and the 
English make a decorated glazed earthen-ware 
that is very durable — more so than French 
china, and possibly than English china. It 
costs from $70 to $125 per set; the various 
pieces can generally be bought separately, 
which is not the case with decorated china. 
For economy, plates and cups of this ware 
with tureen, vegetable dishes, etc., of plated 
silver is probably the best possible arrange- 
ment. Still further variety in this or any ser- 
vice is desirable, and may be had through 
pickle dishes, compotiers, etc., of other kinds 
of ware. 

The so-called Ironstone and Stone China 
are merely glazed earthen-ware undecorated. 
Sets cost from $20 to $40. As regards the 
finer porcelain, the following remarks may be 
of service : — 

Oriental Chitia is remarkable for its close 
texture, its flinty hardness, fine surface, and 
capacity for bearing heat. It is supposed to 
take from ten to twenty years to get some 
of these wares into a state fit for baking. They 
are generally very expensive, but extremely 
durable. 

Dresden China is finer in outline than the 
Oriental, and the best kinds are fully as dura- 
ble. 

Sevres China is of French manufacture and 
is not so close or fine in the grain as those 
above alluded to ; but it has a superior glaze, 
and is generally of elegant shape, with beauti- 
ful colors and magnificent gilding. 

The common Red Earthenware is that used 
most extensively for cooking, dairy, and other 
purposes. It does not stand the heat well, 
and is very easily broken. Acids should never 
be put into any vessels made of this ware, as 
there is a poisonous ingredient in the glazing 
which the acid takes off. The common stone- 
ware is stronger, and cleaner, and better every 
way than any other kind. 

For instructions about mending broken 
earthenware, see Cements. 

BAU DE COLOGNE. {See Cologne.) 

EEL. — There are several varieties of eels, 
some being taken in salt water and some in 
fresh. The common eel is a very sweet and 
savory fish, and is plentiful in the markets 
throughout the year; those taken from the 
seashore are preferred, as they are generally 



188 



EEL 



EGGS 



in the best condition. The silver eel is consid- 
ered the finest of the eel species, and the color, 
even when skinned, has somewhat the appear- 




Sand-Eel. 

ance of silver. They are in season from 
April to November. As an article of food, 
eels are extremely rich and nutritious ; but on 
account of the large quantity of oil which they 
contain, they are apt to cause derangement of 
the digestive functions if eaten too liberally 
without using some condiment as a corrective. 
In cooking eels, reject the large ones and take 
those weighing about one pound each. Before 
skinning them, cut off the head, or divide the 
spinal column just behind the head ; this ren- 
ders suffering on their part impossible. 

Boiled Eels. — Pare a lemon, and strip from 
it entirely the white inner rind ; slice it and re- 
move the seed with care ; put it, with a blade of 
mace, a small half-teaspoonful of white pepper- 
corns, nearly a teaspoonful of salt, and a mode- 
rate sized bunch of parsl^, into three pints of 
cold water ; bring them gently to a boil, and sim- 
mer them for twenty minutes ; let them become 
quite cold ; then put in three pounds of eels, 
skinned and cleaned, and cut into lengths of 
three or four inches ; simmer them very slowly 
from ten to fifteen minutes, lift them into a 
very hot dish, and serve with good Dutch 
sauce, or with parsley and butter acidulated 
with lemon-juice. 

Fried Eels. — Skin, empty, and wash them as 
clean as possible ; cut them into four-inch 
lengths, and dry them on a soft cloth. Season 
them with fine salt, and white pepper or cay- 
enne, flour them thickly, and fry them to a fine 
brown in boiling lard ; drain them well before 



placing in the dish, and send to the table with 
plain melted butter, or anchovy sauce. Eels 
may also be dipped into batter and then fried ; 
or into tgg and fine bread-crumbs (mixed with 
minced parsley or not, at pleasure). 

It is an improvement on these modes of dress- 
ing eels to open them entirely, and remove 
the bones ; the smaller parts should be thrown 
into the pan a minute or two later than the 
thicker portions of the bodies, or all will not be 
equally done. 

Broiled Eels.— Skin the eels and cut them 
open down the back, and then remove 
the bone. Steep them in oil, pepper, salt, 
and vinegar for about two hours ; then 
dip them in bread-crumbs, and afterward 
into melted butter. Broil them over a clear 
fire, and send them to the table with tartar 
sauce. 

Stewed Eels. — Skin and clean, and cut out 
all the fat from the inside ; cut into lengths 
of about two inches ; put them into a sauce- 
pan with enough cold water to cover them ; 
cover closely, and stew for an hour. Then add 
a tablespoonful of butter, and a tablespoonful 
of flour stirred into half a teacupful of cold 
water ; season with pepjDer, and serve in a deep 
dish. 

Tartar Eels. — Skin the eels, cut them into 
two-inch lengths, and boil them in savory gravy 
or broth that has wine in it, with a little salt. 
When cold, take them out, drain them, and dip 
them . in a mixture (half and half) of melted 
butter and uncooked egg-yolk ; then roll them 
in bread-crumbs till they are well and equally 
covered ; lay them on a gridiron till they are 
well heated throughout and nicely browned on 
the outside. Serve on a layer of tartar sauce 
at the bottom of the dish. 

EGGS. — According to Baron Liebig there is 
more nutriment in an egg than in anything of 
equal bulk that exists in nature or that chem- 
istry can produce ; and among all nations they 




are a favorite article of food. In this country I more plentiful and cheap; during the winter, 
they may be considered as being in season the and especially at the holiday season, they are 
year round, though in the spring months they are | usually quite scarce and high. 



EGGS 



189 



The freshness of an egg may be tested by 
putting the large end to the tongue, when, if it 
feels warmer than the other end, the egg is 
considered fresh. Another test is to hold the 
egg up against the sun ; if the outline of the 
yolk can be distinctly traced, and the white 
looks clear around it, the chances are that the 
egg is good. The surest test, however, is to 
place the eggs in a pan of cold water. The 
fresh egg will sink quickly to the bottom, those 
that sink very slowly are suspicious, and those 
that float are very likely to be bad. 

To preserve eggs for a few weeks, pack them in 
bran or salt, with the small end downward ; their 
chances will be improved by previously greasing 
them well with linseed oil or dipping them in a 
weak varnish. When it is desired to keep 
them longer, pour a gallon of water upon a 
pound of quicklime in a jar; let it remain about 
24 hours to cool after the effervescence ; pro- 
cure eggs as fresh as possible and drop them 
into the jar gently. Place the jar where the 
eggs can be taken out without moving it, and 
they will keep good for a twelvemonth. A 
popular French method is as follows : Dissolve 
four ounces of beeswax in eight ounces of olive 
oil ; dip the tip of the finger in this and anoint 
the egg all around. The oil will be immediate- 
ly absorbed by the shell and the pores filled up 
Avith the wax. It is claimed that by this meth- 
od the eggs, if kept in a cool (but not cold) 
place, may be preserved fresh for two years. 

Baked Eggs. — Break the desired number of 
eggs into a buttered dish, taking care to keep 
each whole and the yolks separate from each 
other; dust with pepper and salt, and place 
half a teaspoonful of butter upon each ; put 
into a moderate oven and bake until the whites 
are solid. Serve hot, with buttered toast. 

Balls (Egg) for Soups. — Boil four or five 
eggs for ten or twelve minutes, and lay them 
in fresh water until they are cold. Take out 
the yolks, and pound them smoothly with the 
beaten yolk of one raw egg, or more if required ; 
add a httle salt and cayenne, roll the mixture 
into balls the size of marbles, and boil them 
for two minutes. Half a teaspoonful of flour 
is sometimes worked up with the eggs. 

Boiled Eggs. — Be sure that the water is 
actually boiling; put the eggs in gently one by 
one with a spoon so as to avoid cracking them ; 
boil steadily //tree minutes if they are wanted 
soft — ten minutes if wanted hard. A favorite 
method with gourmands is to put the eggs on 
in cold water and let it gradually come to a 
boil, which will be in about ten minutes. The 
inside, white and yolk, will then be of the con- 
sistency of custard. 

Cooked (Eggs) -without boiling. — First put 
some boiling water into a large bowl or basin 
and let it remain for a few seconds ; then turn 
it out, lay in a couple of eggs, and roll them 
over to take the chill off the shell that they may 
not crack from the sudden application of heat ; 
pour in upon the eggs boiling water from the 
kettle, until they are completely covered ; put a 
plate over them instantly, and let them remain | 



upon the table for twelve minutes, when they 
will be found perfectly cooked, entirely free 
from all flavor and appearance of rawness, and 
yet so light and dehcate as to suit even persons 
who cannot eat eggs at all when cooked in the 
usual way. The eggs should be turned when 
rather more than half done, but the plate must 
be replaced as quickly as possible. More than 
two eggs will require from 1 5 to 20 minutes in- 
stead of 12. 

Fricasseed Eggs. — Take half a pound of 
stale bread and a pint of milk ; place them in a 
sauce-pan on the fire and boil for three minutes, 
mash well and mix the two together, then boil 
them, stirring continually, until they make a 
rather thin paste ; remove this, mix with it six 
or eight boiled eggs, season with salt and pep- 
per, put back on the fire, stir constantly for five 
minutes or so, and serve hot. 

Fried Eggs. — I. Put plenty of butter or lard 
into a frying-pan, and when it is boiling hot, 
break the eggs in gently one by one (being care- 
ful not to break the yolks) ; fry them three min- 
utes, or until the white part becomes hard, and 
take up with a skimmer ; dust over with salt 
and pepper, and serve hot. 

n. {/n batter). — Poach the eggs (not hard); 
set them aside to drain and cool on a clean 
napkin. Make ready a deep frying-pan, and 
when the fat is hot, fry enough parsley to cover 
the bottom of your dish. Dip the eggs in bat- 
ter with a spoon, sprinkle them slightly with 
fine-chopped parsley, and fry; when a light 
brown, they are done. Arrange them on the 
bed of fried parsley, and sprinkle with lemon- 
juice. 

Ham and Eggs. — Fry the eggs as above ; 
drain them thoroughly, and lay each separately 
on a piece of fried ham. The ham should be 
cut in appropriate slices before dishing. Gar- 
nish with sprigs of parsley. 

Mashed Eggs. — Put a little good gravy or 
dripping from roast beef, veal, or pork, or a lit- 
tle good soup, or a large lump of butter, into a 
stew-pan. When hot, break in the required 
number of eggs, stirring constantly. Season 
slightly with pepper and salt, and cook quite 
gently until the eggs become stiff. 

Omelette. {See Omelette.) 

Poached Eggs.— Have a large frying-pan 
two-thirds full of boiling water into which about 
a tablespoonful of salt has been thrown. Place 
it where the boiling will cease, then break the 
shells of the eggs one by one on the edge of 
the pan ; hold them over the boiling water, 
close to the surface; open the shell adroitly 
with your two thumbs, and let its contents slide 
into the water in as entire a mass as possible; 
keep each egg separate in the water, to prevent 
their sticking together ; if the yolk of an egg is 
broken it is spoiled for serving. Let the water 
simmer gently until the white of the egg sets, 
then take out with a perforated skimmer, and 
place each egg on a piece of buttered toast. 

Poached eggs on toast, served with Worces- 
tershire sauce, make one of the most delicious 
of breakfast dishes. 



190 



EGG-FLIP 



ELDERBERRY 



Sauce (Egg.) — I. Boil four eggs for quite 1 5 
minutes ; then lay them into cold water and let 
them remain until perfectly cold. Break the 
shells by rolling them on a table, and pick off 
the pieces ; separate the whites from the yolks, 
and divide all of the latter into quarter-inch 
dice ; mince two of the whites tolerably small, 
mix them lightly with the yolks, and stir the 
whole into a third of a pint of melted butter or 
white sauce. Serve as hot as possible. 

n. Boil two eggs hard, and when quite cold, 
cut the whites and yolks up separately ; mix 
them together, put them into a very hot tureen, 
and pour over them a quarter of a pint of drawn 
butter (while it is boiling). Stir, and serve im- 
mediately. 

Scrambled Eggs. — Put in a frying-pan 
enough butter to grease the bottom of the pan ; 
break in the eggs carefully, without breaking 
the yolks ; for each dozen eggs, add a table- 
spoonful of butter ; season with a very little 
pepper and salt ; when the whites harden 
slightly, stir the eggs from the bottom of the 
pan, and continue to do so until they are suffi- 
ciently cooked. When done, the yolks and 
whites should be separate, though stirred to- 
gether — marbled, in fact, and not mixed like 
mashed eggs. 

Stuffed Eggs. — Cut six hard-boiled eggs 
in two lengthwise ; lift out the yolks and mince 
them up fine with six or eight sprigs of parsley ; 
add three ounces of butter and a slice (the size 
of a saucer) of the soft part of bread, soaked in 
milk and squeezed ; season with salt, pepper, 
and a little grated nutmeg ; mix the whole to- 
gether thoroughly. With this mixture fill the 
cavity in the whites whence the yolks were 
taken ; set these in a pan with a layer of pars- 
ley, or spinach, on the bottom ; place for ten 
minutes in an oven, and serve warm. 

EGG-FLIP.— T^/?-^ .--Eggs, 2; ale, ^i pt ; 
white sugar, i ^ oz ; nutmeg and cloves. 

For each yi pt of the flip desired to be made, 
take two eggs, and beat them up thoroughly with 
an ounce and a half of white sugar and a little 
powdered nutmeg and cloves. While doing 
this, heat half a pint of ale (a little brandy may 
be added if the ale is not strong enough) ; and 
when boiling hot stir it into the eggs, after 
which pour the whole backwards and forwards 
from the sauce-pan into a bowl and vice versa 
until it thickens. If, from the coldness of the 
atmosphere, this does not take place, it must be 
put on the fire again and constantly stirred un- 
til it does, which never fails in a few minutes. 

EGG-NOGG.— Tiz/^^ -'-Eggs, 5 ; sugar, 5 table- 
spoonfuls ; milk, I qt ; best brandy, >^ pt ; 
nutmeg. 

Stir the sugar and the yolks of the eggs to- 
gether ; add the milk ; then the brandy ; and 
lastly stir in the whites of three eggs, which 
should previously have been whipped up stiff. 
Flavor to taste with grated nutmeg. 

EGG PLANT. — This vegetable is called 
"guinea-squash " at the South. It is cultivated 
exactly like the tomato, to which it is related 
(which see), or like the squash. There are 



several varieties of the egg plant, of which the 
large, purple, oval-shaped kind is best for the 
table. When fried, they have a taste resem- 
bling that of the oyster, and they are much used 
in soups, stews, etc. The white variety is much 
smaller, about the size and shape of a goose- 
egg, and but seldom used, being grown rather 
for ornament than utility. The egg plant is in 
season from June to October. 

Pried Egg Plant. — Select the large purple 
kind, and one which feels firm when pressed ; 
cut it crosswise into rather thick slices, pare 
the skin off, and place them to soak for half an 
hour in strong salt and water ; wipe each slice 
dry with a napkin, dip it in egg, and then in 
cracker-crumbs, and fry in hot lard until of a 
nice crisp brown. 

Stewed Egg Plant. — Put in a pot and stew 
till soft ; after removing the skin, mash it with 
butter and sweetherbs ; put it in a pan, grate 
bread over the top, and bake in a moderate 
oven till brown. 

Stuffed Egg-Plant. — Soak a piece of the soft 
part of bread in cold water, and then squeeze 
the water out of it. Parboil the tgg plants ten 
minutes, split them in two lengthwise, and 
scrape out the seeds. Put a piece of butter in 
a sauce-pan, and when melted fry in it a bit of 
chopped onion ; when the onion is fried, stir in 
the soaked bread ; add salt, pepper, and grated 
nutmeg to taste, and a little gravy ; stir to- 
gether for about one minute, and then remove 
from the fire. Fill both halves of the egg 
plants with this mixture, and put them in a pan 
with the mixture upwards ; dust with bread- 
crumbs, put a teaspoonful of butter on the top 
of each, and bake till brown. Serve hot. 

EGLANTINE. — A name for the sweet brier, 
a well-known and delightfully flagrant-leaved 
rose. It grows wild in rich pastures and neg- 
lected fields throughout the United States, and 
in favorable soil sometimes sends up shoots ten 
or twelve feet high, covered with harsh, crooked 
prickles. It succeeds well in the garden if 
ample room and a deep rich soil are allowed it, 
and in such cases it sometimes produces double 
flowers. Eglantine grows readily from the 
seeds, and sown in rows, the plants can be 
clipped into shape to form low and ornamental 
hedges. Plant in early spring. The flowers, 
which are borne most profusely on the lower 
branches, are of a beautiful rosy color, and full 
of fragrance ; but the chief perfume of the 
plant is in the foliage, its leaves being covered 
with russet-colored glands, which, when slightly 
bruised, emit a peculiar scent. 

EIDER-DOWN. {See Down.) 

ELDERBERRY.— This is the fruit of the 
elder-tree which is found generally in damp 
places, near streams of water and along the 
shady side of old walls and fences. The ber- 
ries are small, black, and of a pleasant flavor 
when ripe, and are used for making pies, etc., 
the well-known Elderberry ivine, which is a 
wholesome and agreeable beverage, and for 
feeding birds. Infusions of the flowers make 
the Elder flower tea, which is a powerful pro^ 



ELDERBERRY 



EMETICS 



191 



moter of perspiration and of cuticular secre- 
tions. The berries are in season in August 
and September, and can generally be procured 
in the markets. 

Elderberry Wine. — Take .--Elderberries 
(ripe); water; sugar; cloves ; ginger; yeast. 

Select ripe and fresh berries, strip them 
clean from the stalks, and measure them into a 
tub or large earthen jar; pour boiling water 
upon them in the proportion of two gallons to 
three of berries, press them down into the 
liquor, cover them closely, and let them stand 
until the following day ; then strain the juice 
from the fruit through a sieve or cloth, and 
Avhen this is done squeeze from the berries the 
greater part of the remaining juice ; mix it with 
that which was first poured off, measure the 
whole, and for every gallon add three pounds 
of sugar, three-quarters of an ounce of cloves, 
and one ounce of ginger ; boil twenty minutes, 
keeping it thoroughly skimmed, and remove 
from the fire. When about milk-warm, put it 
into a perfectly dry and sweet cask, fill this 
entirely, and pour very gently into the bung- 
hole a tablespoonful of new yeast mixed with 
half a teacupful of the wine. When fermen- 
tation ceases, paste a stiff brown paper over 
the bunghole ; after that it will be fit for use in 
about eight weeks, but will keep for years. 

n. Take .--Elderberries ; water ; sugar ; rai- 
sins ; brandy (if wanted). 

Take elderberries that are quite ripe, put 
them into a pan and bake them in an oven along 
with the bread ; then strain the juice from 
them. To six gallons of water put three pounds 
of moist sugar, boil it one hour and strain it ; 
when it is cool, add one quart of the elder-juice, 
to every gallon of liquor ; spread a toast thickly 
with yeast, put it in, and let it stand for a 
week ; then put the wine into a cask, and for 
every gallon add one pound of raisins. A pint 
of brandy to every three gallons of wine will 
be an improvement. 

III. (White Berries.) — Take .--White elderber- 
ries ; lump sugar ; yeast ; Malaga raisins ; lemons. 

To a quart of white berries add a quart of 
water, boil it half an hour, press it through a 
sieve, but do not press the berries ; to each gal- 
lon of this liquor put three pounds of lump 
sugar; let it boil, skim it, and when milk- 
warm work it with a tablespoonful of yeast for 
five days, stirring it two or three times a day ; 
to five gallons of the liquor put three pounds 
of Malaga raisins, chopped ; put the whole into 
a cask which has been previously washed with 
brandy ; stop up the bunghole when the wine 
has done working, and to each gallon add the 
rind and juice of a lemon. 

Elder-Flower Wine. — 7}z,iv.--Elder-flowers ; 
water ; sugar ; yeast. 

To every gallon of water put four pounds of 
sugar, half a pint of elder-flowers, tiot pressed 
down, and one tablespoonful of yeast. Mix 
these together, and put them in a cask ; stir 
them every morning for a week and then stop 
the bung up close ; it will be ready to bottle in 
six weeks. This is a delicious wine. 



EMBROCATIONS. — Applications intended 
to relieve local pains, either by counter-irrita- 
tion or by the anodyne effects of their ingre- 
dients, or by aiding the friction which cannot 
long be maintained without some such applica- 
tion. 

{a) Liquor of ammonia, tincture of opium, 
spirits of turpentine, and olive oil, of each equal 
parts. Useful for rheumatism or any local pains. 

ip) Flour of mustard, ^ ounce ; vinegar, 
boiling, 3 ounces. Mix, and rub into the parts 
to produce counter-irritation. 

{c) Laudanum, chloroform and soap liniment, 
in equal proportions, will often relieve local 
pains. 

{(i) Chloroform alone may be applied, sprink- 
led on a piece of spongio-piline (to be had at 
the drug stores), and applied to the parts affect- 
ed with neuralgia. Care must be taken not to 
inhale the vapor too long. 

{e) All embrocations may be applied with 
good effect by wetting with them the inner 
surface of spongio-piline, and keeping it to the 
part. In this way, as the ammonia cannot 
evaporate, embrocations made with it are much 
more active. 

EMERY. — A variety of corundum, the hard- 
est known substance except diamond. It is 
bruised and ground to powder in a powerful 
stamping mill, and is then sifted into various 
degrees of fineness. It is ^ery useful in the 
household for scouring and polishing furniture 
and the like, and for rubbing the rust out of 
metals. E/nery paper is made of various de- 
grees of fineness, in the same way as sand- 
paper, and is more convenient than the powder 
of emery. Emery cloth is much superior to 
the paper for cleaning utensils of iron and steel. 
The paper is so brittle that it will not hold 
together after having been used a little while, 
and, unfortunately, this happens just when its 
quality as a polisher is best, from the coarse 
grains having been rubbed off ; by substituting 
'the cheapest kind of calico for paper, an article 
has been produced, the durability of which 
more than compensates for the additional cost. 
The most common use of the emery powder is 
for cleaning and sharpening needles in sewing ; 
for this purpose, the finest powder is best. 

EMETICS. — Medicines used to produce 
vomiting ; but they should be used rarely, ex- 
cept under medical advice. When, however, a 
person is known to have swallowed any foreign 
substance, or to have evidently disordered the 
stomach by improper food recently taken, a 
simple emetic is quite justifiable, or in case of 
croup, when no time is to be lost, it may be had 
recourse to. The only safe drug for this pur- 
pose is powdered ipecacuanha and syrup of ipe- 
cacuanha, which may be given in doses pro- 
portionate to age, and mustard. 

{a) Powdered ipecacuanha, 15 to 30 grains. 

\b) Syrup of ipecacuanha, 10 drops to a tea- 
spoonful. 

{c) A teaspoonful of mustard mixed in a 
pint of water, and taken in four portions, at in- 
tervals of a few minutes. 



192 



EMOLLIENTS 



ENTREES 



{d) The above doses may be repeated every 
fifteen minutes till vomiting is produced. 

{e) Tickling the throat with a feather is some- 
times efficacious, especially when, as in poison- 
ing, haste is desirable. 

EMOLLIENTS. — Those remedies which re- 
lax the tone of the blood vessels of parts. 
Poultices and warm water fomentations are 
chiefly those which may be adopted in domestic 
practice, and they will be found serviceable in 
many slight cases of inflammation from various 
causes. Bread or linseed meal poultice is an 
excellent emollient, as also is the fomentation 
made with poppyheads, and appHed by means 
of flannel wrung out in it. 

EMULSIONS. — An emulsion is an oily 
substance suspended in some fluid capable of 
holding in a state of minute subdivision. Thus, 
castor oil may be rubbed down with yolk of egg, 
or milk, or mucilage and syrup. A pleasant 
cough emulsion is made from almonds, gum 
arabic, sugar, water, and a little tolu, paregoric, 
and sweet spirits of nitre. 

ENDIVE, or Chicory, or Succory. — There 
are several varieties of this plant, of which the 
curled are found the most numerous. The 
green curled is crisp and tender ; but the white 
curled is more so, but less hardy, and usually 
quite scarce. The broad-leaved Batavian — call- 
ed by the French scaroll — is much cultivated, 
but used principally by the French and Germans. 
The leaves only are used in soups, stews, 
roasts, salads, etc. In season from September 
to March. For the Wild Endive, see Chic- 
ory. 

Salad (Endive) — In its unbleached state, en- 
dive is highly bitter to the taste, and it must be 
bleached by covering up with an earthen pot, 
or storing it in a dark cellar, before it is fit for 
a salad. Prepare and dress same as lettuce. 

Ste-wed Endive. — Wash and drain ; put it 
in boiling water for about one minute, and 
drain it again. Put it into a stew-pan with a 
little broth, and simmer till tender ; then add a 
little gravy, season to taste with salt and pep- 
per and serve. The wild chicory may be pre- 
pared in the same way. 

ENTREES.— A technical term in French 
cookery applied to what are commonly called 
" made dishes." They are used to supplement 
the regular dishes of meat, etc-, and in a regu- 
lar dinner are usually brought in with the third 
or fourth course, or between them. They are 
also valuable as a means of enabling cooked 
food to reappear in a novel and economical 
form ; they will often serve as the basis of a 
quiet dinner, and above all for invalids, seden- 
tary people, and convalescents, for whom some- 
thing light and tasty is desirable, which will ex- 
cite them to eat a little without making them feel 
afterwards as if they had overtasked their diges- 
tive powers. We shall not give here a long list 
of entree'!, because they will be found throughout 
the work under the ingredients of which they 
are chiefly composed. A few, however, will be 
brought together, if only to show what we 
mean and what may be done in this line — for 



every one seems to like "made dishes," 
properly prepared. 

Beef Cakes. — For a side dish. — Pound 
some beef that is underdone with fat bacon 
or ham ; season with salt, pepper, and a 
little onion or garlic : mix them well, and make 
into small cakes three inches long, and half as 
wide and thick ; fry them a light brown, and 
serve them in a good thick gravy. 

Beef Olives. — Cut slices of beef (either 
raw or cooked), an inch thick and four inches 
square ; lay them on a forcemeat of bread- 
crumbs, a little suet or fat, shalot, pepper and 
salt. Roll them, and fasten with a small 
skewer ; put them into a stew pan with some 
gravy made of the beef bones, or the gravy of 
the meat and a spoonful or two of water, and 
stew them till tender. 

Bubble and Squeak. — Boil and drain : 
then chop and fry, some cabbage, with a little 
butter or drippings, pepper and salt ; lay on it 
slices of underdone beef, lightly fried, and sea- 
soned with pepper and salt. 

Bird's Nest. — Eggs boiled hard, the shells 
removed, and each surrounded with forcemeat ; 
after which they are fried or baked brown, 
and cut in half and laid in the dish with gravy. 

Calf's Head, Hashed. — Boil the head in 
soft water, or as directed under Calf's Head. 
Take the meat from the bones, and cut it into 
thin bits; then take, of the water it was boiled 
in, enough to stew it till the meat is thoroughly 
hot. Work half a pound of butter well with half 
a gill of flour, and mix with it a tablespoonful of 
the essence of anchovies, three blades of 
mace, a little nutmeg, and pepper and salt. 
Add this to the meat, and mix well together. 
Take the yoke of an egg, well beaten, stir it 
up with half a pint of cream, and add it to 
the ha,sh. Stew till the meat is quite tender ; 
then remove, squeeze in the juice of a lemon, 
and garnish with egg-balls and balls of force- 
meat. 

Chicken or Rabbit Curry. — i. Cut up a 
chicken or young rabbit — if chicken, take off 
the skin. Roll each piece in a mixture of half 
an ounce of curry-powder and a tablespoonful 
of flour. Slice two or three onions and fry 
them in butter to a light brown ; then add the 
meat, and fry all together till the meat begins 
to brown. Put all into a stew-pan, and pour in 
just enough boiling water to cover it ; simmer 
gently two or three hours ; if too thick, add 
more water half an hour before serving. If 
the meat has been dressed before, a little 
broth will be better than water ; but the curry 
is richer when made of fresh meat. 

Boiled rice is usually served with curry. A 
common practice is to pile the rice round the 
dish, and put the curry in the middle ; the bet- 
ter way is to serve them on separate dishes so 
that one may be eaten without the other. 

2. Take two tablespoonfuls of curry-powder, 
and mix with it a teacupful of water, half a 
teacupful of vinegar, and a dessertspoonful of 
salt. Stew slowly for an hour, and when it be- 
comes too thick, add a little more vinegar and 



ENTREES 



193 



water. About three-quarters of an hour before 
dinner put in the fowl, veal, mutton, or fish, cut 
into square pieces, and previously fried to a 
pale brown, with six large onions sliced thin. 
Then stew the whole together till the meat be- 
comes quite tender. 

Meat Balls. — Chop up the meat (any kind 
will do) as fine as for sausages ; mix it with a 
small quantity of bread-crumbs, mace, cloves, 
pepper and salt, all pounded well ; stir them to- 
gether with one egg, and make into balls about 
the size of a goose's egg. Roll in a mixture 
of bread-crumbs and egg, and fry to a light 
brown ; dish them into gravy flavored with wal- 
nut catsup. 

Pilla-w. — Put one measure of well-washed 
rice to three measures of water, with a pinch 
of salt, and boil till done. Drain the rice, and 
spread it on the dish ; on this put a layer of 
mixed vegetables (whatever is in season), made 
into a ragout, thickened with egg-yolk and sea- 
soned with pepper, salt, and cayenne ; cover 
with another layer of the rice, into which thrust 
five bits of butter as big as a filbert. Glaze 
the top with white of eggs ; set the dish in a 
brisk oven for five minutes, and serve. 

Pillaw (Turkish, -with meat). — Take one 
measure of well-washed rice and three meas- 
ures of good broth ; set them over a brisk fire, 
in a stev/-pan with a close-fitting lid. When it 
begins to boil, steep two or three threads of 
saffron in a teacupful of warm broth ; when 
well-infused, pour it into the stew-pan and let 
all boil, closely covered. When the rice is 
cooked, spread it on a dish ; on this put a layer 
of ragout and any meat, fowl, or game ; cover 
with another layer of the rice, and pour over 
the whole a tablespoonful of melted butter. 

Salmagundy. — This is a very pretty dish, if 
in nice shape, and if the colors of the ingredi- 
ents are varied. For this purpose chop sepa- 
rately the white parts of cold chicken or veal, 
eggs boiled hard and whites and yolks chopped 
separately, parsley, half a dozen anchovies, 
beet-root, red pickled cabbage, ham and grated 
tongue, or anything well flavored and of a good 
color. Some people like a small proportion of 
onion, but it had better be left out. A saucer, 
large teacup, or any other base must be put into 
a small dish ; then make rows around it wide 
at the bottom, and growing smaller towards the 
top, choosing such of the ingredients for .each 
row as will most vary the colors. At the top a 
little sprig of curled parsley may be stuck in. 
Or, without anything in the dish, the salma- 
gundy may be laid in rows, or put into the half- 
wliites of eggs, which may be made to stand 
upright by cutting off a bit at the round end. 
In the latter case, each half egg should have 
but one ingredient. Garnish between with 
curled parsley. Pour a salad dressing over all. 

Sausage Side Dish. — Potatoes nicely mash- 
ed, and shaped in a basin or deep pie-dish, 
turned out and covered with sausages, all the 
ties crossing at the top. Help a sausage and a 
spoonful of potatoes to each plate. | 

Sweetbreads. — Several excellent etitrees are I 
13 



made of sweetbreads. For them, see Sweet- 
bread. 

Veal Balls. — Take two ounces of beef suet ; 

two ounces of veal, minced fine ; the yolks of 
one raw and one boiled egg ; one small onion ; 
salt, pepper, mace, nutmeg, and lemon-peel to 
taste. Beat them all well together ; make into 
balls ; fry to a light brown, and serve in gravy. 

Veal Cake. — I. Take the best end of a 
breast of veal, bone it and cut it into small 
pieces ; boil two or three eggs hard, divide the 
yolks, and cut the whites into pieces ; take two 
anchovies ; some parsley chopped fine, ham, 
rather lean, cut into thin slices, season these 
well with cayenne, black pepper, salt, and nut- 
meg; put in a layer of veal, parsley, ham, etc., 
till the deep dish is full ; pour a cup of water 
over it and the bones at the top ; cover it close 
down, and bake it in a slow oven for four 
hours ; take the bones off when it comes out, 
and turn it out when cold. 

II. Take the thick part of a leg of veal, free 
from skin and sinews, and some good fresh suet 
or marrow, with a little bit of clear fat bacon. 
Beat it in a marble mortar till it comes to a 
paste. Season with white pepper, cayenne, 
salt, nutmeg, and mace, and, if it is liked, with 
a little lemon peel. Make it up in cakes about 
the size of a biscuit ; fry them in clear dripping 
till they become of a nice light brown. Serve 
them up with white sauce, which must not be 
put over them. This makes a pretty corner 
dish, or will serve for first or second course for 
a small dinner-party. 

Veal Olives. — Take eight or ten cutlets ; 
dip them in yolks of egg beaten up ; season 
with pepper and salt, and lay over them a little 
forcemeat ; roll them up and tie them with a 
thread (which is to be removed before serving), 
and fry them in lard or fat ; then put them in a 
stew-pan with some good gravy, an anchovy, 
pepper, and mace ; make some balls of flour or 
Indian meal, boil them a little, and put them 
in ; thicken with flour and butter. 

Vol-au-Vent. — As a vol-au-vent may be 
made of anything, and must contain a variety 
of ingredients, it is an economical way of using 
up in an acceptable way many little remnants 
which would otherwise be wasted. The house- 
keeper, on looking over the contents of her 
larder, can often out of them compose an 
original vol-mi-ve}it. Bits of cold fowl, pigeon, 
meat, game, livers of ducks, chickens or geese, 
kidneys, portions of sausage, stuffing, and 
forcemeat ; unused oyster, caper, shrimp, or 
anchovy sauce, etc., etc., will, with judicious 
additions, costing little, constitute a dish pleas- 
ing to the eye as well as to the palate. 
After selecting the ingredients, mix well to- 
gether ; season to taste with salt, pepper, and 
spices ; put into a stew-pan with a little gravy 
or broth, and stew until done. Meat vols-au- 
veni may have their character varied by 
flavoring with Worcestershire or other sauce, 
truffles, lemon peel, or even a dish of curry- 
powder. When done it is ready to go into 
the crust. 



194 



EPILEPSY 



ERMINE 



Making the crust of the vol-au vent is one of 
the things which require to be seen done. It 
is thus performed : — Roll out the lightest possi- 
ble puff-paste to three-quarters, or one inch 
in thickess. Lay it on an iron oven-plate. A 
sauce-pan lid will serve to cut out the required 
circle. Trim away the rest of the paste, which 
will serve for patties or garnishing. Trace, 
with a knife heated in hot water (to prevent the 
paste from sticking to it), a smaller inner circle 
within it, to form the lid of the vol-au-vent, 
leaving an edge about an inch broad, and mak- 
ing your knife penetrate to nearly half the 
thickness of the paste. The surface of the 
whole may be glazed with egg, or otherwise 




A Vol-au-vent. 

decorated. Put into a brisk oven ; when, if 
the puff-paste has been well-made, the whole 
ought to rise to the height of three or four 
inches. When well risen, and of a nice light 
brown, take out, lift the cover immediately, and 
with your knife remove the underdone paste or 
crumb within, leaving the hollow which is to 
receive your stew, and taking care not to make 
any leaks in it. But to accomplish this well 
is one of the nicest operations in pastry-cook- 
ling. An ornamental vol-ait-vent may be made 
in a mould, as shown in above cut. See Cro- 
quettes, Lamb Chops, Sweet Breads and 
Vols au vent. 

ENTREMETS. — A French term applied to all 
•dishes of vegetables ; all salads of greens ; all 
omelettes, except those of ham, bacon, salt pork, 
and kidneys ; macaroni, rice, eggs, etc. Also 
to all sweet dishes, such as cakes, pies, com- 
p6tes, puddmgs, and cheese. 

EPILEPSY. — A disease, the exact cause 
of which is not known, but of which the main 
features are sudden loss of consciousness, and 
convulsions, lasting a longer or shorter period. 
The attack begins with a sudden pallor of 
countenance, and a fixed expression of face. 
Sometimes there is simply a shriek and the 
patient falls to the ground violently convulsed. 
There is usually foaming at the mouth ; the 
tongue is thrust forward, and sometimes badly 
lacerated by the teeth. The eyes are generally 
fixed, but sometimes roll continuously and are 
quite insensible. The face becomes purple, 
and breathing is frequently suspended for a 
time. The bowels and bladder may discharge 
their contents. The convulsions may affect 
any or all parts of the body ; usually one side 
is worst. Gradually they pass off, and the 
patient remains quiet and apparently insensi- 
ble ; this may pass into sound sleep, from which 
he may recover, knowing nothing of what has 



occurred, except by the pain from straining his 
muscles and from the lacerated tongue. Gen- 
erally, too, there is headache. The fit may 
last from a few minutes to half an hour, and 
may recur as often as twice in one day, though 
ordinarily not for very long intervals. The 
attacks, however, have a tendency to recur and 
ultimately affect the mental powers. The ap- 
pearance of confirmed epileptics is very strik- 
ing: they have a stolid, immobile look, are 
usually very stupid, and very likely also their 
moral perceptions are obtuse. Epileptic maniacs 
are an extremely dangerous set. Often in them a 
fit of -violence will take the place of a true epilep- 
tic paroxysm, and they are always dangerous 
before and after the onset of a paroxysm ; it is 
at these times that the homicidal impulse is 
strongest. Epilepsy is often hereditary, but it 
may be induced by a variety of causes. Epilep- 
tiform convulsions are not, however, to be con- 
founded with true epilepsy. Such often occur 
as the result of mental over-work, indigestion, 
etc., but when the cause is removed they have 
no tendency to recur as in the case of true 
epilepsy. 

Treatment. — The treatment of epilepsy re- 
solves itself practically into what is best to be 
done in the intervals between the fits. During 
the paroxysm, great care should be taken that 
the patient does not hurt himself, but otherwise 
he should be let alone. The great remedy for 
epilepsy at present is bromide of potassium in 
full doses. To begin, the patient ought to 
have at least lo or 15 grains three times a day, 
going up to 30 or 40, or even 60 for a dose, if 
necessary. This does good in a great majority 
of cases, but in some it does not. In these, 
strychnine or nux-vomica is sometimes given 
with advantage, but must be used cautiously, 
and ought never to be given at all without a 
physician's prescription. At the same time 
every effort must be made to improve the gen- 
eral health. 

EPSOM SALTS. — This is a simple but 
most useful remedy. In ordinary doses, the 
Epsom salts act as a saline purgative, giving 
rise to a speedy and free watery evacuation of 
the bowels. Two drachms or half an ounce in 
a teacupful of water is the dose commonly 
required ; but as constipation sometimes fol- 
lows its use in this way, it is perhaps better to 
take smaller doses, daily repeated for a time. 
The addition of a few drops of dilute sul- 
phuric acid renders the salt more palatable. 
In this way it is best given in the mornings, 
and is an exceedingly valuable remedy^ for those 
whose livers are habitually what is called 
torpid — that is, where there is a tendency to 
biliousness, with irregular bowels and high- 
colored urine, such as occurs in men who live 
too highly. 

ERMINE. — The fur of the ermine, an ani- 
mal of the weasel family; native of all the 
northern parts of the world. It is a deli- 
cate white in color, and is one of the most 
expensive of furs. The pale cream-colored 
|are considered choicest, but those of a de- 



ERYSIPELAS 



ESSENCES 



195 



cided yellowish tinge are the least desir- 
able. 

To Clean. — Dust the furs well with a soft 
flannel ; then rub into them with the flannel 
fine wheat flour ; shake out the flour, and rub 
with a clean flannel till all is removed. Rub 
the fur always against the grain. 

ERUPTIONS. (5.V Rash.) 

ERYSIPELAS. — This is often classed 
among the skin diseases, but it is too clearly a 
constitutional attack of a feverish nature to be 
omitted from the list of fevers — though one of 
its essential characteristics is an inflammation 
of the skin. It is of two kinds : I. Occurring 
in consequence of injuries, called trarmiatic. II. 
Independant of any recognizable injury, called 
idiopathic. Erysipelas usually attacks the 
head and face ; but it also occurs in other parts 
of the body. The local inflammation is pre- 
ceded and accompanied by fever, and there are 
generally certain premonitory symptoms that 
precede the outbreak of the disease ; the 
patient feels sick — shivery, feeble, languid, and 
drowsy. After these symptoms have continued 
for some time, a red spot appears on some part 
of the body, accompanied with burning heat 
and tingling. The skin is red, and this redness 
spreads rapidly ; it is accompanied with swel- 
ling, variable in amount, but often very con- 
siderable. When it attacks the face, the 
appearance of the face is completely altered 
by the swelling ; all the features are confused, 
the eyes are concealed, the expression dis- 
torted; the sufferer would not be recognized 
by his nearest friends. With all this there is a 
high fever, with quick full pulse, thirst, vomit- 
ing, violent shivering, constipation, and, at a 
later stage, sinking and exhaustion. Many 
mistakes are made relative to this disease even 
by professional men, who confound it with 
chronic eruptions of a different character, 
though presenting a somewhat similar ap- 
pearance. True erysipelas, as we have said, 
is always attended with more or less fever ; and 
its attack is sudden, running a comparatively 
rapid course, and requiring immediate atten- 
tion. The peculiarity of the eruption is that it 
has always a defined and raised edge, — so that 
by the touch alone a practised hand can dis- 
tinguish a case of erysipelas in a moment. 
There is a great tendency to spread, and some- 
times the course is very rapid from one part to 
the other. Erysipelas of the scalp is attended 
with risk to the brain, and should always be 
treated with promptness by the best attainable 
medical skill. In most cases, vescicles of a 
considerable size make their appearance, and as 
the inflammation subsides the cuticle peels off 
in large thick scales. 

Treatment.— There are various modes of 
treating erysipelas, but the disease is of such 
an urgent nature that no one ought, after a 
knowledge of its presence, to delay a moment 
in calling in medical aid. In general moderate 
purgatives, diaphoretics, and strict confinement 
to bed, are to be adopted. The muriated tinc- 
ture of iron, given 20 drops in a wineglass of 



sweetened water every 3 to 4 hours, is regarded 
as a specific by many physicians. In order to 
allay the local irritation, it is recommended to 
wash the part from time to time in warm milk 
and water. One of the topical applications 
which has been recommended is an acidulated 
solution of nitrate of silver. The solution is 
made with one drachm of nitrate of silver, ten 
drops of nitric acid, and an ounce of distilled 
water. This is pencilled over the inflamed 
parts, extending to a little beyond them, and 
left to dry ; it blackens the skin at the time, 
but the cuticle peels off in a few days, and 
leaves the surface healthy. Collodion is like- 
wise a good local remedy. Erysipelas is con- 
tagious, and its spread must be provided against 
by ventilation and scrupulous cleanliness. 

ESCHALOT. {See Shallot). 

ESSENCES. — Essences and essential oils 
have now become one of the essentials of good 
cookery, and enter into a large proportion of 
cooking receipts. Most of them may be had 
at the druggists and grocers, but they are much 
better made at home, and require little trouble 
in the preparation. Some of them, however, 
require a still ; and if such a thing is not at 
hand, it is necessary to buy them. We give a 
list of those that can easily be made. They 
must all be bottled and kept tightly corked. 

Allspice (Essence of). — Oil of allspice, 
twenty drops ; proof spirit, one ounce. Mix. 

Almonds (Essence of Bitter). — Essential 
oil of bitter almonds, one drachm ; proof spirit, 
seven drachms. Mix. This must be used 
with great caution as it is poisonotis in doses 
above ten or twelve drops. 

Cara'way (Essence of). — Oil of caraway, 
one drachm ; proof spirit, four drachms. Mix. 

Celery (Tincture of). — Celery seed, bruised, 
half an ounce ; spirits of wine, two ounces. 
Put it into a bottle, cork it, and stand it near 
the fire for three or four days. A few drops 
will flavor a bowl of broth, and greatly improve 
soups, etc. The seeds ought to be kept for boil- 
ing in soups if the tincture is not approved of. 

Cinnamon (Essence of). — Oil of cinna- 
mon, twenty drops ; proof spirit, one ounce. 
Mix. 

Citron (Essence of). — Oil of citron, thirty 
drops ; proof spirit, one ounce. Mix. This is 
an excellent addition to punch. 

Cloves (Essence of). — Oil of cloves, twenty 
drops; proof spirit, one ounce. Mix. 

Or, infuse a quarter of an ounce of the cloves 
themselves in two ounces of proof spirits for a 
fortnight ; then strain. 

Cochineal (Tincture of). — Cochineal, ten 
grains ; proof spirit, one ounce. Mix in a 
glass bottle, and steep. The cochineal, unless 
powdered, takes a long time to dissolve, and 
the bottle must be frequently shaken. 

Ginger (Essence of). — Bruised ginger, one 
ounce ; proof spirit, one pint. Digest, and 
strain. 

Mace (Essence of). — Oil of mace, twenty 
drops ; proof spirit, one ounce. Mix. Useful 
for flavoring sweets and white sauces, etc. 



196 



ESSENCES 



EXERCISE 



Or, proceed as for essence of cloves. 

Marjoram (Essence of). — Oil of marjoram, 
twenty drops ; proof spirit, one ounce. Mix. 
Useful for flavoring gravy. 

Nutmeg (Essence of). — Oil of nutmeg, 
twenty drops; proof spirit, one ounce. Mix. 

Orange or Lemon Peel (Essence of). — Rub 
the yellow side of the peel of fresh lemons or 
oranges with lumps of white sugar, and when 
saturated, press into a wide-mouthed bottle and 
cork. This is much superior in flavor to the 
dried peel. 

Orange or Lemon Peel (Tincture of). — 
Orange or lemon peel, sliced thin, four ounces ; 
proof spirit, four ounces ; water, six ounces. 
Soak for 48 hours, and strain. 

Savory Spices (Essence of). — Black pep- 
per, one ounce ; powdered allspice, half an 
ounce ; grated nutmeg, quarter of an ounce ; 
proof spirit, one pint. Mix and steep ten 
days, then decant. 

Sv/eet Marjoram (Essence of). — Tops of 
sweet marjoram, one pound ; proof spirit, one 
gallon ; water, half a gallon. Steep a couple 
of days, and then boil off one gallon. Useful 
to flavor stews and sauces. 

ETHER. — Sulphuric ether, the form in which 
ether is generally used, is employed in medical 
practice as a narcotic, antispasmodic, and stimu- 
lant ; a teaspoonful in a glass of white wine is 
recommended by Dr. Brand as a remedy for sea- 
sickness. It is a specific in nervous headaches ; 
in burns and scalds it is applied as a refrigerant. 
Its most important use, however, is as an anes- 
thetic ; and experiment has proved that it is the 
safest yet discovered. Like chloroform, and for 
like reasons, either should be used with great 
caution — rarely except under medical advice. 

EVERTON TAPFY. (See Candy.) 

EXERCISE. — Bodily exercise is absolutely 
essential to the maintenance of good health. 
The human body maybe regarded as a complex 
machine, the various parts of which are so 
beautifully adapted to each other, that, if one 
be disturbed, all must suffer. The bones and 
muscles are the portions of the frame on which 
motion most depends. There are four hundred 
muscles in the body, each of which has certain 
functions to perform that cannot be disturbed 
without danger to the whole, and it is a wise 
provision of nature that the more these muscles 
are exercised the stronger do they become ; 
hence it is that laborers are stronger and more 
muscular than persons whose lives are passed 
in easy or sedentary occupations. Besides 
strengthening the limbs, muscular exercise has 
a most beneficial influence on respiration and 
the circulation of the blood. Says a distin- 
guished medical writer : — " Exercise tells by 
inciting both heart and lungs to increased action 
and energy, and this, done in a pure air, is great 
gain to the purification of the blood ; but ex- 
ercise does much more, for not only are the 
lungs, with their large capacity for air, great 
purifiers, but the skin is little less effective to- 
wards the same end. All know the palpable 
effect of exercise upon the skin ; but many are 



not aware that the sensible perspiration is but 
an increase of an insensible perspiration which 
is unceasingly poured out from myriads of little 
pores — the mouths of the sweat glands and the 
oil glands of the skin. The ordinary insensi- 
ble perspiration is continually freeing us from 
a mass of impurity which cannot be retained 
in our system without injury. Convert the in- 
sensible perspiration into sensible, by exercise, 
and produce moderate sweating, and if the 
clothing be rational, you will give off to the 
winds the cause of many a headache and 
gloomy thoughts. Now this increased skin 
secretion must come from somewhere ; and so 
it does, for the increased exertion causes in- 
creased wear and tear of system ; every step 
works up tissue ; and muscles, blood-vessels, 
nerves, are all used quicker than when there 
is no action. Off go these used-up matters, 
probably the worst first, through lungs and 
skin, as fast as they can, and the man begins 
to feel this waste, for from all sides there are 
telegraphs to the stomach for supplies, and he 
finds himself getting excessively hungry, the 
dinner hour very welcome, and the formerly 
capricious stomach ready for anything ; and so 
new supplies go in to supply the place of the 
old used-up works, and the physical man is 
greatly renovated — taken to pieces, as it were, 
and built up again." By proper exercise is 
meant the use of all the muscles in the body, 
not to any immoderate degree, but sufficiently 
to keep them in good condition, and to render 
the discharge of their several functions easy 
and pleasant. Hardly any kind of exercise 
can be considered as by itself doing this, 
though to read the advertisements of the va- 
rious "lifting machines," a credulous person 
might think one had been discovered. The 
lifting machines are good things, though, after, 
the user has recovered from the strain that 
ambition always leads him to give himself at 
first. For persons of ordinary strength, the 
most convenient one yet invented (summer of 
1876), is probably Johnson's. For neatness 
and compactness it is unrivalled. The writer 
uses it. Walking, which is, on the whole, the 
best exercise, if one has the time, employs 
the legs much more than the arms. Rowing, 
again, exercises the chest and arms more than 
other parts : taken in moderation and com- 
bined with walking, there is no better exercise 
than rowing. Horse-back riding is very good, 
and in some particular cases remarkably 
useful, and probably calls into play more 
muscles than any other exercise outside of 
the gymnasium, or than most single ones in 
it; it should be combined, however, with 
others. The college students have lately dis- 
covered that "passing the ball" (i.e. throwing 
from one to another and catching it), is a sov- 
ereign exercise. A better can hardly be 
imagined ; it uses all the limbs in almost all 
conceivable positions. For those predisposed 
to any diseases of the chest, reading aloud 
and singing are among the best exercises 
that can be taken ; they call into play many 



EXPECTORANTS 



EYE 



197 



muscles, and cause a more rapid transmission 
of blood through the lungs. All exercises, 
however, must be regulated by certain rules, 
the principal of which is to avoid carrying it to 
excess — to proportion it always to the state and 
the previous habit of the individual. Active 
exercise should be avoided immediately after 
a meal, as by diverting blood away from the 
digestive organs into the muscles, it tends to 
suspend digestion. In the next place, it is a 
mistake to consider the labor of the day as 
equivalent to exercise. Work, generally speak- 
ing, is a mere routine process, carried on, with 
but little variety of circumstances, in a con- 
fined atmosphere. To derive the greatest 
amount of good from exercise it must be out 
of doors, must be combined with amusement, 
and be made generally pleasurable and recrea- 
tive. As a rule, every one should take at least 
two hours exercise out of doors everyday; but 
this should be so arranged as neither to excite 
the mind beyond the point of pleasureable in- 
terest, nor to degenerate into mere routine. 

EXPECTORANTS. — Medicines which ex- 
cite and promote a discharge of mucus from 
the lining membrane of the bronchial tubes, 
given with the idea of thereby relieving inflam- 
mation or irritation. They act in two ways : 
first, by removing the constriction of those ves- 
sels, on which the principle of nausea seems to 
act ; and secondly, by stimulating the vessels. 
By this latter method the natural secretions, 
when deficient, are restored: or when they are 
in an unhealthy state they are changed to a 
natural condition. 

{a) Ipecacuanha wine, 3 drachms ; syrup of 
tolu, 5 drachms ; mucilage of acacia, i ounce ; 
water, 6 ounces. Mix, and give two tablespoon- 
fuls every four hours. 

{b) Pill of squill and compound ipecacuanha 
powder, i drachm of each. Mix and divide into 
24 pills, one to be taken every four or six hours. 
{c) Ip' Tinct. Serpentarise. 
Syr. Scills, of each i drachm. 
Syr. Ipecac — 2 drachms. 
Syr. Tolu. 

Tinct. Opii Camp, of each 6 drachms. 
Chloroform, 10 drops. 

Shake — Teaspoonful every 3 or 4 hours for 
cough. 

{d) Powdered ipecacuanha, i grain, and 
powdered opium, half a grain, made into a pill 
and given at night is sometimes useful for 
quieting those troublesome coughs which come 
on at that time ; but it must only be given to 
those who are known to be able to take opium. 
EXTRACT. — This term refers more proper- 
ly to the mode of preparation than to the nature 
of the substance prepared. Making an extract 
consists in dissolving by water, spirit, or any 
other menstruum, such parts of vegetables as 
are soluble, and concentrating this solution by 
heat to a thick consistence, or to entire solidity. 
If water alone is employed, the solution is 
called a watery extract ; if alcohol, or proof 
spirit, then the product is a spirituous extract. 
To make a watery extract, boil the substance 



in water, strain the decoction thus secured, and 
boil it down till it has acquired the proper con- 
sistency. In performing this operation, a higher 
temperature than that of boiling water must not 
be employed, and yet the evaporation must be 
effected as quickly as possible by having the 
evaporating vessel broad and shallow, and set 
in a water-bath. To make a spirituous extract, 
a tincture of the substance must first be made, 
and this evaporated gently in a water or sand- 
bath ; or a distilling apparatus maybe employed, 
and thus the spirit be saved. Some extracts 
require long digestion. {See Essences.) 

EYE. — Most of the ordinary ailments of the 
eye are preceded by careless use or by 
some disorder of the body, and the best safe- 
guard against the local affection is care of the 
general health. Washing sound eyes carefully 
in cold water, and opening them in the water, 
is an excellent way to strengthen and protect 
them against disease. When, however, the lids 
are painful from over-work, warm water is often 
more efficacious. The sources of trouble are 
so multifarious that experiment alone can indi- 
cate the fit temperature to use. In reading, 
never face the light. Let it fall on the book 
over the shoulder, the left if practicable. The 
main object is to prevent the light recoiling 
from the book to the eye. Imagine a ball 
thrown from the light or window on to the 
book : positions that the ball would strike in 
rebounding, are those that the eye should not 
occupy. If the eyes begin to pain while read- 
ing, stop at once. All oculists are now agreed 
in recommending the use of glasses as soon 
as the want of them is discovered. Old people 
must not neglect too long the limits of time, 
but resign themselves, as soon as age indicates, 
to the aids it require--. Short-sightedness and 
long-sightedness are organic conditions, and 
cannot be removed by artificial means. The 
advice of an oculist is of great service, when 
it can be obtained, in selecting glasses. 

Injuries to the Eye. — Foreign bodies fre- 
quently get fixed in the eye, generally under 
the upper lid. In such cases M. Renard, the 
eminent French oculist, recommends the 
folk)wing simple process : — " Take hold of 
the upper eyelid near its angles with the in- 
dex finger and thumb of each hand, draw it 
gently forward, and as low down as possible, 
over the lower eyelid, and retain it in this 
position for about a minute, taking care to pre- 
vent the tears flowing out. When at the end 
of this time, you allow the eyelid to resume its 
place, a flood of tears washes out the foreign 
body, which will be found adhering to, or near 
the lower eyelid." When this does not suc- 
ceed after one or two trials, shut the eye, pass 
a bodkin under the lid, press gently upon it 
with the finger, and pushing outwards against 
the lid with the bodkin, sweep the little nuisance 
into the inner corner of the eye. Or pull the lid 
away from the eye, put a little slip of letter paper 
under the lid, press gently upon it and draw it 
away. Occasionally one of these particles pen- 
etrates the eyeball and sticks too fast to be re- 



198 



FACE-ACHE 



FAT 



moved by any of the foregoing methods. In 
such cases an ocuHst's or surgeon's advice must 
be sought at once, as every hour of delay is 
one of increasing danger. A single fold of 
cotton or linen, wet with cold water and laid 
over the eye, is all that is needed till surgical 
help can be obtained. If the eyeball has been 
cut or broken, or anything thrust or blown into 
it, a solution of four grains of sulphate of atro- 
pia in an ounce of distilled or pure water may 
be dropped into the eye three or four times a 
day ; or belladonna ointment may be rubbed on 
over the brow. Both of these dilate the pupil, 
and atropia is the oculist's sheet anchor. Never 
put on leeches near the eye, but on the temple, 
just in front of the hair. Never poultice the eye, 
or put on warm applications of any kind without 
a surgeon's advice. Never put an " eye-stone " 
into the eye to remove a foreign substance. 

Burns from lime, in the form of mortar or 
plaster, are very dangerous ; for, although they 
may not destroy the eyeball, they render the 
cornea opaque where they come in contact 
with it, and hence produce partial or total blind- 
ness. Moreover, they burn the inner side 
of the lids, and thereby cause these to adhere 
to the eyeball by fleshy growths, which it is al- 
most impossible afterwards to separate so as to 
allow the globe to move with the necessary 
freedom. Olive-oil dropped into the eye after 
it has been washed out with a weak solution of 



vinegar and water, may be used while surgical 
advice is being obtained. When any of the 
strong acids, such as sulphuric or nitric, have 
come in contact with the eye, they act chemi- 
cally on the tissues, and hence their danger. 
Immediately after such an accident, syringe the 
eye with solution of five grains of bicarbonate of 
potash to two tablespoonfuls of water, and drop 
sweet oil between the lids. When some strong 
alkali, like caustic potash or soda, has gotten into 
the eye, wash it out at once with a tablespoonful 
of vinegar in two tablespoonfuls of water. 

Scalds from hot water, and burns from liquid 
metals or the like, can be treated hke the same 
injuries in other parts of the body. {See 
Burns.) Drop sweet oil on and in the eye, and 
lay rags wet with it on the outside of the lids. 
Surgical advice should be sought at once — 
especially for those on the outside of the lids ; 
these are peculiarly dangerous, because the con- 
tractions of the skin, after healing, may distort 
the natural and necessary curve of the eyelids, 
which adapts them to the eyeball. The edges 
of the eyelids are frequently a source of trou- 
ble, from being irritated by cold or other causes. 
The exudation which gathers and thickens upon 
them should be gently softened with warm 
water, and its accumulations prevented by a 
slight application of sweet oil or mutton suet 
before going to bed. (For inflamed eyes, see 
Ophthalmia.) 



FACE-ACHE. — Camphor and brandy, made 
strong by dissolving as much of the former as 
will fill a small thimble, in half a teacupful of 
the best brandy is a good remedy, and may 
be employed for the faceache, when it arises 
from cold in the jaw. Dip cotton cloth or 
paper in this mixture and place it on the cheek 
or gum. An ounce of laudanum added to five 
ounces of opodeldoc may be used in the same 
way. Warm applications of any kind are 
also good. {See Neuralgia, and Tooth- 
ache.) 

FAINTING-FIT. — A fainting person should 
always be placed in a recumbent posture, with 
the head a little lower than the body. Every 
article of dress should then be loosened, and 
as soon as possible, a little cold water dashed 
with sudden violence into the face. Volatiles 
may be held to the nose (care being taken not 
to pour them into the nostrils) with good effect ; 
and as soon as the patient can swallow, re- 
covery will be expedited by a glass of wine, or 
a few drops of ether or sal-volatile in water. 
Free admission of fresh air is very important 
in a case of fainting, and for this reason by- 
standers should forbear crowding around. 

FARCED MEAT. {See Forced meat.) 

FARE, BIILS OF. {See Bills of Fare.) 
. FARINA. — A name applied to the fine flour 
obtained by grinding and sifting any kind of 
grain ; also to the starch obtained from roots 



and grain. Cornstarch is frequently called 
farina ; and several very simple preparations of 
farinaceous food are distinguished by this 
name, coupled with some high-sounding epithet. 
{See Pudding.) The boiler shown in the cut 




Farina Boiler. 

is much better than the common form for cook- 
ing farina, cornstarch, and similar substances. 
It is in two parts; the farina being put in the 
upper one and water in the lower. All danger 
of scorching is thus avoided. 
FAT. — Fat is an animal oil of various de. 



FAT 



FEATHERS 



199 



grees of consistency, according to the kind of 
animal or the particular part of the body in 
which it is situated. While it remains in the 
living body it is always in a fluid state, or semi- 
fluid ; but its consistence changes when it is ex- 
tracted and exposed to the common tempera- 
ture of the atmosphere. To obtain animal fat 
in a pure state, it must be melted and strained 
from the investing membranes — a little water 
must be added while it is melting to prevent 
its being scorched. When thoroughly purified, 
it is white, tasteless, and inodorous ; but it 
soon becomes rancid on exposure to air, on 
account of the absorption of oxygen and the 
consequent formation of a number of fatty acids. 
By washing the fat in fresh water, these acids 
may frequently be extracted and the sweetness 
of the fat restored. It is best, however, to 
keep it cool and tightly closed. 

Fat in any excess is difficult of digestion, 
particularly by weak stomachs, and therefore is 
not proper for dyspeptics ; and it is rendered 
still less digestible when subjected to high 
temperature in certain culinary processes, as 
frying. All meats and fish that contain much 
oil or fat are apt to lie heavy on the stomach, 
if they do not cause greater trouble ; but while 
caution is to be exercised, it must not be 
forgotten that fat is one of the most essen- 
tial elements of food. Dr. Dobell says in his 
Manual of Diet and Regimen : " Fat is so 
essential to the maintenance of healthy nutri- 
tion, that the quantity contained in the daily food 
cannot be reduced without the greatest risk. 
The importance of fat in nutrition should be 
studiously borne in mind by those who con- 
struct diets for the poor, for public institutions, 
or for the treatment of obesity, diabetes, 
dyspepsia, and the like." Dr. Lankester says ; 
"A healthy man, weighing 154 pounds, con- 
tains in his body twelve pounds of fat. This 
constitutes more than a thirteenth part, by 
weight, of his body. When this proportion is 
not maintained, the body gets thin ; and this is 
characteristic of some of the most dangerous 
diseases to which the human body is subject. 
The loss of fat is especially seen in that com- 
monly fatal disease, consumption ; and one of 
the most effectual methods of treating this 
fatal disease is the administration of fatty 
articles of food." Dr. Smith says in his book 
on " Foods " : " The value of fat in the animal 
economy is exceedingly great, both chemically 
and physically. Chemically, it supplies the 
heat-forming elements of food in their most 
compendious form, and is much more rapidly 
transformed than starch under the influence of 
exertion .... Physically its action may be less 
important, but it is most desirable as an addi- 
tion to bread and farinaceous food generally. 
It supplies an agreeable flavor, without which 
they could not be readily eaten, and lubricates 
the passage through which the masticated food 
is the more readily conveyed. It is also 
very probable that it exerts an influence, so 
that with some excess of fat, the bowels 
will act more readily than when the diet is 



deficient in that lubricating substance." We 
emphasize the matter thus because it is of the 
first importance, and because it is constantly 
overlooked or ignored in American dietaries. 

FEATHERS. — Feathers for bedding are 
obtained: ist, from the common poultry and 
game which come to table, and called chicken 
feathers J- 2d, from the grey goose, and called 
by that name ; 3d, from the domestic white 
goose; and, 4th, from the foreign white goose, 
and called Dantzic. The chicken feathers are 
generally bad in quality, being mixed with 
ducks' feathers, which are hard. The Dantzic 
are the best feathers, next to down, but expen- 
sive. Perhaps the best for ordinary use are 
white goose feathers, carefully picked. Collect 
them as soon as possible after the death of the 
bird, unless you pluck geese alive, as some 
cruelly do several times a year. It is said that 
feathers thus obtained are more elastic than 
when drawn from a bird some time dead. The 
large ones being removed, the rest are placed 
in a large pan, put into the stove, or before the 
fire, and heated for several hours, during which 
they should be constantly stirred up and shak- 
en. The heat destroys the eggs of insects, 
and drives off the oily matter : it also hardens 
and stiffens the fibres, thus renaermg them 
much more elastic. 

Cleaning. — I. (^For bedding.) — Mix well 
with a gallon of water, one pound of quick-lime ; 
and when the lime is precipitated n fine pow- 
der, pour off the clear lime-water for use at the 
time it is wanted. Put the feathers to be 
cleaned in a tub, and add enough of the lime- 
water to cover them about three inches. The 
■feathers, when thoroughly wet, will sink down, 
and should remain in the lime-water three or 
four days ; after which spread them on a sieve 
and let them drain. Then wash them well in 
clean water, and thoroughly dry them on nets 
in the sun. 

II. {Ornamental feathers^ — Work a short 
time in a lukewarm bath containing Castile 
soap, with enough aniline violet or blue, to 
give them a bluish shade of white. Too much 
of the dye-stuff must carefully be avoided. 
Then press them between cloths, and while yet 
moist expose them to the fumes of burning sul- 
phur and rinse, when they will come out white. 
While drying, frequent clapping them between 
the hands will give that fluffiness desired in 
some kinds, as ostrich feathers. 

Curling. — They should be well dried, a 
warm dull knife should be used, which is drawn 
slowly from the base to the tip of each fibre, 
the thumb or finger pressing the feather against 
the knife. In all these operations great care 
should be exercised to avoid breaking the 
feathers, especially if they have been curled 
before, when they are apt to be quite tender. 

Dyeing. — Before dyeing, feathers require to 
be cleaned, and to have the oil which naturally 
adheres to them removed. If the oil only is to 
be removed, soaking for i to 12 hours in a cold 
bath containing i to 4 oz of calcined soda, 
with a pinch of carbonate of ammonia in ten 



200 



FEET 



FEVER 



gallons of water suffices. They must then be 
rinsed in clean water. If not yet clean, treat 
as directed under Cleajiiiig. 

After dyeing, the natural oiliness and brillian- 
cy must be restored by treatment with a bath 
containing \ lb olive oil and 6 oz potash, well 
stirred !nto about \\ gallons of warm water, 
and then drying in a warm room, or, while yet 
moist, terra alba (sulphate of lime) may be dus- 
ted over them, which is brushed off when they 
are dry. The latter method is not so good as 
the oil bath. 

As regards their affinity for colors, feathers 
are about the same as silk fibre, though since 
prolonged treatment in solutions is detrimental 
to them, the dye baths are usually made stronger 
than for silk goods, and the feathers are immers- 
ed for a shorter time. The Coal Tar Colors 
soluble in water, which dye silk without a 
mordant, may be used for feathers. {See Dyes.) 
The following special hints may also be valu- 
able : — 

Black is obtained by soaking them several 
hours in a solution of one pint of nitrate of 
iron (to be had at the druggists), with enough 
water to make a gallon of the mixture, and 
then working them in a decoction of equal parts 
of logwood chips and ground quercitron bark, 
until they take the proper depth of tint. 

Bronze tint for the quills. — This is effected 
by use of the aniline blue, not soluble in water, 
but soluble in alcohol. A concentrated solution 
of the color is made in alcohol (all that the alco- 
hol will take up), and this is then applied with 
a camel's hair brush to the quills. 

Brown may be obtained by dipping them for 
I to 2 hours in a decoction of 2 lbs catechu in 
a gallon of water, to i| lb of feathers, and 
then in a bath containing h lb of bichromate 
of potash in a gallon of water at 130° Fahr- 
enheit. 

FEET. — The chief care is to avoid tight or 
high heeled shoes. In paring the nails, elderly 
persons are apt to wound the flesh, which is 
sometimes dangerous, the circulation in the 
extremities being so feeble that mortification 
sometimes ensues. Excessive perspiration of 
the feet may be remedied by washing them 
daily in cold water, and sprinkling in the stock- 
ings a powder of starch or arrowroot, perfumed 
with bitter almonds, orris, or some other slight- 
ly odorous substance. Sedentary persons 
often suffer with cold feet, owing to deficient 
circulation, and can only be cured by exerci.-e 
and attention to the general health ; but it may 
frequently be relieved by simply bathing and 
putting on fresh socks every day, rubbing the 
feet with alcohol, and sprinkling a little red 
pepper in the shoes. Never go to bed with 
cold feet. Apply heat in some way. (^See Hot 
Water-bag.) 

FELON. {See BoNE-FELON.) 

FENNEL. — This plant is easy to cultivate. 
Sow early in the spring, in shallow drills, from 
six to ten inches apart, and if intended to re- 
main, when the plants are three or four inches 
high, they mu§t be thinned to about fifteen 
inches apart. 



The tender stalks of fennel are used as a sal- 
ad; the leaves, when boiled, enter into many 
fish sauces, particularly for mackerel ; and 
when raw make excellent garnishes. It is also 
eaten raw with pickled fish. The whole of the 
plant is good in broth or soups ; it is a hardy 
and wholesome herb, and agrees well with the 
stomach. The seeds, or " half fruits,''^ infused 
in boiling water, make an excellent carminative, 
which, having no actively exciting qualities, is 
frequently employed to disguise by its pleas- 
ant aromatic flavor the taste of disagreeable 
medicines, such as senna and rhubarb. 

FEVER. — The different febrile diseases are 
treated of in their appropriate places ; but we 
shall offer here a few observations which do 
not apply especially to any, but will be helpful 
in the treatment of all — particularly in that 
portion of the treatment which devolves upon 
the family or the nurse. The substance of 
these observations is taken from a little work 
on household medicine, by George H. Hope, 
M.D., an English physician of eminence. 

When nursing a case of fever, never forget 
ventilation. Change the atmosphere of the 
room frequently ; blow the bad air out of it, 
and let the fresh air in, not only that the 
patient may have the best possible chance of 
recovery, but for your own sake and for the 
sake of others. In every sick-room, but es- 
pecially in a case of fever, the chimney should 
be open, fire should be kept up, even if the 
weather be quite mild, or if the house have a 
furnace in it ; this is not so much for heating 
as for ventilating the room in the best way. 
It is good that the patient's hair should be cut 
short, as it enables him to be attended to 
better, and also tends to keep the head coo! 
and comfortable. When a person is delirious 
with fever, the dreams and fancies are almost 
always of a painful nature, the countenance 
showing plainly that the mind is troubled. 
There is a sense of fear, a dread of something 
which he may not have the power to explain to 
you. Try in every way to gain his confidence ; 
listen patiently to his complaints, however 
ridiculous they may appear to you ; do not 
contradict, or tease him with argument. 
Remember "dreams to the dreamer are re- 
alities," and these things terrify him just as 
much as if they were actually in the roon. It 
is very common for some part of the furniture 
to take frightful shapes in the eyes of a fever 
patient. Perhaps he may be able to tell you 
what it is, but if not, by carefully watching the 
eyes, you will find him look steadily at one 
object, and then turn away suddenly, as if he 
were trying to escape. When these visions 
are troubling the patient, the best plan, if you 
can do so, is to remove him into another room. 
The effect is wonderful. The visions disap)- 
pear, the dreadful forms are all gone, and the 
bright and cheerful face tells you better than 
words what a relief he feels. If you cannot 
change the room, change the furniture, and if 
that cannot be done, alter its position. 

A singular and yet not uncommon thing in 



FEVER 



FIG 



201 



fever with delirium is a strong dislike taken by 
the patient to a particular person, and this 
generally not a stranger, but a near relative, 
one who is greatly beloved by him when in 
health, and who has been for days and nights 
watching over him. In some cases this feeling 
of dislike grows into a hatred so deep that it 
is not safe to allow the person to remain alone 
in the room. This is very distressing; it 
appears so ungrateful, such a poor return for 
all the care and kindness bestowed upon him, 
so unnatural that it is hard to bear. But it 
should be remembered that it is unnatural ; it is 
the result of disease, and has no more to do with 
a patient's real affection than taking a dislike 
to some particular article of food. As the 
mind becomes healthy this will pass off ; but 
it is very desirable that the person to whom 
the dislike is taken should be removed as soon 
as possible, and not again enter the room till 
the mind is in a healthier state, or the feeling 
may become so fixed that it will require a long 
time to subdue it. During the great thirst of 
fever you will frequently find that the patient, 
particularly a child, will prefer pure water to 
any other drink ; but if you require a change, 
what is called apple-tea is cheap and refreshing. 
Another pleasant drink is made of the juice of 
three or four oranges, and one lemon in a quart 
of water, with a little sugar. When you can- 
not easily get either oranges or lemons, buy a 
small bottle of lime-juice ; this will keep good 
in a cool place for a great length of time ; it is 
very wholesome, and a tablespoonful, with half a 
pint of water, sweetened, will make a glass 
of good lemonade in a minute. Perfect silence 
is not always desirable. It is not a good thing 
to put on list slippers, and walk about without 
any noise ; if you go up to the bedside of a 
patient in this way, he may get a severe fright. 
In talking, the same rule holds good ; do not 
whisper, it will very likely awaken the sleeper, 
just because it is a strange sound ; speak in 
your natural voice, and it will not arouse him, 
though it be louder than a whisper, for he 
hears it every day, and is used to it. There- 
fore let all every-day sounds go on as usual, 
unless complained of by the patient, and let 
this reflection comfort you. Sleep in the midst 
of noise is sounder and more likely to continue 
than in a dead silence, because slight causes 
are less likely to disturb it. Is it well to 
awaken a patient to give food or medicine ? 
Generally if a patient sleeps he is doing well ; 
but in the sinking stage of fever, or other great 
debility, it may be needful to give something 
frequently. After days and nights of watchful- 
ness, when the mind is wandering with fever, 
the patient will fall into a long sleep, which 
may last many hours. This is the turning- 
point of the disease, and generally he awakens 
with the mind restored, and from that time 
commences, as it were, a new life. When 
fever is once formed, it runs a regular course, 
like small-pox. Effort must be made to weaken 
it as much as possible by fresh air, and to 
§upport life by suitable diet, till the disease has 



worn itself out. But as a person not accustomed 
to such things cannot know at the beginning 
whether the illness be fever or not, it is well to 
act only in such a way as to produce good if it 
be fever, and no harm if it be not. A person, 
for instance, after getting wet or being exposed 
to cold, complains of headache, shivering, and 
pains in the limbs, back and throat, put him to 
bed and give him some hot drink, soak his feet 
in hot mustard water, and at night give him ten 
grains of Dover's powders (adult dose). Wait 
to see if he will not throw off the attack, which 
may be but an ordinary cold ; and if he does 
not, or the symptoms increase, send at once for 
a doctor. {See Ague, Bilious Fever, Brain 
Fever, Scarlet Fever, Typhoid Fever, 
Typhus Fever, and Yellow Fever.) 

FIG. — The fresh ripe fig has a swfeet and 
peculiarly delicate taste, though those who are 
not accustomed to them do not always like 
them. In the Southern States they grow abun= 
dantly and are very prolific, producing generally 
two crops a year; north of Virginia they usu- 
ally require some artificial assistance to bring 
them to a ripe and perfect state, and are not 
often met with. They ripen in July and August. 
The dried Jigs come from Italy, Spain and 
Turkey, — the last being most prized. They 
are considered best when recently arrived here 
in December and January, after which they 
should be closely examined. The fig contains 
a large proportion of sugar, without acidity or 
oiliness, and ia of easier digestion than any of 
the sweet fruits. It is slightly laxative, and is 
on this account frequently given to children. 
{See Pudding.) 

Fig Paste. — 1. Take one pound of figs, chop 
them coarsely, and boil with a pint of water 
until reduced to a soft pulp ; strain through a 
fine sieve, add three pounds of sugar, and evap- 
orate over boihng water until the paste becomes 
quite stiff. Place the warm paste in a mould, ' 
made from an ordinary wooden box, by remov- 
ing the nails with which the sides are fastened, 
and holding them in place by a stout string, 
the sides may be taken away, leaving the paste 
in a square mass, which may be divided in 
small pieces with a thin-bladed knife. These 
pieces should be rolled in fine sugar; _ after 
which they may be packed in boxes without 
adhering to each other. 

2. Take a heaping tablespoonful of corn- 
starch place in a saucepan, and add first enough 
cold water to moisten the starch uniformly, and 
next a half pint of boiling water. Heat over 
boiling water until it is thoroughly cooked and 
becomes transparent. In fact, the same steps 
should be taken as are employed by a laundress 
in preparing a thick starch. Next add a half 
pound of good brown or half-refined sugar, and 
the strained pulp of four ounces of figs, pre- 
pared as directed in the preceding paragraph, 
and evaporate the paste over boiling water until 
it becomes quite thick and adhesive m charac- 
ter. Place in the mould as previously directed 
and treat in the same manner when cold. In 
this o-eneral way, from the same material as a 



202 



FILTER 



FISH 



base, are prepared the semi-transparent pastes 
sold under various names, by adding, before 
evaporation, grated cocoanut, chopped and 
seeded raisins, dried currants, any desired fla- 
voring or coloring substance, or the pulps of 
preserved fruits. 

Figs (to freshen). — If you happen to have figs 
which you have kept so long that they seem 
hardly fit for use, being hard and withered, they 
can easily be freshened, and made quite fit for 
the table, in appearance and flavor, in the fol- 
lowing simple manner : Take such as are 
rather dry and uninviting; put them into tepid 
water, and leave them for a few minutes ; then 
wash well, and dry them in a towel. Heat them 
carefully in the oven, and on taking them out 
roll them in powdered sugar, or dip them in 
the white of egg, and then in sugar, and finally 
lay them on a sieve to dry. 
FILTER. (S^e Water.) 
FINGER-NAILS.— The finger-nails should 
never be cut too short, as this deforms the 
finger-ends and renders them stubby. They 
should always project a trifle beyond the ex- 
tremity of the finger, and be pared only to a 
slight curve, without encroaching too much on 
the angles. To preserve the half-moon, or 
liDiiila, which borders the lower part of the 
nail and is esteemed so great a beauty, the skin 
must be kept from encroaching upon it by push- 
ing it back gently every morning with a blunt 
ivory instrument. By this means also the an- 
no3'ing " hang nail " will be prevented. Filing 
or scraping the nails is fatal to their perfection, 
as it thickens their substance and destroys their 
natural transparency. The nail-brush should 
alone be used for cleaning and polishing the 
nails. The disgusting habit of biting the nails 
is also destructive of their ■ beauty, as they 
become excessively brittle in consequence, and 
always have a " frizzled," uneven appearance. 

FIRE-PLACE. — A shallow fire-place saves 
fuel, and gives out more heat than a deeper one. 
Great advantages may also be obtained by sim- 
ply lining the back and sides of an ordinary fire- 
place with fire-bricks. Every one has noticed, 
probably, that when a fire goes out the coals or 
wood at the sides are left unburnt while the centre 
is consumed. With fire-brick, the whole of the 
fire, however small, will be kept alight ; and 
even after the fire is-extinguished, the fire-brick 
lining will continue to throw out heat for some 
time A no less advantage is that less smoke 
is produced. 

FIRES. — Stove or furnace. Not only is 
the driest heat from an open fire more healthy 
than that thrown off by a stove, but such a fire 
is also incomparably the easiest and most ef- 
fective contrivance for securing ventilation. 
The air of a room in which a brisk open fire is 
burning is almost certain to be pure ; but with 
any other kind of fire ventilation is at a standstill, 
and where it is effected at all must be brought 
about by other and artificial means. {See Ven- 
tilation AND Warming.) 

The kindling of a wood fire is a very simple 
process, but to start one in a grate or stove 



properly requires some skill. In the first place, 
the paper should not be put on the bottom of 
the grate, as is commonly done, for if the wood 
is in large pieces the iron of the grate absorbs 
so much of the heat of the rising flame that it 
will not have strength enough to give the wood 
sufficient assistance in igniting the coal that is 
heaped upon it. The better way is to lay some 
medium sized pieces of coal on the bottom bars, 
but without covering them entirely ; then lay on 
the paper or shavings, then the wood, and on 
that some pieces of coal the size of an egg, but 
no small coal. When the whole is kindled let 
it burn up well before any more is added. If 
the small coal is put on first, it is sure to choke 
the fire by filling up the interstices, and prevent- 
ing the air from having access to the centre. 
The coal laid at the bottom will catch fire by 
the time the wood is burnt out, and will thus 
keep the fire alight. 

FISH. — As a food fish ranks between meat 
on the one hand and vegetables on the other. 
It is not so nutritious as the former, though the 
red-blooded fishes, like salmon, are but little 
inferior ; and it is thought that a diet in which 
fish predominates produces deficient vitality. 
" It is not desirable," says Dr. Edward Smith, 
" that fish should be the sole kind of animal 
food eaten by any nation ; and even if milk and 
eggs be added thereto, the vigor of such peo- 
ple will not be equal to that of flesh-eating na- 
tions. At the same time the value of fish as 
part of a dietary is indicated by the larger pro- 
portion of phosphorus which it contains, and 
which renders it especially fitted for the use of 
those who perform much brain-work, or who 
are the victims of much anxiety and distress." 
There can be no doubt that fish might with ad- 
vantage enter much more largely into our family 
diet than it does at present ; it would afford a 
pleasant variety in fare which is too uniform 
either for appetite or health, and would also sup- 
ply certain elements of blood which are not ob- 
tained in sufficient quantity from either meat or 
vegetables. On the score of economy, too, they 
should receive more attention from the house- 
keeper. The qualities of the different kinds of 
fish, and the rules for selecting them, are given 
under each fish r^eparately ; and we will only re- 
mark here that the flavor of fish, like that of 
other animals, is influenced in some degree by 
the nature of their food, and on this account the 
same species will vary somewhat in its flavor on 
different coasts, and in different lakes and 
rivers. Some fish improve in firmness and flavor 
as they attain a certain age, as cod and had- 
dock ; but generally when they get old they are 
coarse. The season of the year also has a 
most decided influence upon the quality of fish. 
In general, fish are in the best condition just 
before they spawn, and many while they are 
full of roe, as smelts, mackerel, shad, and sole ; 
but as soon as the spawning is over they are 
unfit for food, being sometimes positively un- 
wholesome. This circumstance is of such im- 
portance that it has been made a subject of 
legislative action, regulating the times during 



FISH 



FLANNEL 



203 



which only certain fish must be caught. When 
fish are in season, the muscles are firm, and they 
boil white and curdy ; when they are transpa- 
rent and bluish, though sufficiently boiled, it is a 
sign that they are not in season or are not fresh. 



is desirable, it being a poor conductor of heat, 
and readily absorbing perspiration, which slow- 
ly evaporates from the surface without chilling 
the body. Gauze Flannel is of a very loose, 
porous texture, not so warm as ordinary flannel. 




The mode of cooking fish considerably affects 
their properties as food. Plain boiling, baking, 
broiling, and roasting appear to be the favorite 
methods ; but there seems to be no reason why 
stewing should be objectionable, except that it 
is usually accompanied by numerous additions 
which render it extremely indigestible, for in- 
stance, port wine. The various sauces com- 
monly eaten with fish are probably the cause of 
most of the complaints made against this 
food ; these sauces are to be suspected when 
purchased ready-made, as they often contain 
deleterious ingredients. Few vegetables are 
appropriate to be eaten with fish ; pota- 
toes and parsnips are the principal of 
those which are found bv experience to agree 
well. 

The follo^^•ing is a list of the various kinds 
of fish treated of in their appropriate places in 
this book: 

Ancho\•^', 

Bass, 

Blackfish, 

Bluefish, 

Bream, 

Bull-trout, 

Carp, 

Catfish, 

Chub, 

Clams, 

Cockles, 

Cod, 

Codling, 

Conger-eel, 

Crab, 

Dace, 

Dor>', 

Eel, 

Flounder, 

Goldfish, 

FITS. {See Apoplexy, Catalepsy, Epi- 
lepsy, Faixting-fits, Hysterics, and Ix- 

FAXTS.) 

FLANNEL. — A plain woollen stuff, common- 
ly slightly woven. It is excellent for under- 
clothing, or for any clothing in which warmth 



Gudgeon, 


Sea-bass, 
Shacf, 


Haddock, 


Halibut, 


Shrimp, 


Herring, 


Skate, 


Lamprey, 


Smelt, 


Ling, 


Sole, 


Lobster; 


Sprat, 


Mackerel, 


Stickleback 


Mussels, 


Sturgeon, 


Ovster, 


Sucker, 


Perch, 


Tautog, 


Pike, 


Tomcod, 


Porgie, 


Trout, 


Prawn, 


Turbot, 


Quahaug, 


Turtle, 


Rockbass, 


Weakfish, 


Rock fish. 


Whitebait, 


Salmon, 


Whitefish. 


Salmon-trout, 


Whiting, 


Sardines, 





and therefore useful for some purposes. Domett 
is a kind of flannel, the warp of which is made 
of cotton and the woof of wool ; it is very thin, 
and is useful for linings, etc. Canton Jlajmel 
is a.twilled fabric, composed wholly of cotton, 
a nap being raised on one side of the stuff. A 
most delicate flannel for the wear of infants 
consists of silk and wool. Flannel comes gen- 
erally a yard wide. 

A woven merino under-wear is wrongly call- 
ed flannel. It is not as thorough a protection 
as flannel. Red flannel, medicated for rheu- 
matic complaints, excels in fame the ordinary 
red flannel, popularly believed to contain a 
virtue in its dye. 

Opera flannel is the smoothest and finest of 
the flannels, of medium thickness ; with mark- 
ed diagonal twills it is especially suitable for 
outside garments. All-wool flannels give more 
heat than much heavier qualities mixed with 
cotton. Nav\- blue flannels are apt to crock 
unless thoroughly washed before making up. 
If flannels are not shrunk before making up, 
allow well for shrinkage. Some flannels, in 
the dye, obtain a permanent disagreeable odor; 
look for this, especially in buying plaid flannels. 
As flannel absorbs moisture readily, so does it 
retain it ; therefore, before using, it should be 
thoroughly aired. 

To Shrink new flannels and make them keep 
their color, pour boiling water on them and let 
them He in it till cold. Then, having shaken 
them, stretched them, and folded them down 
smoothly on a clean talDle to make them straio:ht 
and even, hang them out immediately. When 
about half drj-, shake, stretch, and turn them. 
Take them in while still damp, fold smoothly, 
cover with a clean towel, and after half an hour, 
iron them with an iron that is nearly cold. 

To wash flannel ordinarily, see Washixg. 
To wash flannel that has become yellow, boil 



204 



FLAP-JACKS 



FLIES 



four tablespoonfuls of flour in four quarts of 
water, stirring it well. Then pour half the 
boiling liquid over the flannel, let it remain till 
the water cools, rub the flannel, but use no 
soap. Rinse it through several waters, then 
repeat the process with the remainder of the 
flour and water in a boiling state ; again rinse 
it through several waters, and hang it up to 
drain and dry. Do not wring it. 

FLAP-JACKS. {See Slap-Jacks.) 
FLATULENCE. — An undue collection of air 
or gas in the stomach and intestines. It may 
be swallowed, it may be formed from the food, 
or it may apparently be generated by the secre- 
tions of the stomach and bowels. In most cases, 
it is due to improper food, or to the abuse of 
certain articles, as tea. The symptoms are 
often exceedingly unpleasant. There may be 
a feeling of faintness, of giddiness, or of chok- 
ing, accompanied by most troublesome belch- 
ing. The gases then expelled are most fre- 
quently tasteless and odorless, and, if so, are 
most probably due either to swallowing of air, 
or to the formation of such simple gases as 
carbonic acid, or carburetted hydrogen at the 
expense of the food. Such forms of flatulence, 
i. e., flatulence accompanied by tasteless belch- 
ing, are best treated by dieting, mainly solid 
food with stale bread, a little dry sherry or 
weak brandy and water, but no vegetables, tea, 
beer, or pastry. Flatulence may often be only 
the symptom of dyspepsia, and may generally | 
be relieved by a slight stimulant, as aromatic 
spirits of ammonia; spirituous Hquors should 
be avoided ; mix vo?nica — ten drops in a little 
water, three times a day, after meals — is also a 
valuable remedy in such cases. Occasionally 
the patient belches up gases of the most hor- 
rid odor. These gdses indicate putrefactive 
changes in the food, and commonly occur in 
individuals who have some obstruction pre- 
venting the passage of food from the stomach, 
especially if the obstruction be cancerous in 
its nature. In such cases the stomach some- 
times expands to an enormous size, and vomit- 
ing after food is not unfrequent. For such 
cases, antiseptic remedies almost invariably 
do good The most important antiseptic rem- 
edies are carbolic acid, sulphurous acid, and 
salycylic acid. Carbolic acid may be given in 
a dose of one or two drops in a wineglassful 
of water, half an hour after food ; its taste is 
disagreeable, but it is exceedingly efficacious. 
Sulphurous acid may be given in the same 
way, 30 drops of the diluted acid in a wine- 
glassful of water ; or it may be given as sul- 
phite or bisulphate of soda. Salycylic acid 
may be given in five grain doses every two or 
three hours. To the former of these most 
people would give the preference, as its taste 
is that of a pure acid ; the taste of the others 
is far more bitter. 

Flatulence often gives rise to great pain in 
the bowels, and the patient urgently demands 
relief. This can only be obtained by dispersing 
the wind, as it is called, which is not always an 



easy task. A good remedy for the purpose is 
turpentine ; but it tends to upset the stomach, 
and so it is better to give it as an injection, es- 
pecially where the flatulence is of the intestinal 
variety. If given by the mouth, about a drachm 
should be given for a dose ; if as an injection, 
half an ounce or so beaten up with an egg in a 
pint of hot water. At the same time a flannel 
dipped in turpentine and laid over the abdomen 
will probably give great relief. 

FLAX. — The name of the common flax- 
plant, and also of its most important product, 
the filaments obtained from the fibrous cover- 
ing of its stem, a^id used in the manufacture of 
linen thread. The flax plant is cultivated and 
grows abundantly throughout Europe, Africa, 
and America. It thrives upon almost any good 
soil thoroughly pulverized and well drained, 
but more especially upon rich, sandy loams 
regularly supplied with moisture during the 
spring months. The preparation of the flax is 
a tedious process, which need not be explained 
here. The best of the coarser kinds of flax- 
thread comes from abroad, as does also the best 
spool-cotton. 

Flax-Seed, the seed of the foregoing, are an 
excellent ingredient in poultices intended to 
allay inflammation ; and when steeped in hot 
water for several hours they make the well- 
known flax-seed tea, so highly esteemed as a 
carminative, and mild cathartic. 

FLEA. — The best security against fleas is to 
keep the rooms as free from dust as possible. 
They lay their eggs wherever they find dust 
and down combined, for in these consist the 
nourishment of their offspring ; it is an almost 
certain prevention of their propagation, there- 
fore, if carpets, blankets, and everything man- 
ufactured of wool, are so well attended to that 
dust is prevented from accumulating upon them. 
Children are the chief sufferers from fleas, and 
when these latter are known to be about, not 
only should the bed and bedding of the cribs be 
examined daily, but a lump of camphor should 
be put in the water in which the children are 
washed ; it is said that this renders the skin 
obnoxious to the flea. Any strong perfume 
about the person diminishes their attacks, and 
the common pennyroyal makes its neighborhood 
untenable by them. When a flea is caught be- 
tween the fingers, plunge them at once under 
water, or it will escape. If a dog is infested 
with them, put him in a tub of warm soap-suds, 
and they will rise to the surface ; take them oft 
and burn them. 

FLIES. — Flies may be destroyed in great 
quantities by placing about the house open, 
vessels filled with sweetened water and cobalt; 
six cents worth of cobalt is enough for a pint of 
water. Carbolic acid is also very good. {See 
Carbolic Acid.) Both these are poisonous, 
however, and must be used with great caution, 
especially if children are around. A harmless 
and very effective mixture may be made with 
half a teaspoonful of powdered black pepper, 
one teaspoonful of brown sugar, and one table- 



FLOATING ISLAND 



FLORICULTURE 



205 



spoonful of cream ; place them on a plate where ' 
the flies are troublesome. A mixture of gum- 
arabic, honey, brown sugar and alum, in equal 
proportions, will answer the same purpose. Or, 
pour half a pint of boiling water upon a quar- 
ter of an ounce of quassia chips ; when cold, 
strain it and sweeten with molasses or brown 
sugar. Fly papers are sold by the thousand. 
It is claimed for all of them that they are harm- 
less to human life ; chemical analysis, however, 
has shown that most of them contain ingredi- 
ents which render their use far from safe, ex- 
cept with many precautions. It may be doubted 
whether any mixture or paper kills more flies 
than it attracts into the house ; and the only 
way to be really rid of the nuisance is to fit 
frameworks covered with netting to the doors 
and windows. 

FLOATING ISLAND— I. Take:-Y.<g<gs,\\ 
milk, I qt ; white sugar, 5 ozs ; vanilla or bit- 
ter almonds, 2 teaspoonfuls; currant jelly and 
powdered sugar, 4 tablespoonfuls each. 

Beat up the eggs, whites and yolks sepa- 
rately ; into the yolks stir the sugar, and add 
the milk (hot), boil until it begins to thicken, 
and then remove from the fire. When cool, 
flavor it with the vanilla or bitter almond, stir 
it up well, and pour it into a glass dish. Beat 
the jelly and sugar into the whites of the eggs, 
and heap them upon the contents of the dish. 
Decorate the top with bits of bright-colored 
jelly cut into fanciful shapes. 

II. Crush a pint of ripe raspberries with a 
gill of sugar ; beat the whites of four eggs 
stiff; beat in slowly a gill of powdered sugar; 
press the raspberries through a strainer to 
avoid the seeds, and beat this in gradually with 
the ^'g^ and sugar, until so stiff that it stands in 
peaks. Serve on milk ; to be eaten with cream. 

FLOOR. — It is economy to have floors of 
narrow boards and good wood. Broad and 
poor boards shrink and leave wide cracks as 
vermin nests, and warp so as to stand up at 
the sides and ends and wear out carpets. Hem- 
lock is probably the worst wood used for plain 
flooring, and spruce or yellow pine the best. 
Oak is preferable but expensive. The combi- 
nations of walnut with chestnut, oak, and other 
lighter-colored woods,now becoming frequent, 
are durable, and save the necessity of matting 
if carpets,are removed in hot weather. 

Polishing Hard-wood Floors. — There are 
three treatments, good according to the uses of 
the rooms. For a room much used, where fur- 
niture is pulled here and there, use only linseed 
oil, to be well rubbed in with the iron-backed, 
long-handled brush sold for the purpose. 
Heavy hand-rubbing will laboriously accom- 
plish the same thing. 

For a room not very much walked over, the 
mixture given under furniture polish will be 
best. {See Furniture Polish, No. 3.) 

For a room of gala use, shellac maybe used. 
Wax and turpentine give less polish, but more 
durability ; the oil gives best service, and a 
dull clean finish. AH these things must be 
put on sparingly and well rubbed in. Having 



begun upon anything but oil, the treatment must 
not be varied. The pores of the wood get 
choked by all but oil, and, to change the treat- 
ment, must be either well scrubbed with tur- 
pentine, or, if too much clogged, planed off so 
as to get a new surface of wood. Dull spots 
can be rubbed off with a coarse cloth. With 
proper rubbing, no floor should be sticky. 

Scouring negds a good-sized wooden pail 
for water, a wooden bowl for sand, a hard 
scrubbing-brush, and a piece of flannel rather 
more than a yard square. Scrub the floor with 
the brush, water, and sand, and afterwards wash 
off the sand with the flannel. Soap is sometimes 
used with the sand ; but, instead of improving, 
it injures the color of the boards when dry, giv- 
ing them a blackish appearance. If the boards 
are very dark-looking before the scrubbing is 
commenced, some fuller's earth or pearl-ash 
may be dissolved in the water; and plenty of 
clean water should afterwards be used. 

FLORICULTURE.— If there be any room 
for choice in selecting the spot for a flower- 
garden, select one that is sheltered from the 
wind and exposed freely to the morning sun 
With the proper amount of care and watchful- 
ness flowers can be made to grow anywhere, 
and no one, even if confined to the smallest of 
city back-yards, need be deterred from making 
the attempt ; but most flowers love warm, sunny 
spots, where the chill northerly winds cannot 
reach them, and, if the garden is favorably 
located, a large part of the work and disap- 
pointment attendant upon floriculture may be 
avoided. As the laying out of the garden must 
depend largely on special local conditions, and 
should be guided by individual taste, we shall 
not attempt to lay down any general rules 
further than to suggest that the complicated 
and eccentric forms at one time so popular are 
no longer considered in good taste, and that that 
plan of arrangement is best which combines the 
greatest simplicity with a due amount of variety 
in the shape of the beds. A thing especially 
to be avoided, except in ribbon beds and 
"mosaic" planting, is the elaborate geometri- 
cal figures which the average books on flower- 
culture are so apt to suggest to their readers. 
In preparing the ground, raised beds with deep 
walks should be dispensed with as far as pos- 
sible ; they suffer from the intense heat of our 
summers, and the rains wash down their edges, 
giving an untidy look, and sometimes laying 
bare the roots of the plants. Grass edgings 
unless well cared for, are objectionable, on ac- 
count of the difiiculty of keeping the sods from 
spreading: and this is true of all running vine 
edgings except ivy. For a large bed, a bor- 
der of common flax easily raised JFrom the seed, 
is very pretty if kept well trimmed, and the 
dwarf box is unsurpassed. The prettiest of 
all beds are those neatly cut into the grass-plat 
and left without other edging. In these the 
brilliant hues of the flowers contrast well with 
the soft, emerald tint of the grass. It may be 
a slight objection to these beds that the dew 
on tiie grass makes it necessary to be well shod 



206 



FLORICULTURE 



in attending them in the early morning when 
flowers and the work of gardening are most at- 
tractive. The walks between beds may be 
trodden down and hardened with coal-ashes or 
gravel. 

The most desirable soil for flowers is a mel- 
low loam, that will not be much affected by ex- 
cessive wet or drought. 

As it is useless to attempt to grow flowers in 
poor soil, the work of fertilizing and ameliora- 
tion must claim the earliest attention. . If the 
ground be clayey and adhesive, dress it with 
sand and well-rotted manure in sufficient quan- 
tity to make it mellow and friable ; spade it 
and mix it well. If the soil be sandy and loose, 
spade in clay and manure in the same way. 
Wood ashes are good for all kinds of soil, as 
they loosen those which are close, and hold 
moisture in those which are sandy. Every 
flower garden should be heavily manured every 
autumn, — the manure covering the ground 
during winter and being well spaded in in the 
spring. Drainage (natural or artificial) is ab- 
solutely essential to successful flower-garden- 
ing; no soil that remains saturated for many 
hours after even the heaviest rain is fit for the 
growth of flowers. Before it can be success- 
fully cultivated it must be thoroughly under- 
drained. 

For Pot-plants, a good soil may be made by 
taking one-fourth part of common soil, one- 
fourth part of well-decayed manure, and one- 
half of vegetable mould from the woods or 
wood-yard. Break up the manure fine, and sift 
it through a coarse wire sieve ; then mix all 
the materials together thoroughly. When the 
common soil used is too adhesive, increase the 
proportion of mould. If the pots are large 
it may be well to cover their bottoms with an 
inch or so of potsherds, but the old fashioned 
gardeners' talk about " drainage " is sheer 
nonsense. Any flower-pot will be perfectly 
drained by the hole in its bottom. The soil 
for pot-plants should be removed every year, 
soon after the plants have blossomed. Loosen 
the earth from the pots by passing a knife 
round the sides; turn the plant upside down 
holding the fingers across the earth, and re- 
move the pot ; then take away all the matted 
fibres at the bottom and sides and all the earth, 
except what adheres closely to the roots ; then 
re-pot in fresh soil, prepared as above. 

In planting /lower seeds, break up the soil 
until it is entirely free from large lumps, rake it 
over carefully, and rub that on the surface 
through the hands till it becomes powdery and 
soft. It is then ready for the drill. Seeds re- 
quire to be planted near the surface or more 
deeply, according to their size. For seeds as 
large as sweet peas, the drill should be half an 
inch deep ; the smallest seed should be simply 
laid on the surface, and a very little fine earth 
sifted over them, and afterwards pressed down 
with a trowel or with the palm of the hand. 
Never plant when the soil is very wet ; in very 
dry weather, water the ground lightly at night, 
being careful not to use water that is too cold. 



If the seeds are small, sow a good many of 
them together, and they will assist each other 
in breaking through the soil. When the plants 
are about an inch high, thin them out, leaving 
many or few, according to the number required 
for the garden ; it is best to leave a liberal mar- 
gin for mistakes and mishaps. 

Transplanting, unless the plant is taken up 
without separating it from the earth around its 
roots, retards the growth somewhat ; if the soil 
around the roots be undisturbed, the growth is 
not interrupted at all. Transplanting should be 
done at evening, or better still, just before a 
shower. Take a round stick, sharpened at the 
end, and make holes to receive the plants. Set 
them a very little deeper than they were before, 
and press the soil firmly around them ; then 
water, and cover for three or four days with an 
inverted flower-pot, or other yessel, or simply 
with newspaper. If a plant wilts after being 
transplanted, remove the larger leaves, and 
water liberally for a day or two. 

The toatering of plants is a subject on which 
floriculturists differ. Mr. Rand maintains that 
" if the soil is close or clayey, very seldom will 
water be required ; if sandy or loose, more 
often, but each locality will have its own rules." 
Another writer argues that " in this hot, dry 
climate, the watering-pot is a necessity," " and 
if there are not plentiful showers, j)lants, 
should be watered freely every evening." Our 
own experience coincides with the latter view. 
Daily watering is not, as some suppose, an ab- 
solute necessity ; but plants seldom thrive well 
through the feverish days of July and August 
without frequent and copious watering. The 
water for plants should not be very cold ; a 
good way to take the chill off is to draw it in 
the morning, and let it stand all day in the sun. 
Rain-water is the best, and it may generally be 
obtained by having a hogshead standing in 
some place out of sight, under a spout connect- 
ed with the roof. In watering, the water should 
never be dashed or poured on from a pail ; but 
showered on slowly and gently from the rose 
of a watering-pot. In time of drought, syring- 
ing the leaves at evening is very beneficial to 
shrubs and plants. 

Weeding, in a small garden is done most ef- 
fectually with the thumb and fing:". It is poor 
gardening to cut off a weed just below the level 
of the ground with a rake or hoe, for the root 
remains alive, gains strength, and nearly always 
sends up additional shoots. Of course in large 
gardens, the hoe must be depended upon, but 
pulling up the weeds by the roots is the only 
way of finally getting rid of them. The best 
time for weeding is very early in the morning ; 
it is not well to weed at night, or on a rainy or 
cloudy day, for there is no sun to kill the 
weeds, which it is better to expose to the sun, 
that they may be thoroughly killed. Pull them 
up in the morning, let them lie exposed all 
day and gather them up in the evening. 
The better and less laborious plan is, how- 
ever, to keep the ground so thoroughly raked 
that no weeds can become established. 



FLORICULTURE 



207 



Insects are very annoying in the garden ; 
with the first warm days they appear in num- 
bers,— covering the roses and settling down upon 
everything that is in bloom. Rain causes them 
to disappear, but a dry wind increases them. A 
small painter's brush dipped in quassia or aloes 
water will brush them off and destroy them. 
Hellebore (powdered) sprinkled over the leaves 
of plants about once a week will also help to 
protect them. The caterpillars of many moths 
and butterflies are destructive in the garden, 
and one death in the spring will save much war- 
fare later in the season. If a moth is seen 
resting on a stem or leaf, with folded wings, it 
is probably a female, and should be killed at 
once. If one is found dead on a plant, she has 
doubtless laid her eggs, and these must be 
searched for underneath the leaves and 
btirned. A garden syringe or hose is the most 
effective weapon against aphides and caterpil- 
lars ; hold the pipe close to the plant, so as to 
bring a considerable stream of water upon it, 
and it will soon be freed from them. Every 
time the syringe or hose is used, rake the 
earth away from under the plants, and trample 
upon the insects that have been washed off. 
Earwigs are very destructive insects. Their 
favorite food is the petals of roses, pinks, 
fuchsias, dahlias, etc., they eat at night, and in 
the daytime hide away amid the dark leaves. 
They can be caught by driving stakes into the 
ground and over these inverting flower-pots, 
leaving them just room to crawl under ; then 
look for and destroy them every morning. 
Toads and lady-bugs, on the other hand, are 
great helps, for they destroy vast numbers of 
the aphides, moths, caterpillars, etc. 

When plants produce an abundance of foli- 
age and no flowers, either remove them to a 
drier soil, or cut through some of the principal 
roots. Root shortening is often resorted to by 
florists to force plants to bloom. By checking 
the growth of the woody portions, strength is 
thrown into the flowers. AU shrubs produce 
their flowers on the terminal points of branches ; 
after the bloom is past, if they are pinched off, 
three or four new branches will come out in 
the succeeding year. As plants are in their 
most vigorous growth while in flower, they 
should never be transplanted at that time. 
Then is the time for taking cuttings, as they 
are most ready to send forth roots. The 
throwing off of its leaves by a newly-planted 
cutting is a sign that it has begun to grow, 
while if the leaves wither on the stem, it shows 
that the cutting had not strength enough to send 
out shoots. The ripening of seeds exhausts 
the strength of tlje plants ; therefore remove all 
pods that are not especially desired for seed. 
A plant can be trained into any shape by pinch- 
ing off the ends of young shoots, for the plant 
will avenge itself by sending forth two or three 
more in lieu of the one pinched off. 

The preserving of plants in Winter is one 
of the most perplexing problems in floriculture. 
It is useless to try and make "window-gar- 
dens " with planis that have flowered all sum- 



mer ; these must have a period of rest or they 
will be worth nothing for another season. 
Nearly all bulbs, and all plants that have a 
woody nature, can be preserved in a cool, dark 
cellar, where potatoes will not freeze. Roses, 
fuchsias, heliotropes, oleanders, sweet verbenas, 
and in fact nearly all flowers, can be kept by 
laying them carefully down on the ground, and 
covering them with sods placed grass side up. 
Zonale Geraniums and Scarlet Salvias can be 
wintered in most cellars, if the earth is shaken 
from their roots, and they are tied up by them 
to the cellar beams. All blossom buds should 
be cut off, or the sap that is in the branches 
will cause them to bloom and thus rob the roots 
of the strength they need to live on through the 
winter. Roses and geraniums can also be buried 
in trenches. Dig the trench two and a half 
feet deep and where the water will not settle ; 
line the bottom with straw or dried leaves, and 
lay the plants in ; cover the plants with a board, 
so supported as not to press upon them, and 
fill in with sandy loam, finishing off the top 
with a ridge that will carry off water. All 
plants that are only slightly tender can be pre- 
served by cutting off superfluous branches and 
binding straw around them so that no part will 
be exposed to the frost. 

The care of house-filatits is a matter requir- 
ing daily attention. As previously directed, the 
soil in the pots should be renewed every year. 
In winter, house-plants, except when well sup- 
plied with sun and air, should be watered only 
enough to keep them fresh; many are made 
sickly and spindling by giving them too much 
water when they have little light and fresh air. 
If from improper treatment they have become 
spindling, cut their heads entirely off, and sink 
the pot in earth or surround it with damp sand 
or sawdust and place it where the morning sun 
will strike It; often a new and flourishing head 
will spring out. Plants ought not to be kept 
very warm in winter, nor exposed to great 
changes of temperature. From 40 to 60 de- 
grees is about the proper temperature, when a 
little sun and air are secured. In summer, the 
plants should be set out of doors, but for a 
time should be well shaded ; for few house- 
plants can bear the full sun at first. When 
insects become troublesome, set the plants un- 
der a barrel, and burn a Httle tobacco_ in it. 
When plants are frozen, a copious sprinkling 
with cold water and a gradual restoration of 
warmth are the best remedies. 

Were the space at our command, it might be 
desirable to add to the foregoing some sugges- 
tions as to the kind and number of plants to 
select for a garden ; but often all this must be 
a matter of individual taste and opportunity, 
and full details are given under the separate 
plants whose names are scattered throughout 
the work. It only remains to add that the 
word " hardy," so often used in our descriptions, 
means that the plants to which it is applied wfll 
live out unprotected during the winter and require 
little attention. " Annuals " are plants that 
bloom and die down every year. " Biennials " 



208 



PXORI CULTURE 



are those which run their course in two years. 
" Perennials " are those which grow and blos- 
som year after year. 




window. The material is wire, except the shelf 
above, which is of wood, and intended to sup- 
port additional pots. Fig. 2 shows the same 
window with the vines in growth. The plan 
shown in Fig. 3 is exceedingly pretty, and may 



Fig. I. 



The three accompanying illustrations sug- 
gest simple and easy methods of training vines 
for ornamental purposes. Fig i. shows the 
method of constructing a framework around a 




Fig. 2. 



be applied either out of doors or in a conserva- 
tory. Ivy is the most satisfactory vine for m- 
door culture, but any quick-growing vine with 
abundant foliage will answer. 




I'^ig- 3- 



FLOSS 



FLUIDS 



209 



FLOSS.— Untwisted filaments of the finest 
silk, much used in embroidery upon satin, silk, 
broadcloth, etc. It comes of any color, in 
skeins containing about ten yards. In buy- 
ing-, test the strength, as some kinds are in- 
ferior, and well-nigh worthless. 

FLOUNDER.— There are many different 
species of this fish, which is flat like bream, 
and very oblong. The most common variety 
is the " flake " or "spotted flounder," which 




Flounder. 

weighs on the average about two and a half 
pounds, and is in season from August to No- 
vember. The "winter flounder" or "New 
York flat-fish," is a smaller kind, rarely weigh- 
ing over ten or twelve ounces, and excellent 
for frying. It is in season from October to 
July. The flourtder is a flat-fish, not esteemed 
as a delicacy, but sweet and easily digested. 

Boiled Flounder. — Same as Bass or Blue- 
fish. 

Fried Flounder Sprinkle the fish with salt, 

and let them lie two or three hours before they 
are dressed. Wash and clean them thoroughly, 
wipe them dry, flour them well, and wipe them 
again with a clean cloth ; then dip them in egg 
and fine bread-crumbs, and fry them to a light 
brown in plenty of lard. If the fish be large, 
raise the flesh entirely from the bones, cut it 
into nice pieces, dip them in eggs and bread- 
crumbs, and fry as before. 

FLOUR. — This term properly includes the 
finely-ground meal of any of the cereals, but it 
is commonly applied only to wheat-flour, and 
will be so used here, the other kinds being 
spoken of under the different grains. There 
is no article of food more universally used than 
flour, and none, perhaps, which it is more dif- 
ficult to obtain pure. It is adulterated with 
rice flour, potato starch, pea flour, alum, plas- 
ter of Paris, sulphate of copper, and other ma- 
terials which cost less than flour, or add to its 
weight at a cheaper rate. Rice, potato starch, 
and pea flour, are readily detected under the 
microscope by the form of the granules ; plaster 
of Paris by being insoluble in water and sink- 
ing at once to the bottom of a glass of water 
when flour containing it is stirred in ; alum by 
dipping bread into a decoction of logwood when 
a dark bluish color will be produced if alum be 
present ; and sulphate of copper by a red color 
when prussiate of potash is added to bread 
moistened with water; A more convenient log- 
wood test for alum is to macerate 4.}4oz. of 
logwood chips in 8 oz. of spirits for twenty-four 
hours, and filter. A few drops of this solution, 
together with the same amount of the strongest 
solution of carbonate ammonia that water will 



make, added to moistened kread, or flour in a 
little water, will show a dark bluish color, if 
alum be present. These should be kept sep- 
arately for the purpose. The easiest test with 
chalk, plaster of Paris, or other solutions is 
specific gravity; a vessel which will hold a 
pound of wheat flour will hold nearly a pound 
and a half of any other. 

In buying flour, when no. elaborate test can 
be applied, it is best to try it by testing it ; in 
this way mustiness or sourness can generally 
be detected. Good flour has a yellowish tinge, 
and when pressed tight in the hand, retains the 
creases of the skin impressed on it; when rubbed 
between the thumb and fingers a slight grain 
should be felt. Poor flour sometimes has a 
dingy look, as if ashes was mixed with it. The 
only safe way is to buy a small sample, and, if 
it prove satisfactory on trial, then get a larger 
supply from the same stock. 

Flour stored in barrels needs no other care 
than putting it in a cool, dry place, where it is 
well protected from rats, cockroaches, and other 
vermin. A tightly-fitting cover to the barrel 
is indispensable. 

FLOWERS. (To cut and Keep .)— Flow- 
ers should never be gathered during the heat 
of the day, but either while wet with dew in 
the early morning or after sunset when the 
dew has revived them. Do not break them off, 
but cut them with a knife or scissors ; the 
former is best, as it cuts cleanest and does not 
injure the plant. Sand is far cleaner to place 
them in than water ; it can be wetted every 
morning and will keep for weeks without any 
unpleasant odor. If sand cannot be obtained, 
add a few bits of charcoal to the water ; if the 
water is changed every day the flowers will 
then keep for a week or more. If it is de- 
sired to keep flowers for some time, about half 
an inch should be cut off from the ends of the 
stalks every time the water is changed ; a 
pinch of saltpetre and salt added to the water 
tends to prevent their decay. Warm water 
will revive wilted flowers ; put them into water 
warm to the hand, let them remain an hour 
or more, then cut off the stalks a little and 
put into fresh lukewarm water, and they will 
brighten wonderfully. A few drops of liquid 
ammonia added to the water, is also excellent 
to revive them. See Floriculture and 
Flowers under their respective names. 

FLUE. — Wherever metal flues pass near 
woodwork (which is to be avoided if possible), 
the latter should be well guarded by reflecting 
plates of metal, Hke tin or zinc, and some space 
should intervene between the two so as to 
allow a current of air to pass through. If the 
pipe must be supported it should only be by 
tliin, though strong arms of metal wire, by 
which the heat is prevented from being com- 
municated in sufficient amount to raise the 
temperature of the wood to a dangerous de- 
gree Smoking flues are to be treated the 
same as smoking chimneys. {See Chim- 
neys.) 

FLUIDS. — Fluids taken into the stomach 



210 



FLUMMERY 



FOOD 



are not subject to the slow process of diges- 
tion, but are immediately absorbed and carried 
into the blood. This is the reason why liquid 
nourishment restores from exhaustion more 
speedily than solid food. When food is chiefly 
liquid (soup, for example), the fluid portion is 
rapidly absorbed ; and the solid parts remain 
to be acted on by the gastric juice. In the case 
of Alexis St. Martin, in fifty minutes after tak- 
ing soup, the fluids were absorbed and the re- 
mainder was even thicker than is usual after 
eating solid food. It is because of this that 
soups are considered bad for weak stomachs, 
for this residuum is harder to digest than or- 
dinary food. Tea and coffee, and other warm 
drinks are so exhilarating after fatigue because 
that portion of them which acts as food enters 
into the blood almost immediately. 

FLUMMERY.— r^/^^ .--Cream, or milk, I 
qt ; sweet almonds, 5 or 6 oz ; bitter almonds, 
4 ; sugar, yi lb ; potato flour, or corn starch, 6 
oz. ; eggs (whites), 10; lemon peel or vanilla. 

Blanch and pound the almonds to a paste ; 
put them in the milk over boiling water, when 
a film covers the milk, stir in the flour which 
has been mixed smooth in a little cold milk, 
when it has thickened to a batter remove from 
the fire and stir in the eggs beaten to a stiff 
froth, then pour in moulds wet with cold water. 
Serve cold with sugar and cream. If lemon is 
liked, scald thm strips of the rind in the milk 
until flavored. Extract of vanilla may be added. 

FLUTING. {See Crimping.) 

FLUX. {See Dysentery.) 

FOMENTATIONS. — Warm lotions applied 
to diseased parts by means of flannels. They 
are often prescribed by physicians, and it is 
well to know how to manage them. The best 
way is to have some pieces of flannel or 
blanket, first cut to the required size, and then 
soaked thoroughly in water just hot enough to 
be grateful to the patient. Place beneath the 
part to be fomented some water-proof or oil- 
cloth, and then having had the flannels wrung 
nearly dry in a towel twisted by two assistants, 
wrap them around the limb, or lay them flat on 
the injured part, and over them bind some 
water-proof or thoroughly dry and thick cover- 
ing ; repeat the whole process as often as may 
be necessary. 

FONDU. — I. Take .--Cheese, 4 oz ; eggs, 
6 ; butter, %. lb ; salt, pepper, and cayenne. 

Grate two ounces each of Gruyere and Par- 
mesan cheese (common cheese will do, but is 
not so nice) into a basin and season with salt, 
pepper and cayenne ; add the yolks of six eggs, 
and a quarter of a pound of melted butter ; 
whip the whites of the six eggs, and stir them 
gently with the other ingredients. Line an 
ordinary cake-mould with a strip of writing 
paper six inches high ; pour the mixture in, 
and bake fifteen minutes in a moderate oven. 
Serve very hot. 

n. Take .--Cheese, 3 oz ; eggs, 5 ; milk or 
cream, i pt ; butter, 2 oz ; potato flour, or ar- 
rowroot, 2 oz ; salt and pepper. 

Mix a quarter of a pint of milk and two 



ounces of potato flour or arrowroot to a smooth 
batter ; heat three-quarters of a pint of milk 
(or cream in preference) to boiling, and pour it 
in ; stir them well together, and then add two 
ounces of butter cut small. When this is 
melted and beaten thoroughly into the mixture, 
add the well-beaten yolks. of five eggs, half a 
teaspoonful of salt, a little cayenne, and three 
ounces of lightly-grated cheese. Whip the 
whites of the eggs to a stiff and solid froth, stir 
them in gently, and bake as before about 20 
minutes. This is very nice. 

FOOD. — A food is a substance which, when 
introduced into the body, supplies material 
which renews some structure or maintains 
some vital process ; and it is distinguished 
from a medicine in that the latter modifies 
some vital action, but does not supply the 
material which sustains such action. It is es- 
sential to the idea of a food that it support or 
increase vital actions ; whilst medicines usually 
may lessen, increase, or otherwise modify some 
of them. " Foods are derived," says Dr. 
Edward Smith, " from all the great divisions of 
nature and natural products, as earth, water 
and air, solids, liquids and gases ; and from 
substances which are living and organic, or in- 
animate and inorganic. The popular notion of 
food as a solid substance derived from animals 
and vegetables, whilst comprehensive is too 
exclusive, since the water which we drink, the 
air which we breathe, and certain minerals 
found in the substance of the earth, are, adopt- 
ing the definition given, of no less importance 
as foods. It is, however, of great interest to 
note how frequently all these are combined in 
one food, and how closely united are substances 
which seem to be wiclely separated. Thus 
water and minerals are found in both flesh and 
vegetables, whilst one or both of the compon- 
ent parts of the air, viz. : oxygen and nitrogen, 
are distributed through every kind of food 
which is alone capable of sustaining life. 
Hence, not only may we add food to food to 
supply the waste of the body, but we may 
within certain limits substitute one for another 
as our appetites or wants demand. . . .Further, 
there seems to be an indissoluble bond exist- 
ing between all the sources of food. There 
are the same classes of elements in fiesh as 
in flour, and the same iti animals as in vege- 
tables. The vegetable draws water and min- 
erals from the soil, whilst it absorbs and 
incorporates the air in its own growth, and is 
then eaten to sustain the life of animals, so 
that animals gain the substances which vege- 
tables first acquired. But in completing the 
circle the vegetable receives from the animal 
the air (carbonic acid) which was thrown out in 
respiration, and lives and grows upon it ; and 
at length the animal itself in whole or in part, 
and the refuse which it daily throws off, be- 
come the food of the vegetable. Even the 
very bones of an animal are by the aid of 
nature or man made to increase the growth of 
vegetables and really to enter into their struc- 
ture ; and being again eaten, animals may be 



FOOD 



211 



said to eat their own bones, and live on their 
own flesh." It will be seen from this that an- 
imal and vegetable foods contain precisely the 
same elements though in different combina- 
tions. At the same time they differ sufficiently 
to make a due proportion of each necessary to 
perfect nutrition. One sterling point of differ- 
ence is, that nitrogen constitutes a much larger 
percentage of animal bodies than of vegetables. 
Nitrogen is one of the most important elements 
of food ; only such substances as contain it can 
efficiently produce flesh or repair wasted tissue. 
So important is this distinction, in fact, that 
one of the divisions of food most generally rec- 
ognized by physiologists is into nitrogenous 
and noti-nitrogenotis, or as Liebig termed them, 
the flesh-forming and the heat-producing. Both 
kinds are essential to the maintenance of life, 
and it is because vegetables as a whole are de- 
ficient in nitrogen that the highest degree of 
bodily vigor cannot be kept up by them alone. 

It is understood that the structures of the 
body are in a state of continual change, so that 
atoms which are present at one hour may be 
gone the next, and when gone, the structures 
will be so far wasted, unless the process of 
waste be accompanied by renewal. But the re- 
newing substance must be of the same nature 
as that wasted, so that bone shall be renewed 
by the constituent elements of bone, and flesh 
by those of flesh. This is the duty assigned to 
food, — to supply to each part of the body the 
very same kind of material that it lost by waste. 
As foods must have the same composition as 
the body, or supply some such other materials 
as can be transformed into the substances of 
the body, it is desirable to gain a general idea 
of what these substances are. The following 
is a summary of the principal materials of 
which the body is composed : — 

Flesh, in its fresh state, contains water, fat, 
fibrin, albumen, besides compounds of lime, 
phosphorus, soda, potash, magnesia, sihca and 
iron, and certain extractives, whose nature is 
unknown. Blood has a composition similar in 
elements to that of flesh. 

Bone is composed of cartilage, fat, and salts 
of lime, magnesia, soda and potash, combined 
with phosphoric and other acids. 

Cartilage consists of chondrin, from which 
gelatine is formed, with salts of soda, potash, 
lime, phosphorus, magnesia, sulphur and iron. 

The brain is composed of water, albumen, 
fat (so-called), phosphoric acid, osmazome and 
salts. 

The liver consists of water, fat, and albumen, 
with phosphoric and other acids in conjunction 
with soda, lime, potash and iron. 

The lungs are formed of a substance called 
connective tissue, from which gelatine is formed 
by prolonged boiling, albumen, a substance 
analogous to caseine, various fatty and or- 
ganic acids, with salts of soda and iron, and 
water. 

Bile consists of water, fat, resin, sugar, fatty 
and organic acids, cholesterin, and salts of 
potash, soda, and iron. i 



Hence, it is requisite that tlie body should be 
provided with salts of potash, soda, lime, 
magnesia, sulphur, iron and manganese, as 
well as sulphuric, hydrochloric, phosphoric, 
and fluoric acids and water ; also, nearly 
all the fat which it consumes daily, and 
probably all the nitrogenous substances which 
it requires and which are closely allied in com- 
position, as albumen, fibrin, etc. " So great an 
array of mysterious substances," says Dr. 
Smith, " might well prevent us from feeding 
ourselves or others if the selection of food de- 
pended solely upon our knowledge or judgment ; 
but it is not so, for independently of the aid 
derived from our appetites, there is the great 
advantage of having foods which contain a pro- 
portion of nearly all these elements ; and com- 
binations of foods have been effected by ex- 
perience which protect even the most ignorant 
from . evil consequences. Thus flesh or the 
muscular tissue of animals, contains precisely 
the elements which are required in our flesh- 
formers, and, only limited by quantity, our 
heat-generators also ; and life may be maintained 
for very lengthy periods upon animal food and 
water. Seeing, moreover, that the source of 
flesh in animals which are used as food, is of 
vegetable origin, it follows that vegetables 
should contain the same elements as flesh, and 
it is a fact of great interest that in vege- 
tables we have food elements closly analogous to 
those contained in the flesh of animals. Thus, 
in addition to water and salts, common to 
both, there is vegetable chondrin, vegetable al- 
butnen, vegetable fibrin, and vegetable casein, all 
having a composition ahiiost identical with ani- 
mal albumen, fibrin, chondrin, and casein." The 
articles containing most of the three articles 
needed generally in the body are as follows : 
for fat* and heat-making — butter, lard, sugar and 
molasses ; for flesh or muscle-forming — lean 
meat, cheese, peas, beans, and lean fishes ; for 
brain and nerves — shell fish, lean meats, peas, 
beans and very active birds and fishes, who live 
chiefly on food in which phosphorus abounds. 
In a meat diet, the fat supplies the carbon for 
keeping up the heat of the body, and the lean 
furnishes nutriment for the muscles, brain and 
nerves. Green vegetables, fruits and ber- 
ries furnish additional supplies of the acids,, 
the salts, and water needed. Since the 
analogy between animal and vegetable foods 
is so close, substantially the same elements be- 
ing found in each, it may be asked, what is the 
practical difference between them for purposes 
of nutrition ? As a general rule, then, it may 
be said that while flesh presents the elements 
of nutrition in a form the most compendious 
and easy of digestion, vegetables are composed 
of substances which must not only be digested 
but thoroughly transformed before they can be 

* This is of course intended only as a general statement. Th» 
fat in our bodies is directly derived from nitrogenized tissues: 
When the non-nitrogenized principles are excluded from our food 
the body becomes lean^ because the nitrogenized tissues are con- 
sumed in the production of heat, instead of being converted 
into fat. 



212 



FOOD 



used for the reparation of the body. The cook- 
ing of flesh is doubtless desirable, although it 
is not necessary to its digestion, but the cook- 
ing of most vegetables is essential, in order to 
enable the stomach to dissolve and perfectly 
transform them. A good test is the amount of 
matter which leaves the bowels after the con- 
sumption of vegetable and animal foods ; and 
if quantities supplying an equal amount of nu- 
triment be taken, the refuse from the former 
will be twice as great as from the latter. It is 
commonly assumed, and is one of the leading 
arguments of the vegetarians, that the digestion 
of' vegetables is easier than that of animal food, 
and that the process is more quickly perform- 
ed; but the experiments of Dr. Beaumont, 
upon the stomach of Alexis St. Martin, have 
shown that mutton is digested more quickly 
than bread, and an egg sooner than a potato. 
To this must be added the fact that a greater 
bulk of vegetable than of animal food is required 
to provide a given amount of nutriment, and 
hence, those who live chiefly on the former 
must be large eaters. Dr. Edward Smith, dis- 
cussing this point, says : " When we compare 
them it may be stated generally, that vegetable 
food must be eaten in larger quantities, and be 
better cooked, than animal food, and that it 
requires a longer period for and greater power 
of digestion, whilst it excites the vital processes 
more slowly, and in a lower degree." 

The following table, showing the average 
quantity of nutritive matter iniooo parts of sev- 
eral varieties of animal and vegetable food will 
illustrate some of the points previously made : — 



Beef 260 

Veal 250 

Mutton 290 

Pork 240 

Brain 200 

Chicken 270 

Cod 210 

Haddock 180 

Sole 210 

Bones 510 

Blood 215 

Milk 72 

White of egg P40 

Wheat 950 

Rice 880 

Barley 920 

Rye 792 

Oats 742 



Turnips 42 

Cabbage 73 

Beet-root 148 

Cucumber 25 

Strawberries 100 

Pears 160 

Apples 170 

Gooseberries 190 

Cherries 250 

Plums •• 290 

Apricots 260 

Peaches 200 

Grapes 270 

Melons 30 

Tamarinds 340 

Almonds 650 

Potatoes 260 

Carrots 98 



Water, coffee, tea, cocoa, and other drinks 
are simply liquid foods, each supplying nutri- 
ment in greater or less amounts, and repairing 
waste. Alcohols are generally excluded from 
the list of foods, but taken in limited quantities 
and under proper conditions, it is thought that 
they promote digestion and stimulate the con- 
version of food into tissue and blood. Atmos- 
pheric air is also ranked among the foods by 
modern physiologists, since from it chiefly is 
derived one of the most important and neces- 
sary elements of nutrition, oxygen. 

The effects of cooking upon food must not 
be overlooked. This effect is two-fold. It 
softens and disintegrates the substances which 
are naturally too hard for digestion, and thus 
renders them amenable to the digestive opera- 



FRACTURES 

tions ; this is the effect produced upon many 
vegetable substances, such as starch, grainsof 
every kind, and all substances having a resist- 
ing envelope or a tough and solid texture, such 
as peas, beans, potatoes, turnips and the like. 
In animal substances, on the other hand, the 
most useful effect of cooking appears to be the 
partial transformation of the albumenoid mat- 
ters, as in roast meat, whereby they acquire a 
peculiar and agreeable flavor. There is reason 
to believe that this flavor, besides being pleas- 
ant to the palate, stimulates the secretion of the 
digestive fluids which are essential to its con- 
version into substances capable of being appro- 
priated by the body. (See Diet.) 
FORCE-MEAT. (See Stuffing.) 
FORK. — Forks for table use are now gen- 
erally either of silver or silver-plated ware, and 
either of these is in every way preferable to 
steel or German silver. For the commoner 
kinds, stag's horn makes very durable handles, 
the surface of the horn being left in its natural 
state ; these are often used for large carving- 
forks. Bone. handles are made of the shank 
bone of the ox ; some of the bones are very 
dense and hard, but they do not keep their 
color, and are very liable to crack if dipped in 
hot water. Neither these nor ivory handles 
should ever be put into water at all. Those 
who cannot afford silver forks can now get good 
plated ones at a moderate price, which will wear 
at least as well as steel ones and their use is to 
be strongly recommended, on grounds both of 
convenience and elegance. Try to get those 
with extra plating on the outer prongs. 
FOWI* (See Chicken, andTouLTRV.) 
FOXGLOVE. — A large herbaceous plant, of 
which there are many varieties, with purple, 
white, rusty, and variegated flowers. The com- 
mon foxglove has large and numerous flowers 
of a bright rose color, spotted white and purple 
on the inside, and hanging down from the stem 
in beautiful racemes. The plant is a biennial, 
and therefore the seeds should be sown every 
year. Sow as soon as the frost is out of the 
ground. It blossoms in July and August. 

FRACTURES. — These accidents often hap- 
pen where surgical aid cannot be obtained at 
once, and perhaps not at all, but fortunately the 
most inexperienced eye can detect when one of 
the larger bones is broken, and the treatment 
is generally very simple, at least until the ar- 
rival of the doctor. In case of such an accident, 
however, the doctor should be sent for at once, 
and be careful, if in the country or at some dis- 
tance from the doctor's house, to forward a 
clear statement as to the apparent nature of the 
accident, which limb is hurt, and where and 
how it happened — this will enable him to bring 
the proper instruments and apparatus, if any are 
needed. Where an arm or leg is broken, it is 
far better to slit open the dress with a pair of 
scissors than to pull it off ; but however the un- 
covering of the limb may he managed, it must 
be done very slowly and gently, and the limb 
should be supported so as to prevent jarring or 
shaking to the damaged part. It must be care- 



FRACTURES 



213 



fully kept, too, in the right direction, for other- 
wise some sharp splinter of bone may penetrate 
the hitherto unwounded skin. 

In fractures of the lower limbs occurring at 
a distance from home, the jolting of a carriage 
or wagon should be avoided, and the patient car- 
ried. A door, a broad plank or shutter, a large 
sack cut open, a sheet or blanket or piece of 
tarpaulin fastened at the corners to two strong 
hoe-handles or sticks, makes an excellent ham- 
mock, carried by four men. 

Splints are needed in case of injury to the 
arm or hand, and these can easily be made of 
thin board or stiff card-board, a cigar-box, or an 
old band-box cut into strips the width of the 
hand or a Uttle wider, or any hard, unyielding 
and light material ; whatever is used, let it be 
long enough to reach from a little beyond the 
elbow to a little beyond the ends of the fingers. 
Cover this with a pad of soft hay, hair, wool, 
cotton, or anything soft, and then both the arm 
and hand will rest comfortably. For a sling, 
suspend a handkerchief or strip of cloth around 
the neck, bearing in mind that the hand must 
not hang lower than the elbow. 

Fain and swelling are the immediate or early 
results of a fracture, and it is better for a non- 
professional in treating a case to allow several 
hours, or even a day or two, to elapse before he 
ventures to apply the splints and bandages as a 
permanent dressing. Yet the limb must not be 
left quite alone. Lateral support should be 
given it by small pillows, pads of tow, folded 
sheets, or some other soft material ; and cold 
applications, such as hnt dipped in cold water, 
will aid in removing the swelling. If the leg or 
thigh be broken, the limb may be placed in its 
proper direction on one or more long pillows, 
and these tied at intervals around it with some 
tapes or cravat bandages. In every case of 
fracture the patient must be kept quiet and free 
from excitement, and not allowed to exert him- 
self until the wound is thoroughly healed. 

Arm (Above the Elbo-w). — There is only 
one bone here. Provide four splints, with a 
soft pad to each, to reach from the shoulder to 
the elbow-joint ; place one behind, one before, 




Fractured Arm. 

and one on each side, and secure them well 
with a bandage or straps. Use the sound arm 



as a model to shape the splints by. Carry the 
arm in a sling. 

Arm (Below the Elbow). — Here there are 
two bones, and one or both may be broken. If 
you try to raise the arm by taking hold of the 
wrist you will easily detect it. In dressing, hold 
the arm bent, with the thumb uppermost — as 
if the person were going to lay the palm flat 




Fractured Fore-Arm. 



against his chest ; place one spHnt along the 
palm of the hand to the bend of the arm, and 
the other along the back of the hand to a little 




Fig. 2. Fractured Fore-Arm. 

beyond the elbow, apply a wet bandage or 
straps loosely to keep them steady, and carry 
the arm in a sling. In bandaging the first two 
or three days allow for swelling. 

Collar-bone. — This bone runs from the top 
of the breast-bone to the shoulder, and is gen- 
erally broken near the middle. On the sound 
side the bone is smooth and even, on the injured 
side you will observe the lump caused by the 
broken ends rising one over the other, and if 
the shoulder be pulled forward, you will see the 
parts move and the patient will suffer pain. In 
a child the collar-bone does not break with a 
clean fracture as in an adult ; the bone bends 
to some extent and then cracks without break- 
ing through. It is important to remember this, 
for in a child you will not see the ends of the 
bone move as they do in an adult. In treating, 
prepare a round pad the thickness of a man's 
arm and five inches long; push the shoulder 
backwards, and press with the other hand on 



214 



FRACTURES 



the fracture till you get it in its place ; put the 
pad into the arm-pit, and secure the arm with a 
bandage round the body, as shown in Fig. i ; 




Fig. I. Fractured Collar-bone. 

raise the fore-arm well up in a sling. A bet- 
ter way of dressing it is that shown in Fig. 2. 
Take a band of stout cloth, three or four 
inches wide and five yards long. Lay one end 
on the shoulder, bring the band down the front, 
around the elbow, and up the back of the shoul- 
der ; then across the breast to under the other 
arm ; and then twice around the body. Draw 
the bandage tight. Take the patient to a sur- 
geon, and let him show you how to fix it perma- 




Fig. 2. Fractured Collar-bone. 

nently; you will have to watch over it for a 
month. 

Elbow-joint. — It sometimes happens that 
the sharp bone which projects at the back of 
the elbow is broken by a fall or blow. The arm 
cannot then be used ; and if you compare the 
two arms together, you will find that the point 
of the elbow is gone, and is drawn up towards 



the back of the upper arm. Keep the arm gut'/e 
straight, place a long well-padded splint on 
the inside, and bandage both above and below 
the elbow. 

Hand, Foot, or Ankle. — These bones are 
solid and are almost always wounded by some 
such accident as breaks or crushes the bone, such 
as by machinery, threshing-machines, etc., and 
are always serious. A doctor must be sought 
at once ; and in the mean time cover the wound- 
ed part with several folds of rags or handker- 
chiefs, dipped in cold water. If water is not at 
hand, wrap it up in a good handful of damp 
grass. If there be much bleeding, dip the wound 
into cold water if you can find any. If the hand 
is wounded, hold it on the top of the head. 

Head. — Any accident sufficiently severe 
to fracture the bones of the head or face, 
or to cause the person to remain insensible, 
needs immediate medical attention. All that 
a non-professional can venture upon is to 
place the patient in a reclining posture with 
the head raised, apply cold water to the 
injured part, especially if there be bleeding, 
and keep down all noise and excitement. 

Hip-joint. — The bone here is liable to be 
broken in aged people from any slight causes. 
Sometimes the person feels something crack in 
the hip, and cannot stand or rise from the 
ground ; if placed upright, you will find that the 
injured limb is shorter than the other, and the 
foot turns outwards. Remove the clothes care- 
fully, and keep the patient quietly in bed till the 
doctor comes. 

Jaw. — The lower-jaw is sometimes broken 
by a blow. It is not difficult of detection; the 
bone in its whole outline is so easily examined 
by the fingers that irregularity or change of 
direction must be noticed at once. If there 
is but little displacement, it will be enough to 
support the injured bone by one or more 




Fractured Jaw. 

bandages, so applied as to retain the jaw in 
place ; they may be tied, one at the back of the 



FRACTURES 



215 



neck and another across the top of the head, 
If, however, there be displacement and separa- 
tion, so that the two ends cannot be easily 
kept in the same place, a further arrangement 
must be contrived. This will best be done by 
employing a piece of gutta percha, moulded so 
as to form a cover for the jaw on both sides, 
and in its whole length ; this will give a i^erfect 
support, and may be kept in place by bandages 
applied as above directed. Three weeks or 
more will pass before the bones will unite 
thoroughly ; and during this period the patient 
must be supported on soups, beef-tea, and 
other liquid food. 

Knee-cap. — The cap of the knee is usually 
fractured by falling on the knee, or trying to 
prevent falling. As soon as it happens, the 
person has lost all power of standing on that 
leg, and if placed upright drops down again 
instantly. The bone is spHt across, and has 
left a gap similar to that of the elbow when the 
bone is broken. Keep the leg quite straight, 
placing the splint along the back of the limb ; 
and treat in exactly the same way as the elbow- 
joint. When the patient is obliged to move, 
pass a strong bandage round the neck, over 
the shoulder, and under the foot, and draw it 
so tight that it will entirely support the weight 
of the leg. 

Leg (Belo-w the knee). — Here there are two 
bones as in the fore-arm. If the small one be 
broken, you may have great difficulty in finding 
it, and it is of no consequence, as the large one 
will act as a support. If both bones are bro- 
ken, the patient is unable to raise his limb, there 
is distortion and swelling, with pain, at the 
place of fracture, and the ends of the bone 
will move on one another slightly if the foot 
be raised. This fracture may be treated by 
the employment of two side splints ; these 
should be applied, one to each side of the 
limb, and retained in place by straps or band- 
ages. The patient should then lie on the side 
corresponding with the fracture, keeping the 
limb as quiet and moving it as seldom as possi- 
ble. Or the patient may have the less irksome 
position on his back if the fractured limb be 
steadied by a straight outside splint, which 
should be made of wood four fingers in width, 
to reach from the knee to below the foot, and 
with the lower end notched as in the long 
thigh splint. The inequalities about the ankle 
are great, so that the padding must be abund- 
ant and well arranged ; the limb must be 
tightly fixed to the splint by means of a band- 
age or straps. Four or five weeks confine- 
ment must be insisted on after a fracture of 
this kind. 

Ribs (Without a -wound). — The symptom 
of a broken rib, after a blow or fall, is an aching 
pain, which becomes sharp on taking a deep 
breath, and is referred to one particular point 
which is very painful if pressed ; or, if the ribs 
near the back-bone be suddenly pressed, pain 
will be felt, not where you press, but where the 
bone is broken. If there be spitting of blood, 
keep the patient quiet and give no stimulants. 



If there be a bruise, apply hot fomentations or 
a large hot poultice ; then wrap a bandage of 
flannel six inches wide round the chest to sup- 
port the injured part ; draw this tight, and sew 
it on with large stitches, not placed opposite 
each other, but more like what is called the 
" herring-bone stitch ; " tighten it from day to 
day as required. If the accident happens at 
some distance from the house, tie a handker- 
chief firmly over the clothes till you reach 
home. 

Ribs (With a wound). — If the wound be 
merely a scratch, after applying the fomenta- 
tions, use a bit of lint and plaster, and bandage 
as before ; but if it be at all deep, even if you 
do not think it has gone through into the chest, 
put on some folds of wet rag and a bandage. 
Let the patient lie on the injured side, and keep 
him as quiet as possible till the doctor comes. 
In all cases of a wound to the chest, the person 
must lie on the wounded side. 

Thigh. — Fracture of the thigh may occur at 
any point throughout the shaft of the bone, and 
is ascertained by the person not being able to 
raise the leg, and by pain when he attempts to 
do so. The greatest trouble in this case arises 
from the violent spasms of the muscles, which 
draw the broken bone out of its place and 
cause great suffering. If the accident occurs 
in the fields, or away from home, get some stiff 
straw, reeds, bits of very thin boards, or if any- 
body has a stiff hat, knock the crown out, 
split up the body, and bind this rather tightly 
with handkerchiefs, suspenders, etc., round the 
broken limb. On reaching home, if the spasms 
be severe, put a strong bandage round the an- 
kle, cross it over the instep and bring the ends 
together under the foot, and to this sling a 
brick or any convenient article weighing about 
eight pounds. Let this hang over the foot of 
the bed, so as to draw down the leg ; it will 
afford great relief, and in the mean time the 
doctor must be summoned. 

The best dressing for a fractured thigh is a 
long splint on the outside of the leg, with a 
shorter one on the inside. For an adult the 
splints should be about four fingers in breadth, 
and thoroughly well padded. The outer one 
should project some four inches below the foot, 
and reach up to midway between the upper 
prominence of the thigh-bone and the arm- 
pit. In the first place, the whole leg should 
be evenly bandaged from toes to groin; then 
apply the outer splint, and fasten the leg firmly 
to it. It is customary to have two deep notches 
cut at the lower extremity of the splint, and two 
holes bored through it close to the upper end. 
The foot must be fixed to the lower end by 
carrying the bandage round the ankle and in- 
step, and then, after each turn, through the 
notches just mentioned. Then the leg, to a 
litde above the knee, must be bandaged to 
the splint ; and, this point reached, the upper 
end of the splint must be fixed so as to 
prevent shortening at the fractured point, by 
passing a folded handkerchief round the groin, 
the two ends of which may be threaded through 



216 



FRAMES 



the holes at the upper extremity of the splint, 
and firmly knotted. The inner splint, reaching 
only from inside of knee to the groin, should now 
be put on, and the bandage carried upwards 
round and round so as to encircle the whole, 



FRENCH COOKERY 

and retain both splints in close contact with the 
thigh. Pocket handkerchiefs or strips of cloth 
should fasten the splint to the abdomen, the 
knot in tying them being made upon the splint. 
The patient must of necessity lie on his back 




Fractured Thigh. 



during recovery, and six or eight weeks will pass 
over before the fracture is thoroughly healed. 

FRAMES (Gilt).— To preserve them from 
flies in summer, boil three or four onions in a 
pint of water ; then with a painter's brush dip- 
ped in the infusion, wash over the gilded por- 
tions of the frames. Once during the spring 
and summer will be often enough to apply it. 

FRANGIPANE. — A French paste used for 
tartlets or any kind of pastry. It is made by 
moistening two ounces of flour with a little 
milk, and "heating the two together in a sauce- 
pan ; then add three or four eggs, and stir to- 
gether till cool enough to make up with the 
hand. 

Frangipane de Pommes-de-Terre. — Cook 
some potatoes by steam, take off the skins, 
and mash them well ; then put them into a ba- 
sin, add some eggs (four to a pound of the 
potatoes), a little butter, salt, grated citron, 
some bitter macaroons, sugar or not, according 
to taste, and use it as a paste in aU sorts of 
entremets of pastry. 

FRECKLES. — These are commonly consti- 
tutional, appearing in childhood and lasting 
through life. Sometimes they seem to be caused 
by exposure to sun and wind, and then they 
disappear -to a great extent with removal of the 
cause. Treatment of the permanent freckles 
has generally very little effect, but the fol- 
lowing applications may be tried : — Take of 
muriatic acid, one drachm ; rain-water, half a 
pint ; spirit of lavender, half a teaspoonful ; 
mix. Apply it two or three times a day to the 
freckles with a bit of Hnen, or a camel-hair pen- 
cil. Or, with one ounce of elder-flower oint- 
ment, mix twenty grains of sulphate of zinc. 
Rub this into the skin at night, and next morn- 
ing wash with soap and water and apply a lo- 
tion made of half a pint of infusion of rose- 
leaves, mixed with thirty grains of citric acid. 
If these applications irritate the skin, use as a 
lotion : almond mixture, half a pint ; Goulard's 
Extract, half a drachm. 

FRENCH CHALK. {See Chalk.) 

FRENCH COOKERY (Terms used in).— 
Such of the dishes and processes peculiar to 
French cookery as it seems worth while to di- 
rect attention to, have been treated of in their 



appropriate places ; but the descriptive terms 
used in that cookery are now so commonly intro- 
duced into culinary and other treatises that a 
vocabulary of them can hardly fail to prove prac- 
tically useful here : — 

Allemande, veloute sauce reduced and 
thickened with yolks of eggs. 

Assiette volante, dish passed round. 

Au natural, cooked and served in its natural 
state ; plain. 

Baba, a light sort of cake, served as a re- 
move to the second course roast. 

Beignet, fritter. 

Bisque, a soup of shell-fish and game. 

Blanc, a rich white broth in which game, 
poultry, etc., are cooked. 

Blancher, to render white, to remove hulls. 

Blanquette, scollops cut from cold roast 
joints and warmed in allemande sauce. 

Boudin, an oblong quenelle poached in broth 
filled with minced red tongue, truffle, etc. 

Bouilli, boiled fresh beef with vegetables. 

Braising, a process of cooking with fire on 
the cover of the pot. 

Brioche, a light sort of cake. 

Buisson, a high standing dish of sugar- work 
and pastry. 

Caramel, burnt sugar, for coloring soups. 

Casserole, a mould of rice, a stewpan. 

Chartreuse, game, chicken, etc., put in a 
mould, lined with vegetables in a rich pattern. 

Compotier, a dish to hold the compote. 

Court Bouillon, a preparation of wine, water, 
and savory herbs in which fish is cooked. 

Consomme, a strong, clear, sparkling soup. 

CuUis, a very rich white or brown gravy. 

Croustade, bread carved to represent a vase, 
etc., to hold ragouts and other preparations. 

Croquettes, a sweet or savory preparation, 
bread-crumbed and fried crisp. 

Croutons, fried bread cut for garnishing. 

En papillote, cooked in oiled paper. 

Entrees, made dishes, for the first cotirse. 

Entremets, dressed vegetables, large sal- 
ads, sweets of all description, hot jellies, etc. 

Espagnole, one ol the grand stock sauces, 
from which is made the special sauces — brown. 

Farcie, forcemeat. 

Feviilletage, puff paste. 



FRICASSEE 



FRITTERS 



217 



Fricandeau, a piece of the inside of leg of 
Yeal, larded and stewed. 

Friture, frying-pan. 

Gateau, cake. 

Gras, made from meat. 

Glace, a term employed promiscuously, but 
simply meaning a shining surface, whether a 
cake iced, or a ham glazed. 

Gratinate, to make rich by reducing. 

Grenadins, the fricandeau piece of veal cut 
into thick cutlets. 

Jardiniere, a vegetable garnish boiled down 
in its own gravy. 

Liaison, a thickening of yolk of eggs diluted. 

Macedoine, many varieties of vegetables 
boiled down as jardiniere. 

Maigre, made without meat. 

Marinade, a preparation for enriching the 
flavor of meat, fish, etc., made of wine, vinegar, 
water, herbs, and vegetables, of oil, vinegar, 
etc., and of liquor, sugars, and spices. 

Miroton, a rechauffe, very nicely prepared. 

Nouilles, a paste of Hour, cream, and eggs. 

Noix de veau, technical term meaning cush- 
ion, that part of the leg of veal next the udder. 

Paner, to bread-crumb. 

Panieres, to cover with bread-crumbs. 

Passer, to fry lightly. 

Pigne, to lard on the surface only. 

Poelee, a braise to enrich game, etc. 

Potage, soup or light broth. 

ProfitroUes, a light pastry used as an en- 
tremet. 

Puree, meat, vegetables, fish, etc., after being 
cooked, chopped fine, pounded in a mortar to 
a smooth paste, rubbed through the tamis, 
diluted with the liquor it was cooked in. 

Quenelles, a rich farcie moulded in forms 
and poached in broth. 

Ragout, consisting of one or more ingredi- 
ents in a rich brown or white cullis. 

Rissoles, small pastry consisting of either 
savory or sweets, fried. 

Roux, a thickening of flour and butter. 

Salmi, a hash of game served in a sauce 
made of the trimmings. 

Salpi9on, a preparation of red tongue, ham, 
mushrooms, and chicken or game, chiefly 
used to fill bondins, croquette, bouchces, etc. 

Saute, to cook quickly over a sharp fire with 
just enough oil or butter to prevent sticking. 

Sautoir, saute-pan. 

Tamis, a sieve of fine cloth wire, also of 
coarse woollen cloth. 

Timbale, a pie raised in a mould. 

Toppot, the surface fat from the common 
slock-pot. 

Tourte, a tart, of fresh or preserved fruit. 

Vanner, to use sauce with a small ladle in 
peculiar manner. 

Veloute, the grand stock sauce for white 
sauce, as Espagnole is for brown. 

FRICASSEE.— A dish made of chickens or 
any small animal, dressed or fried. Receipts 
for various kinds of it are given in different 
parts of the work. {See Chicken, Frog, 
Parsnip, Veal.) 



FRIEZE.— A kind of coarse woollen cloth 
or stuff, resembling baize, with a nap on one 
side, this nap is of a peculiar kind, consisting 
of little tufts or burrs, called \\\(t friezing, which 
is made by the machine in weaving. It comes 
only in dark colors, and is a yard wide. 

FRINGE. — Fringes are for furniture, or for 
ladies' dresses. The former are from two to 
four inches deep, and comes in three varieties : 
plain head, plain head and bullion, and 
gimp head. Those for dresses are called 
"fancy fringes," are made of worsted or silk, 
and come from half an inch to three or four 
inches in width. 

FRITTERS.— r«^6'. --Flour, I pt; eggs, 4 ; 
boiling water, i pt ; salt, i teaspoonful. 

While the water is boiling, stir in the flour 
gradually, and let it boil three minutes, stirring 
all the time ; take from the fire, stir in the yolks 
of the eggs, one by one, and afterwards the 
whites, which must be previously whipped to a 
froth. Drop it by spoonfuls into boiling hot 
lard, and fry to a light brown. Serve hot, pow- 
dered over with white sugar. 

Apple Fritters. — I. Take : -Y\o\xr, 10 oz ; 
milk, 3 gills ; eggs, 2 ; sour apples, chopped 
fine, or sliced thin, 2. 

Beat the volks very light ; mix in the milk 
and flour; whisk the whites to a stiff froth and 
stir them in very gently ; add the apple and 
drop the batter by the spoonful in hot lard an 
inch and a half deep. 

XL Make a batter same as in first recipe. 
Peel the apples; slice them across into rounds, 
from which remove the cores ; dip these slices 
into the batter, and fry them to a light brown 
and until tender. Pile them regularly on the 
dish and dust with white sugar before serving. 
Some steep the sliced apples in brandy before 
dipping them into the batter. 

Bread Fritters. — Take .--Bread-crumbs, i pt ; 
Zante currants, yi lb ; milk, i pt ; butter, i 
tablespoonful ; powdered white sugar, % lb ; 
eggs, 6 ; brandy, 2 tablespoonfuls. 

Grate some bread into a dish until yovi have 
a pint of crumbs ; pour over these a pint of 
boiling milk, in which a tablespoonful of butter 
has been melted ; cover the pan, and let it 
stand an hour. Then beat the mixture up 
well, flavor with nutmeg, and add a quarter of 
a pound of powdered white sugar, stirred in 
gradually, and two tablespoonfuls of brandy ; 
beat six eggs till very light, and stir them by 
degrees into the mixture ; lastly, add the cur- 
rants (washed, dried, and dredged well with 
flour), a few at a time, and beat the whole 
together very hard. It should be a thick bat- 
ter ; if it turns out too thin add a little flour. 
Have ready over the fire* a frying-pan with 
boiling lard ; put in the batter in large spoon- 
fuls (be careful not to let them run into each 
other) and fry to a light brown. Drain them 
on a perforated skimmer, or an inverted sieve, 
and send them to table hot. Serve with wine 
and powdered sugar. 

Fruit Fritters.— r^r^^.-- Flour, U pts; milk, 
i I gill ; cream, i pt (or a pint of milk with a 



218 



FRITTERS 



FROG 



teaspoonful of melted butter in it) ; eggs, 6 ; salt, 
2 teaspoonfuls. 

Mix these ingredients together ; add either 
blackberries, currants, gooseberries, or rasp- 
berries ; and fry in small cakes to a light brown. 
Eat with a sauce made of butter, beaten up 
with sugar, and flavored with wine, or nutmeg, 
or grated lemon-peel. 

Indian Meat Fritters. — Take :-Y.gg?., 4; 
milk, I pt ; yellow corn meal, i pt ; flour, 2 
gills ; salt, i even teaspoonful. 

Beat the yolks of the eggs until very light ; 
add the milk, meal, flour and salt ; beat hard, 
then whisk the whites to a stiff froth and mix 
them very gently with the batter ; drop by the 
spoonful in hot lard an inch and a half deep. 
As fast as the fritters are done, take them out 
with a perforated skimmer, through the holes 
of which let the lard drip back into the pot. 
Send them to table hot, and eat them with wine 
and sugar, or witli molasses. 

Lobster Fritters. — Cut the meat of a boiled 
lobster in small, neat dice ; have \ pint of 
stiffly reduced allemande sauce, add the lobster, 
season with cayenne, mace, salt, and white 
pepper ; form in the shape of corks, dip in 
batter, and fry to a fine brown in plenty of 
lard. 

Mincemeat Fritters. — Mincemeat, yi lb; 
bread-crumbs, 2 oz. (or flour, i tablespoonful); 
eggs, 2; juice of % lemon. 

Mix the aiiove ingredients together well and 
drop the mixture by dessertspoonfuls into boil- 
ing lard; fry them seven or eight minutes, 
drain them on a napkin or white blotting paper, 
and send them to table very hot. These are 
very nice. 

Pear and Peach Fritters. — Pears, peaches, 
oranges, or apricots, can be made into fritters 
in tiie same way as apples. 

Potato Fritters. — 7"rt/v .--White potatoes, 
2 (14 oz); eggs, 4; cream, i tablesi)()onful ; 
sweet wine, i tablespoonful ; lemon and nut- 
meg. 

Boil two large potatoes, and mash them well ; 
beat four yolks and three whites of eggs, and 
stir them in; add the cream, wine, a squeeze of 
lemon juice, and a little nutmeg. Beat f his bat- 
ter half an hour at least. It will be extremely 
light. Have plenty of boiling lard, drop a 
spoonful of the batter at a time into it, and 
fry to a light brown. Serve with a sauce com- 
posed of a wineglassful of white wine, the 
juice of a lemon, one dessertspoonful of peacli- 
leaf or almond water, and some white sugar, 
warmed together. Or make a sauce of butter 
and sugar beaten together and flavored with 
wine. 

Rice Fritters. — Take -.-Kxzt and milk. 

Steep a quarter of a pound of boiled rice in 
half a pint of milk, make it into thin cakes, and 
fry thcni in butter to a light brown. Serve with 
sweet or wine sauce, made as above. 

Spanish Fritters. — Cut a F^rench roll into 
Icngtlis, as tliick as the finger, in any approved 
shape. Soak in a batter made of two table- 
spoonfuls of cream and one tablespoonful of 



sugar, flavored with nutmeg and pounded cin- 
namon, and beaten up with an egg. When well 
soaked, fry to a light brown, and serve with a 
sauce made of butter and sugar flavored with 
wine. 

Venetian Fritters. — Take :-V<l\io\^ rice, 4 
oz ; milk, i pt ; sugar, 2 oz ; butter, i oz ; grat- 
ed rind of >^ a lemon ; currants, 30Z; minced 
apples, 4 oz ; flour, i teaspoonful ; eggs, 3 ; 
salt. 

Wash and drain three ounces of whole rice, 
put it into a pint of cold milk, and bring it very 
slowly to the boiling-point ; stir it often, and 
let it simmer gently until it is quite thick and 
dry. When nearly done, add to it two ounces 
of pounded sugar, and one of fresh butter, a 
pinch of salt, and the grated rind of half a 
small lemon. Let it cool in the sauce-pan, and 
when only just warm, mix with it thoroughly 
three ounces of currants, four of apples chop- 
ped fine, a teaspoonful of flour, and three well- 
beaten eggs. Drop the mixture in small fritters, 
fry them from five to seven minutes, and let them 
become quite firm on one side before they are 
turned. Drain them as they are taken up, and 
sift white sugar over them after they are dished. 

FROGr.-The frog, which is so frequently eaten 
in France and many parts of the Continent, is 
not our common frog, but another species some- 
what larger, the Rana esciilenta. It is of a 
green color, spotted with black, and having two 
pale yellow lines down the back. It is the 
hind quarters only that are eaten, and these 
are more fleshy than the thigh of our common 
frog, resembling the most delicate chicken. 
The loins and fore-legs are used in soup. 
This frog is rare in this country, and 
the only edible frogs are the bullfrogs in 
their several varieties, of which the " Gibbon's 
green frog" is the best. They are sold in our 
markets by some of the fishermen, ready skin- 
ned, at so much per piece or dozen, according to 
the size. They arc very delicate, and sweet to 
the taste ; and those who try them seldom hes- 
itate to eat them again. 

Fried Frog. — Skin well; cut off the hind 
legs and throw them into boiling water, with a 
little salt, for five minutes ; take out and lay 
them in cold water to cool, then drain. Have 
hot fat in a frying-pan on the fire ; and fry them 
to a light, crisp brown. 

Fricasseed Frog. — Cut off and skin the hind 
legs, and, giving them a turn or two in a sauce- 
pan of boiling water, throw them into cold 
water, and put them into a sauce-pan with but- 
ton mushrooms, a bunch of parsley, garlic, one 
cloves, and a bit of butter. Add a ])inch of 
flour, and moisten with a glass of white wine 
and a little broth. Throw in some pepper and 
salt, and cook them until they are tender. 
Take them out ; boil down the sauce to a smaller 
quantity ; thicken it with yolks of egg, and a 
bit of butter ; throw in some chopped and 
scalded parsley, and pour it over the legs in 
their dish. 

Stevred Frog. — Prepare and dress hind legs 
same as stewed chicken. {See Chicken.) 



FROST-BITES 



FRUIT 



219 



FROST-BITES.— These result from ex- 
posure to cold and especially to a cold wind, 
and affect only the extremities, and projecting 
parts of the body, as hands, feet, nose and 
ears. They are caused by the cold arresting 
the circulation of the blood in the exposed 
parts, and are frequently so rapid and so free 
from pain that a person is not aware of any- 
thing wrong. 

Treatment.— Keep the person away from the 
heat, if he is allowed to come near a fire or into 
a warm room it will burst the local blood ves- 
sels, causing dreadful suffering and trouble- 
some wounds. Rub the part well with snow ; 
and if snow cannot be had, get the coldest 
water. Let the patient rub himself if possible, 
for the exertion will stimulate the circulation of 
the blood and help him to keep warm. Con- 
tinue this rubbing for several hours if neces- 
sary, till the parts are quite soft, and something 
like the natural color is restored. Even when 
this point has been reached, friction with flan- 
nels, continued for some time, will be of great 
advantage. After this has been done, the parts 
may be anointed with sweet oil, or lard, or 
lime-water and oil (equal parts), and wrapped 
up well with flannel. .If there should be any 
sores, dress them the same as burns. 

FROST FISH. (See Tom-Cod). 

FROZEN LIMBS, ETC.— Whether the 
whole body or a part only is affected by cold, 
the method of treatment is the same. Avoid a 
sudden change of temperature. If a person be 
found quite benumbed with cold, if he is taken 
direct to a fire, his life will probably be de- 
stroyed ; a barn, or shed, a room which feels 
very cold to you, is warm enough at first. Re- 
move the clothes if wet, and rub the body dry. 
Wrap him in blankets, and give a little warm 
wine and water, or weak spirits and water or 
tea. After a while, remove him to a warm 



room, but stiii not near a fire, and so gradually 
increase the warmth. Rubbing the skin is the 
most important restorative agent ; proceed as 
for Frost-Bites. If the vital functions are 
suspended, artificial respiration may be set up 
according to the directions given in article on 
Drowned. 

Whenever a person is exposed to intensely 
cold weather without being able to reach a place 
of shelter, he should //le moinettt he finds his 
streiigtJi failing, look out for a snow drift, 
sheltered from the wind by a hill or some other 
object, and at once scrape out a hole in it large 
enough for the body, and then crawl into it. 
The snow will shelter him from the cold and 
wind, and keep him warm. Human beings and 
sheep have lain for days this way and been 
saved, and generally it is the only chance. 

Nipped. — This is another effect of cold, and 
is generally caused by standing or walking 
against a very cold wind. Persons suffering 
from it are seized suddenly ^with severe pain in 
the bowels and drawn together with cramps ; 
the hands are swollen, and the head aches 
violently. The treatment should be similar to 
that already described : a warm room or fire 
must be avoided at first, and warmth gradually 
restored. Any kind of warm stimulating drinks 
may be taken in small quantities at short inter- 
vals, and after warmth is somewhat restored, 
warm flannels should be applied to the parts 
which are most painful. 

FRUITS. — This very large class of vegetable 
products comprises representatives from every 
hot and temperate climate, and offers the 
greatest variety of flavors, and those of the 
most agreeable character, of all vegetable and 
animal foods. The true position of fruits as 
food is less that of nutrients than of agreeable 
luxuries. Their qualities, however, place them 
in the first rank of subsidiary, or luxurious 




foods, since they supply an agre^aoie and re- ! and by acting upon the sense of taste may 
freshing material when taken alone or with [ ultimately induce the invalid to eat food of a 
other foods, which in health is desirable, and in I more nutritive character. The albuminous 
disease almost necessary to life. They will be i fruits, such as cocoa-nuts, filberts, aim- nds, 
taken by the sick when nothing else is desired ' hickory nuts, and the like, are, as Dr. Smith 



220 



FRUIT 



FRYING 



says, really seeds, and contain a large propor- 
tion of nutritive matter. The different varieties 
of fruit are treated of in their proper places in 
various parts of the work. 

All fruits designed for immediate eating 
should be gathered before ten o'clock in the 
morning during summer, in order to obtain their 
best flavor. To store fruit, gather it in the 
middle of a dry day, being very careful not to 
bruise or injure it in any way. As to time, the 
safest rule is to observe when the fruit begins 
to fall naturally; unripe fruit never keeps so 
well as that which is nearly ripe—\\. is more apt 
to shrivel and lose flavo'r. A moist, but not 
damp, atmosphere is best for keeping fruits; 
and as many persons have cellars who have not 
fruit-rooms, they should store their fruit in a 
corner of the cellar in preference to dry closets 
in higher parts of the house. Again, fruit 
keeps better and longer in the dark than when 
exposed to the light. [See Candying Fruit, 
and Canning Frujt.) 

FRUIT (Wax, to make). — The first process 
is forming the mould from which the cast of 
fruit is to be taken. This is done by mixing 
plaster of Paris with water, to the consistency 
of thick paint. As the mould of fruit cannot 
be taken whole, it is necessary to prepare it for 
the parts required. For an apple, orange, or 
pear, two parts will be sufficient; but in other 
cases, when the fruit abounds in irregularities, 
it is requisite to take the mould in three or more 
parts, otherwise it will be difficult to remove. 

In preparing an apple, etc., it is necessary to 
oil the surface of one half of the fruit, which, 
having done, place over it the plaster of Paris ; 
as it sets, or dries, which it will do very quickly, 
smooth the edges to the exact half, with a 
knife, making at the same time several notches 
in the edge, in order that the two parts, when 
taken, may fit closely ; when the plaster is suf- 
ficiently hardened, oil the edge with a camel- 
hair pencil, and prepare for taking the mould of 
the second half, which is performed in the same 
manner ; the two halves, placed together, will 
form a perfect mould, the plaster being readily 
removed by means of oiling. 

The next process is taking the cast ; the 
parts of the mould will be rendered more hard 
by immersion in cold water ; all the parts must 
now be bound together with string. Prepare 
the wax by melting ft to the consistency of 
cream, pour it into the mould at the aperture 
caused by the stalk, which must be increased 
should the orifice be not sufficiently capacious 
to admit the wax ; when the wax is thoroughly 
hardened, the string must be removed, and the 
pieces of the mould taken from the fruit ; a 
perfect cast of the fruit is thus produced. The 
colors used are to be obtained in powder, and 
delicately put on the wax by means of the 
finger, the lighter parts being touched with a 
camels-hair pencil. 

With some descriptions of fruit, as an orange, 
grapes, etc., the color may be put in the wax 
and the bloom produced afterwards by the use 
of the powder. The stalks are formed and in- 



serted at the top of the fruit. The leaves are 
produced by thin sheets of wax, punched out 
to the size required, with punches prepared for 
the purpose ; these can be obtained at most 
hardware stores. 

FRUMETY. — Roast a quarter of a pint of 
wheat till it is done ; then boil it in water for 
three or four hours ; pour off the water, and 
add one quart of milk, two spoonfuls of flour, 
two eggs, half a teacupful of raisins and cur- 
rants, a little lemon-peel and cinnamon. Boil a 
quarter of an hour and serve. 

FRYING. — Considered generally to be tlT\ 
most unhealthful mode of cooking practiced; 
although if carefully performed there seems no 
reason why an article which is fried may not 
be as nutritious as an article which is baked, 
and just as conducive to general health. While 
of course it is not wise to supply a quantity of 
fried dishes, it is not wise to supply, without 
change, dishes which are boiled or roasted. 




Wire Lining for Frying-pan. 

Frying, as usually performed in American 
kitchens, is unhealthful because performed un- 
skillfully. Considering the frequent slice of 
bread-crumbed fish, reeking with black grease, 
it is no wonder that frying is so generally 
condemned. 




Wire Basket for Frying. 

The proper mode of cooking is to entirely 
immerse the article to be fried in sjnoking hot 
fat — either clarified beef drippings, lard, or oil; 
on no account use butter, as cooking butter 
produces some change (probably chemical) 
that makes it one of the most indigestible sub- 
stances known. The moment the article to be 
cooked touches fat sufficiently hot, its surface 
becomes coagulated, making it impossible for 
the fat to get in or the natural juices to get out. 
It is well to protect some articles in frying by 
placing them on wire supports. 




English Frying-pan. 

Have, on a sharp fire, a deep frying-pan more 
than half filled with beef drippings. Your ar- 
ticle for frying is crumbed and ready to cook ; 
now if, on looking across the pan, you see a 
ithin, bluish smoke rising, lay in the article 



FUCHSIA 



FULLER'S EARTH 



221 



and keep the pan gently moving, so that the 
contents do not stick to the sides. Turn the 
article once or twice, and when of a fine buff 
color, take it out ; lay it for a moment on clean, 
brown paper to absorb the fat ; garnish and 
serve sufficiently hot. 



Saute Pan. 

/' Sautieing is an entirely different process, in 
that only enough fat or butter is used to pre- 
vent the article cooked from sticking to the 
sautoir, while it is browned quickly over a very 
hot fire. Then enough gravy is added (if the 
dish is not bread-crumbed) for the sauce. Per- 
mit it to simmer a moment or two, and then 
instantly serve. 

FUCHSIA. — Fuchsias are among the most 
desirable of plants, either for outdoor or indoor 
culture. They are extremely easy to grow ; they 
bear a profusion of fiowers, and both flowers 
and foliage are very beautiful. In the garden, 
a moist, shady position is the most suitable ; 
the noonday sun scorches the tender buds and 
causes them to fall. Fuchsias are gross feed- 
ers and luxuriate in the richest soil. A rich 
loam, well mixed with leaf mould and rotted 
cow manure, should be provided for them ; and 
twice a week during the summer they should 
have liquid manure, either from the barn-yard, 
or by dissolving one tablespoonful of guano in 
a gallon of warm water. Water twice a day 
in dry weather with tepid water. Treated thus, 
some kinds will send out shoots from four to 
five feet in length in six or eight months. 

Fuchsias may be grown either from seeds or 
cuttings, but the former method is dubious and 
troublesome and it is best either to buy the 
plants of the florist or to raise from cuttings. 
Take the cuttings either in February, March, or 
April, from three to four inches long. Plant 
them in clear sand, keep " sopping wet," and in 
three weeks they will be well rooted; put in 
three inch pots, in the richest of soil, with a 
little sand to keep it mellow ; let them grow 
until the pot is well filled with roots, which will 
be in three or four weeks ; then re-pot in six or 
eight-inch pots, if designed to grow in them ; 
but if raised to bed out, plant at the start in 
five-inch pots, and when all fear of frost is 
passed, plant in the garden. Fuchsias show 
to great advantage when trained as standards ; 
to do this the side shoots of a yovmg plant must 
be nipped off, and the stem trained up a 
straight stick. When it has* grown as high as 
desired, let the side shoots branch out, and a 
handsome bush will be produced. They can 
also be trained to walls, or planted in masses in 
beds. If the young plant does not branch out, 
pinch off the terminal shoot ; side branches 
will soon appear, and the most central can then 
be trained up for a stem. 

During the winter the plants can be kept in 
frost-proof, dry cellars, either in pots or boxes ; | 



or they can be pulled up by the roots, the soil 
shaken from them, and packed in layers in sand 
which is thoroughly dry, first cutting off all the 
tender shoots. In March or April, bring them 
to the light and plant in rich soil, pruning not 
only the top but the roots ; in cutting the tops 
back, have an eye to shape. Plant out as soon 
as all danger from frost is over. 

The varieties of fuchsias are innumerable, and 
we can only give lists of a few of the most 
desirable of the single and double flowering 
kinds. 

Single Fuchsias. — These are all choice : — 
Annie, tube and sepals white, corolla deep 
pink; Arabella, white sepals, pink corolla; 
Chatynitig, violet corolla, crimson sepals ; 
Fairest of the Fair, white tube and sepals, 
violet-rose corolla ; Father Ignatius, carmine 
sepals, blue corolla, bell shaped ; yules Calot, 
orange-red sepals, orange-crimson corolla; 
Land of Plenty, red sepals, violet-black corolla ; 
Lnstre, vermilion corolla; waxy-white sepals ; 
Marginata, white sepals, rose-pink corolla ; 
Prince Imperial, scarlet sepals, violet corolla ; 
Pose of Castile, white sepals, violet corolla ; 
So2ivenir de Cheswick rosy-crimson sepals, 
violet corolla ; Striped Unique, purple corolla 
striped with white ; Taglioni, white reflexed 
sepals, dark violet corolla ; Wane of Life, violet- 
Llue corolla, scarlet sepals, gold tinted foliage ; 
Weeping Beauty, scarlet sepals, blue corolla . 

Double Fuchsias. — These are unsurpassed 
for beauty and elegance by any plant in the 
floral kingdom. E. G. Henderson, scarlet 
sepals, violet corolla; Ehn City; Emperor, 
crimson sepals, white corolla ; Grand Duke, 
crimson, violet - purple corolla : Monstrosa, 
bright rose sepals, white corolla ; Nonpareil, 
two corallas, purplish-blue ; Norfolk Giant, 
crimson sepals, violet corolla ; Picturata, scarlet 
sepals, double white corolla ; Snowdrop, scarlet 
sepals, semi-dark white corolla ; Surpasse V. de 
Peubla; scarlet sepals, double white corolla; 
Symbol, crimson tube and sepals, creamy-white 
corolla ; Tower of London, scarlet sepals, 
violet-blue corolla; WilJielm Pfitzer, rosy-car- 
mine sepals, lavender-blue corolla. 

Golden Leaved Fuchsias. — The varieties of 
these are few in number, and the best are : — 
Cloth of Gold, Crown of Jewels, Golden 
Fleece, Golden mantle, Golden Treasure, and 
Orange Bo7'en. 

Winter Flo-wering Fuchsias. — These bloom 
from December to May. There are only two 
varieties : Speciosa, tubes and flowers of a 
peach-blossom color, crimson corolla; and_ 
Serrati folia. The flowers of the latter are dis- 
stinct from those of any other kind of fuchsia. 
The tube is crimson, the tips of the sepals shad- 
ing to green, with white stamens. 

FUEL. {See Coal, Coke, and Wood). 

FULLER'S EARTH. — A substance useful 
for removing grease from floors, carpets, cloth- 
ing, or greasy vessels of any kind. It is of a 
grayish-brov^n color, hard, compact, and rough, 
but scrapes with a polished surface. It is al- 
ways scraped to a powder before using, and 



222 



FUMIGATION 



FURNISHING 



applied in that form. When it becomes sat- 
urated with the grease, it must be removed and 
a fresh supply put on. 

FUMIGATION. — The slow burning of 
brown paper or cotton rags is the most familiar 
way of destroying bad smells by fumigation. 
Sugar or coffee sprinkled thickly in a shovelful 
of live coals, and left to smoulder slowly, is 
also very effective and not disagreeable. A 
pleasant fumigation can be made by dipping 
cartridge paper in alum qnd water, drying it, 
and spreading one side with a mixture of equal 
parts of gum benzoin, olibanum, and Peruvian 
balsam ; melt these together and spread them 
upon the paper with a hot knife. In using, 
hold slips of the paper over a candle or lamp, 



to evaporate the odorous matter, but not to ig- 
nite it. Ships and rooms infected with con- 
tagious diseases are fumigated with burning 
sulphur. The roll sulphur is placed in an iron 
pan or open kettle, and is ignited by pouring 
a little alcohol upon it, to serve as a kindler. 
{See Deodorizers and Disinfectants.) 

FUNNEL. — Funnels are made of tin, tinned 
iron, pewter, white or brown stone-ware, and 
glass, and of various sizes. Very small ones are 
useful for filling vials and small bottles where 
it is difficult to avoid spilling. Where acids are 
to be poured, glass or earthenware is requis- 
ite, as metal will be corroded by it. Glass is 
best under all circumstances, because one can 
see whether it is perfectly clean. A servicea- 




Fig. I. — A Corner of the Hall. 



ble funnel can be made at any time by folding a 
piece of clean letter-paper into the proper shape. 

FURNACE {See Warming.) 

FURNISHING— The reader, if impecuni- 
ous, need not be discouraged by the discussion 
here of points involvmg considerable outlay, 
for in addition to these, the article contains 
much for his special benefit. He is earnestly 
recommended to study the article on Decora- 
tion. In it he will find an authoritative ex- 
position of those elementary principles of taste 
which underlie all the decorative arts, and he 
will need little more in the way of suggestion 
concerning furniture in its artistic aspects. The 
present article deals with the practical aspects, 
including cost. Unfortunately, prices have been 



fluctuating so much in recent years that esti- 
mates are inevitably misleading. Ways of 
getting over this difficulty will be treated far- 
ther on. 

In addition to this article, the reader will 
also find it desirable to consult the articles on 
Carpets, Curtains, Earthenware, Paper- 
hanging, etc., the present article being mainly 
confined to the consideration of what, for want 
of a more definite term, we may call movable 
furniture. 

Since Harper's and Scribners magazines 
and the Centennial Exposition have been doing 
so much to show people what good furniture 
is, it seems almost superfluous to give even the 
few illustrations we have space for ; but this 



FURNISHING 



223 



work may find its way into the hands of some 
who have not enjoyed those opportunities, and 




will naturally be kept by many after the dis- 
appearance of their unbound magazines and 
catalogues brought from the Centennial ; we, 
therefore, insert a few illustrations. The reader 
will find a few others containing good ideas on 
furnishing, in the article on HOUSE. 

Of the illustrations in this article, Figs. 5, 6, 7, 
II, 16, and 21 are from the catalogue of Messrs. 
Cox, of London ; Figs, i, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, and 17 
are from the catalogue of Messrs. J. & R. 
Lamb, of New York ; Figs. 18 and 19 are from 
the catalogue of Messrs. Horton & Ramus, of 
New York ; the others were prepared for the 
work; Figs. 2, 3, 4, 15, and 22 by Mr. Babb, 
and Figs. 10 and 20 by Mr. M. N. Cutter. 

Now for a few specific considerations, mainly 
with reference to getting the best effect for the 
least money. 

The hall determines the first impression on 
entering the house, and it is well worth while 
to economize elsewhere for the sake of effect 
here. Probably the worst possible step is to 
buy the stereotyped hat and umbrella rack. 
No matter how elaborate, they are always the 
same thing over again, and generally very ugly. 
If, however, one is needed, some simple ar- 
rangement like that in Fig. 2, honestly made 
of good wood, with "dead" finish, will prob- 
ably give more satisfaction, in the long run, 
than the more elaborate designs in which the 
cabinet-makers delight. A mirror, large or 
small, of some original shape, framed in some 
durable way, with pegs for the hats and coats, 



can be made very effective. Under it, may 
stand a chair or table, either having a drawer. 
Or a table alone will do ; for hats and coats 
can be kept on plain hooks back under the 
stairs. Sticks or umbrellas can be disposed of 
in a cheap stand behind the door. If the hall 
be rather dark, a white cast or bust at the end 
will be very effective. A pair of horns, or sev- 
eral pair, can never be amiss, nor can any other 
decoration suggesting out of doors and the 
storied halls of the olden time. 

Where there is room for them, one should 
try to have the broad table, the clock, and the 
little cupboard for brushes, gloves, and other 
things that one needs on going out and coming 
in, as shown in Fig. i. This " little cupboard," 
by the way, can, in a small hall, easily be sub- 
stituted by drawers under chairs. 

A hall should look as large as it can be 
made to. 

Stair rods seem a ridiculous superfluity for 
poor folks. Let the stair carpet be long enough 
to shift as often as it wears out on the edges of 
the steps. 

The Parlor is usually the most Philistine of 
all Philistine American institutions. Where 
there is the usual ill-spent wealth, the room is 
filled with gorgeous upholstery in the cabinet- 
maker's style of art, has the horrible " cabinet 
rich and stylish," which usually figures on 
the furniture man's bills for enough to buy two 
respectable paintings, is either utterly innocent 
of all works of art but a few china or parian 



I^l'M.^^ 




Fig. 



dolls and a French clock of a pattern turned 
out by the dozen, or has the walls covered 



224 



FURNISHING 



with paintings which are simply good canvas 
spoiled. If such parlors were furnished in hon- 
est pine, and one-tenth of the saving devoted 
to a few good engravings on the walls, their 
refinement would be vastly increased. There 
is no need of extremes, however, for the money 
usually spent would give honest hard wood 
furniture, luxuriously fashioned and cushioned, 
covered with good worsted reps or satines, and 
good photographs, engravings, or even, in many 
cases, paintings by deserving artists. 

In the few well-furnished parlors that we 
have, the most frequent lack is the suggestion 
of ease. There is generally too much wood 
shown in chairs and sofas, and too little cush- 
ion. Fig. 4 suggests a good style. Ladies are 





Fig- 4- 

always complaining that sofa seats are too 
broad. Hence the advantage of cushions that 
can be piled against each other, or laid against 
the back of a deep easy chair. 

If the reader will carefully consider what Mr. 
Babb has to say about chairs in the article on 
Decoration, he may care to see a good chair or 
two in Figs. lo and 14, and in front in Fig. 20. 

A good table is not yet an easy thing to find. 
There's not much to be said against Fig. 5, 
except that it's a pity that woodcuts won't show 
color. A fitly colored jar, contrasted with the 



There seems, in most parlors, too much re- 




Fig. 5- 




Fig. 6. 

luctance to have anything around to indicate 
that the room is used. 




The parlor should suggest festivity rather 
than meditation. If colors be well chosen. 




wood, in such a position, is always very agree- Brussels carpet and worsted reps will produce 
able. really as good effect as richer materials; though. 



FURNISHING 



225 






on account of the clanger from moths, woolen 
upholstery and Brussels carpets are less eco- 
nomical for peo- 
ple upon whom 
the first outlay- 
does not bear too 
heavily than silk 
fabrics and the 
higher grades of 
carpet. 

Most parlors are 
oblong, with two 
windows at one 
end. The spot be- 
tween them is the 
point in the whole 
room for effect : 
all living things 
turn toward the 
light. People of 
taste, if they have 
plenty of money 
for more import- 
ant things, some- 
times put mirrors 




Fig. 

in this spot : Philistines always do. Something I 
bright and effective should go there alv/ays. I 



There are worse things for the purpose than a 
light cabinet (if it is tasteful, which not one 

in a hundred is), 
laden with good 
bric-a-brac. Fig. 
6 or 7 would do. 
A massive or 
d ark-col o r e d 
cabinet, unless 
the color ot the 
wall is warm, 
would be too 
sombre. Such an 
one as Fig. 9 
requires space, 
for more reasons 
than one. (The 
chair in the same 
figure would have 
to be redrawn 
before it could 
be recommend- 
ed.) Whatever is 
done, don't let the 
piano stand in 



front of this spot and obliterate it — especially 
as pianos are all so ugly. Fig. 8 suggests 




Fig. 10. 

an improved style of upright piano — an instru- 1 Can anybody tell why marble is a fit ma- 
ment that there is some excuse for in a crowded terial to cover any piece of furniture but a 
city house. . I steam-heater or a washstand ? 

IS 



226 



FURNISHING 



The Library. The main economical ques- 
tion is doors or no doors to tlie bookcases. 




Fig. II. 



Doors nearly double the cost, and the books 
will do very well without them, especially if a 



strip of leather depend over their tops from the 
shelf above. " Pinked " edges on this strip 
will curl up, but gilt lines have a pleasant ef- 
fect. Library furniture is best covered in 
leather — green or dark-brown. Here one 
comes to read, and the eye should not be wooed 
from its work by any dashes of importunate 
color. 

The wooden mantel with shelves rising above 
it is justly growing in favor. Fig. 12 shows an 
inexpensive arrangement, giving something of 
the same effect. The fireplace is tiled. 

This room generally contains the gentleman's 
desk. Fig. 13 combines beauty and utility for 
either the business-man or the scholar. 

The Dining-room. Probably there is no 
better test of the refinement of a family than 
the relation of its dining-room to the rest of 
the house. If the family meal is regarded 
as a mere feeding, the place where it is taken 




will plainly show the fact. If the meal be a ] qualities ot head and heart engage, and to 
cheerful household ceremony, where the best 1 which the most honored friends are gathered, 




these facts 
The piece 



ts too, will be indicated by the room. | the dining-room is the sideboard, or buffet, as 
iece of furniture that makes or mars I we seem to be in the way of callmg it now. 



FURNISHING 



227 



With a good substantial table and chairs (the ] any amount of effect can be added to the buffet 
latter cushioned if it can possibly be afforded), I without its appearing to overshadow the rest, 



^^^^^^^2^^ii ^ES^^ ^^^^ ^^^7^ ' 






liiiiiiiiia 




Fig. 14. 



and every feature will tell. If you cannot have 
as elaborate a one as Fig. 14, you will not be 




Fig. 15. 

in bad taste with Fig. 15. When people are 
at table, they see neither the table nor the 



chairs, but they do see the buffet. If you can 
cover it with ancestral plate, very good ; but if 
you cannot, it may, perhaps, be made to look 
as well with bright china, glass, Japanese lac- 




Fig. 16. 



quer-work, and flowers (never artificial ones). 
Don't have a marble top, it will " chip " glass 
articles with angular bottoms. Many a fine 
piece has been thus gradually spoiled, and the 



228 



FURNISHING 



cause not realized. A "dinner wagon," as I Bedrooms. As far as decorative effect goes, 
shown in Fig. i6, is vastly more useful than a the thing of least importance in a bedroom is 
side-table. I the bed. Generally, the more the cabinet- 




Fig. 17. 



maker does to it, the uglier he gets it, and even 
if he gets it pretty, those who lie upon it do 
not see it, and when not lying upon it, their at- 
-tention is more apt to be directed to another 
article, which is the real center of bedroom 




Fig. 18. — Brass Bedstead. 

effect, namely, the dressing-bureau. This gen- 
erally stands in the same important spot — 
between the windows — that has been enlarged 
upon in treating of the parlor. Hence, if you 
are not rich, get a plain bedstead and spend 



your spare money on the bureau. Don't over- 
look brass bedsteads. It is to be hoped that 




Fig. 19. — Brass Bedstead. 

they will soon be cheaper than at this writing. 
Nothing need be better. In New York there 



FURNISHING 



229 




20. — Bachelor Quarters — 7 x g. 



is made of any of the ordinary hard woods 




Fig. 21. — Brass Bedstead. 

(though, of course, generally to be found only 



in walnut), a good, neat, strong bedstead, 
against which nothing can be said, for $28.00. 
It is not out of place with a bureau, in the 
massive style, worth $280.00. Fig. 22 cost 
but $45.00, made to order, in the time of high 
prices. 

Marble tops on bureaus always crack things, 
and are unpleasant to the touch except in 
summer. 

Niarsery.— Don't have a carpet. It always 
will smell. Lay the floor in hard wood if you 
can possibly afford it; the cheaper wood car- 
peting can be made to do. In the middle of 
the room have a woolen drugget, fastened at 
the corners by movable nails, so it can be taken 
up and shaken daily, and washed often. 

Don't have curtains to the windows. The 
children while awake need every ray of light 
they can get. Have thick, dark-green shades. 



230 



FURNISHING 



though, to shut out all light while they are nap- 
ping. A low table, six or eight feet long by 
two wide, is a grand thing for a nursery. The 
children will handle many toys on it instead of 
cultivating round shoulders on the floor. Let 
its legs fold against it so that it can be laid 
against the wall when room for romping is 
needed. The height of your chair-seats regu- 
lates the distance your children shall tumble 
from. 

Servants' Rooms. — Iron bedsteads are the 
thing. They are durable and do not make good 
nests for bugs. Bureau washstands economize 



space. The room is not to be occupied much; 
it ought to be comfortable though, and decent 
enough to attract servants who are decent. 
Bright, broad coloring in the carpet will do 
much to obviate a cheerless look. 

The Kitchen — {See lists farther on, and sep- 
arate article on Kitchen.) 

Gas Fixtures do more to make or mar a room 
than almost anything else. We do not mean 
that the chandelier should be so gaudy as to be 
the only thing visible in the room, but that it 
should cost enough to be good. This is too 
often lost sight of, and some people even econ- 




Fig. 22. 



omize on the gas fixtures which never wear 
out, rather than on the carpets and upholstery, 
which do. Most people do worse, however, 
by buying abominable angular casf metal con- 
cerns, or those with curi'ed glass tubes which 
threaten breakage if you look at them. The 
basis of most good metal chandeliers is wrought 
tubing, and of most good glass or earthenware 
ones, vases or plates around or through which 
the gas is conveyed in metal tubes. A room 
in Brussels and worsted reps with a good 
chandelier will have treble the effect of a room 



in moquette and brocatelle with a poor chan- 
delier. 

Common gas fixtures can be refinished for 
about one-third of their cost, and changed 
from tjilt to bronze, or steel, or oxydized silver, 
if desirable. The better ones of honest brass, 
are generally covered with lacquer, and need 
relacquering not oftener than once in ten or 
twelve years. 

Curtains do not need to be of material as dur- 
able as chair covering. If you can make colors 
correspond, a vastly inferior grade will do. 



FURNISHING 



231 



Woods — An account of the qualities of the 
different woods may be of use to the pur- 
chaser. 

Ash is rather lighter colored than oak, but 
is sometimes used in connection with it. It is 
less likely to split. 

Beech, a very close and tough wood, is chiefly 
used for the framework of chairs, tables, and 
bedsteads. It is nearly of the color of birch, 
but rather paler, and it may be known by the 
presence of those peculiar little specks of darker 
brown, which are easily seen in a carpenter's 
plane. 

Birch is very close-grained, strong, and easily 
worked. It is of a pale yellowish brown. If 
polished or varnished, it somewhat resembles 
satinwood, but is darker, and by staining is 
capable of being made to closely resemble Hon- 
duras mahogany. It is used in the better kinds 
of low-priced furniture. 

Cedar somewhat resembles mahogany, 
though more purplish. It has no " curl," and 
is free from tendency to warp or " cast." The 
best varieties have a peculiarly pleasant aroma, 
which is offensive to moths ; hence it is highly 
valued for making drawers and chests for cloth- 
ing. 

Chestnut is coarse-grained, strong, elastic, 
light, and very durable. Some ot the best of 
the cheaper furniture is made of it. It looks 
so much like white oak as to be frequently used 
in combination with it. 

Ebony is of a deep black color, and highly 
prized for several purposes, particularly inlay- 
ing. It is exceedingly hard, heavy, and dura- 
ble, but expensive. Pear and other woods 
dyed black are often substituted for it ; but are 
not so susceptible of good polish and luster, 
or so permanent in color. The best comes 
from Africa ; a kind variegated with brown is 
brought from Mauritius and Ceylon. 

Mahogany is imported of two kinds — Hon- 
duras and Spanish. The former has a coarse, 
loose, and straight grain, without much curl or 
wave. The latter is darker, with curl, by which 
in great measure its price is regulated, and 
with a very fine, close texture. Spanish ma- 
hogany will bear great violence ; it is also 
free from any tendency to warp. When, how- 
ever, it is very much curled, it is not nearly 
so strong or so free from twist ; but this is of 
little consequence, as its value is so great that 
it is generally veneered on to some less valu- 
able wood, as Honduras or cedar. The heavi- 
est mahogany is generally the best. 

Maple is of several qualities, the bird's-eye 
maple being most highly valued. It somewhat 
resembles satinwood, but is more buff than 
yellow, has more curl, and more " bird's- 
eye." Maple is light and not very durable, and 
is used only in the cheaper kinds of furni- 
ture. 

Oak. — There are several varieties, of which 
the white oak, the red oak, and the live oak 
are the most important. The first is most used. 
Oak takes long to season, and is worse than 
most woods if used green. It is very hard to 



work. Its appearance improves with age. On 
account of its tendency to warp, a great deal 
of so-called oak work is panelled with chest- 
nut. 

Bearwood is of a light yellow color, and on 
account of its even grain, a favorite wood for 
carving. It is often stained to imitate ebony. 

Bine is used in two varieties, the white and 
the yellow. When thoroughly dry, these woods 
are very free from all tendency to warp or 
shrink ; but in a half-seasoned state articles 
made of them fall to pieces. They are readily 
distinguished from one another by the differ- 
ence of color, and from deals by the absence 
of turpentine veins. When oiled and varnished, 
both kinds of pine look very well. It seems a 
sin to stain it. 

Ratan, from strips of which the seats of cane 
chairs are made, is a small sort of cane, brought 
from China, Japan, and Sumatra. A very 
pretty and durable style of summer-chairs, 
lounges, tables, baskets, etc., is now made 
wholly of ratan. 

Rosewood is hard and dark, with some little 
curl, intermediate in this respect between Span- 
ish and Honduras mahogany, and of a very 
open grain. Most articles of rosewood furni- 
ture are veneered, but the best are of solid 
wood. The color, which consists of large elon- 
gated dark zones on a reddish-brown ground, 
is permanent, unless it be much exposed to the 
direct rays of the sun ; and it takes a fine pol- 
ish, which is improved by slight waxing, or, bet- 
ter, by the French polish, which brings out the 
color of the wood admirably. 

Satinwood is now used chiefly for inlaying, 
lining, and veneers. It is of a full yellowish 
color, with a fine grain, little curl, and a silky 
luster. Its toughness fits it well tor furni- 
ture. 

Walnut is a native wood, but is used in such 
prodigious quantity that it is also imported. 
Well seasoned it is exceedingly tough and lit- 
tle inclined to warp. 

{See Lacquering and Varnishing.) 

Selection of Furniture. — Points of taste in the 
selection of furniture have been treated in the 
article on Decoration (which the reader in- 
tending to furnish is advised to study), and, in- 
cidentally, earlier in this article. Here we shall 
only attempt a few purely practical considera- 
tions. Too much deference is generally paid 
to the fashion of the day, which entirely changes 
before the articles are worn out, while things 
good in themselves are never out of fashion. 
For those who can afford it, expensive and 
highly ornamented furniture is a legitimate 
luxury ; but it should be borne in mind that 
this outlay is not only a present increase of cost, 
but that in all future additions the same style 
must be carried out, or the whole will partake 
of a piecemeal character, and look much worse 
to a tasteful eye than if none of the articles 
were elaborate. 

Often in cheap showy furniture, hastily flung to- 
gether by inferior manufacturers, the cost of re- 
pairs amounts to the difference between the price 



232 



FURNISHING 



paid and that of really good furniture. It is 
far better for the young housekeeper to make 
up his mind what he can afford to expend, and 
then go to some firm well-known as makers 
of good articles and deal with them as far as it 
will go. The lists given in the latter part of 
this article will serve as a guide to some ex- 
tent in this respect, but of course they may be 
varied to suit the particular tastes or circum- 
stances of each individual case. 

A mistaken prejudice against the style of 
furniture known as " cottage," often adds 
materially to the cost necessarily involved in 
furnishing a house, for all the hard woods are 
expensive. This prejudice was perhaps ex- 
cusable when the " cottage furniture " first be- 
came fashionable, for it was too often poorly 
finished, rough in design, and tawdry in color- 
ing ; but now it is well made, and more artis- 
tically painted. It is prettier and more 
desirable than the pine furniture stained in 
imitation of the costly woods. It can be 
bought, or painted to order in any color that 
may be preferred ; but the light stone colors, 
and soft browns will furnish a room in better 
taste than the yellows, blues, and greens that 
have been the rule until recently. A " cottage " 
bedroom set, with marble-top washstand can be 
had for about one half the price of a plain 
hardwood set. But in the name of all honesty, 
do not buy a " Cottage set " that is painted in 
poor imitation of something more expensive 
like oak or walnut. It is to be hoped that 
dealers will soon be content to offer honest 
pine without paint, but properly polished to dis- 
play its own merits. 

Second-Hand Furniture. — There is a radi- 
cal difference of opinion among housekeepers 
as to the advisableness of buying furniture at 
second-hand, as it is called. On the one hand it 
cannot be denied that second-hand furniture 
can generally be bought for little more 
than half the price of the new ; but it is 
urged on the other hand that every "bar- 
gain " is counter-balanced by two or three 
" sells," and that the temptation to buy things 
merely because they are going cheap, almost 
always leads to a larger expenditure than was 
contemplated. The truth is that the purchasing 
of such furniture is a matter which calls in an 
eminent degree for good judgment, and plenty 
of time, and as time is money, it is doubtful 
whether money had not better be spent on 
new furniture than time on second hand. 
Beds, bedding, carpets, oil-cloths, and up- 
holstered furniture should never be bought 
at second-hand, either at an auction or from 
a regular dealer. All articles made of wood, 
should be carefully examined as to their con- 
dition, particularly as to whether they are 
made of unseasoned wood, which in second- 
hand furniture is very easily detected. Sur- 
faces out of level, open joints, rickety legs, 
and cracks in the wood, are plainly to be seen 
if present, and indicate either bad workmanship 
or bad materials, or both. Window-curtains 
and mirrors can be bousfht at second-hand 



very cheaply, if the purchaser can content him- 
self with such as are not of the newest pattern 
and style. It is a serious question, though, 
when economy is an object, whether such vani- 
ties had not better be dispensed with in favor 
of engravings, busts, or other works of art. 
Glass, crockery, and cutlery may also be 
bought very cheap ; but kitchen utensils had 
much better be procured new, as it is 
difficult to estimate exactly the amount of wear 
they have been subjected to. Some of the 
more expensive articles, however, such as 
meat-screens, fish-kettles, etc., may be bought 
with advantage if in good condition. 

It is best in purchasing furniture at auction 
to examine it carefully before the sale com- 
mences, and mark on the catalogue such arti- 
cles as are wanted, with the outside prices you 
are willing to give ; having done so, never go 
above the prices thus fixed upon. Inflexible 
adherence to this rule is the first condition of 
safe buying ; for one is very apt to be carried 
away by the competition of bids, and nearly 
every auctioneer has a set of dummies in the 
audience who are quick to discover who will 
let goods be run up on them. At the same 
time he who makes up his mind to buy nothing 
but " great bargains " at auction will generally 
find his time wasted. Second-hand furniture 
has a value nearly as uniform and stable as the 
new; and "bargains" are to be looked upon 
with suspicion. 

Price-Lists of Furniture. — The most practi- 
cal assistance, perhaps, is lists of the articles 
needed and their prices. We have prepared 
three, based on actual houses, designed to 
meet the wants of several classes of pur- 
chasers expending from say eight hundred to 
five thousand dollars. It is not supposed, 
of course, that these lists will be followed 
literally. Each individual housekeeper will 
have his own tastes and means to consult ; 
between the limits the lists furnish all the ma- 
terials necessary for making a choice. Those 
who go beyond five thousand dollars, although 
they will be governed mainly by their own 
taste, may yet find some useful suggestions in 
the lists. At this time, however, we all labor 
under one great difficulty. All prices are now 
(1877) in chaos. Those prevailing at the times 
when these houses were furnished are all 
changed ; and if we were to now ascertain 
the prices of the same dealers, they would 
probably be changed before the reader sees 
the book. The only way for the reader to use 
the lists is to assume that the prices are from 
twenty to forty per cent, too high ; and, if he 
wishes more detailed accuracy, to learn the 
present prices of several articles and strike an 
avera^re. 



LIST No. 1. 

A modest establishment, consisting of Hall 
6x18, with stairs. Parlor 15 x 18, Dining-room 
15x18, Bedroom 15x18, Nursery 15 x 18, Hall- 



FURNISHING 



233 



Bedroom 6 X lo, Servant's Room 6x lo, Kitchen 
and Laundry together, all neatly and durably 
furnished before the recent revolution in prices 
for about $i,ooo, would cost in 1877 probably 
$800. 

HALL 6 X 18 INCLUDING STAIRWAY. 

Hat-rack and Umbrel- 
la-stand 10.00 



ao yards American body 
Brussels, made and 
laid with lining $2.00* 
per yard J40.00 



Total ^50,00 



PARLOR AND SITTING-ROOM COMBINED, 15 X 18. 

All the furniture in Walnut, Oak, or other plain hard wood. 



2 Scotch Holland V/in- 
dow Shades with tas- 
sels and patent rollers jS 4.40 

14 yards Nottingham 

Lace, two windows. . . 21.00 

2 Window-cornices, gilt, 
lacquer, or wood to 
match furniture 4.00 

40 yards American Body 
Brussels carpeting, 
made and laid with lin- 
ing at $2.00 per yard. . 80.00 

Lounge, in worsted reps 25.00 



2 Oriental folding chairs, 
in worsted reps to 
match, at $10,00 20.00 

Rocker to match, seat in 
reps 14.00 

2 small chairs, cane or 
straw seats 8.00 

Centre table with rep 
cover to match furni- 
turet 16.00 

Stand of shelves, with 
drawer, for books, etc. 12.00 



Total $204 40 



DINING-ROOM, 15 X l8. 

Furnished in Hardwood, had better contrast with iJiat of 
Parlor. 



a Window Shades 


4.40 


Curtains as in Parlor, 




with cornices in gilt. 




lacquer, or wood like 






25.00 


40 yards American Body 


Brussels Carpeting to 




match parlor, made 




and laid with lining, at 




$2.00 per yard ... 


80.00 


Extension Table for 12 






14.00 


6 Chairs, 


Sideboard 


40.C0 


Small Tray for waiter.. . 


•?■; 


Britannia Coffee Pot... 


2.7s 


I doz. Plated Table 




Forks 




I doz. Plated Dessert 




Forks 


9.00 


I doz. Plated Table 




Spoons 


10.00 



I doz. Plated Dessert 
Spoons 

I doz. Plated Tea Spoons 
A Plated Dinner Castor 
I doz. Ivory-handled 

Knives 

Carver and Steel 

Bronze Call Bell 

Plain white French Chi- 
na Dinner Set,suitable 
for all meals 

1 doz. Goblets, cut glass. 

" Tumblers for ser- 
vant's use, etc 

2 Preserve Dishes, cut 
glass, and of different 
sizes 

China Fruit Basket 

Water Pitcher 

Alolasses Jug 

I doz. Glass Salt Cellars 



9.00 

5-50 
8.90 

6.60 

3-50 

•75 



30.00 
4.00 



3.00 
1.50 

•75 
•75 
•75 



Total $286.90 



Table Linen and Towels. 



J 2 yards Linen Damask 

for 3 table-cloths 12.00 

Material for 2 kitchen 

table-cloths 1.50 

3 doz. Plain Napkins. . . 4.00 

3 doz. Towels 10.00 



6 Towels for servant's 

room 1.00 

8 Towels for glass and 

china 1.50 

8 Coarser Dish Towels, i.oo 



Total S31.00 



tTPPER HALL. 3 X 12. 

4 yards carpet as in bedrooms at $1.50,. . . 



PRINCIPAL BEDROOM, IS X l8. 



3 Window-shades 3.80 

14 yards Chintz for cur- 
tains for two windows 3.50 

2 Window-cornices lac- 
quered 2.50 

30 yards American In- 
grain carpeting, made 
and laid with lining, at 
$1.50 per yard 4S-oo 



2 Feather Pillows, 4 lbs. 

each 8.00 

Feather Bolster, 6 lbs.. 6.00 

1 pair Blankets 10.00 

2 Marseilles Spreads . . . 8.00 

3 pairs Cotton Sheets, 

9 4 wide 8.25 

3 pairs Cotton Pillow- 
cases, 5-4 wide 3.60 



PRINCIPAL BEDROOM, 15 X 18. — Continued. 



• The carpets on each floor of a small house had better match 
throughout. It looks better than a patchwork of small carpets, giving 
breadth of effect, and is much more economical for making over. A 
few cents less than $2 per jard will supply this, but even iigures are 
taken to facilitate calculation. 

t It is a good plan to have the gimp and buttons on the furniture of 
■o modest a room as this, from a different color from the reps. Then 
a baud of the relieving color on the table cover gives much cftect. 



Suite of Cottage Furni- 
ture, with marble-top 

wash-stand 50 00 

Springs for Bedsteads.. 5.00 
Hair Mattress, 40 lbs. . . 28.00 



3 Cotton Bolster-cases.. 1.56 
China Toilet Set 5.00 



Total «iS 



HALL BEDROOM, 6 X 12. 



8 yards American In- 
grain carpet, as on rest 

of floor 12.00 

Window Shade 1.90 

Cornice 1.25 

7 yards Chintz for Cur- 
tain, at 40 cts ... 2.80 

Iron Bedstead 4.00 

Straw Mattress 1.25 

Hair Mattress 12.00 

2 Feather Pillows, 4 lbs. 

each 8.00 



No carpet, drugget for 
middle of floor 5.00 

2 thick green Window 

Shades 5.00 

Crib and Bedding 20.00 

Attendant's Iron Bed 
and Bedding as in hall 
bedroom 39-7S 



3 pairs Cotton Sheets, 

6-4 wide 3.40 

3 pair Pillow-cases, 5-4 

wide 3.60 

I pair Blankets 5.00 

Coverlid 2. 50 

Bureau Washstand. 5.00 

Chair 2.00 

Toilet set 4.00 

Looking-glass 1.50 



Total 



Bureau Washstand 

Toilet set 

Looking-glass 

2 Shaker Chairs,straight 

2 Shaker Chairs, (rock- 

er) 



Total 



I Window Shade and 

Trimmings i.oo 

15 yards Rag Carpeting. 15.00 

Looking-glass 1.00 

Bureau Washstand 5.00 

Chair 75 

Single Iron Bedstead... 4.00 

Straw Mattress 1.25 

Hair top Mattress 8.00 

1 pair Blankets 5. 50 



servant's bedroom, 6 X 10. 

Cotton 



Bed- 



Colored 

spread 

Feather Pillow, 3 lbs. . . 
3 pairs Cotton Sheets, 

6-4 wide 

3 Pillow-cases 

Toilet set 



Total. 



KITCHEN AND LAUNDRY TOGETHER. 



Barrel Cover 

Basket, for Clothes .... 

Basket, for Market 

Bench, for Washing. . . . 

Boiler, for Clothes 

Boiler, Oval 

Boxes, nest of 

2 Brooms 

Cake Pan 

Cannister 

2 Chairs, plain 

1 " Shaker Rocker. 

Chopping Bowl 

Chopping Knife 

Cleaver 

Clock 

Clothes Horse 

Coffee Mill..... 

6 doz Clothes Pins 

Coffee Pot, Britannia... 

Cork Screw 

Cullender 

Dipper, tin 

Duster, for Paint 

Dust Pan 

Dredger, for Pepper . . . 

Feather Duster 

6 Forks, table 

Fork, large, for cooking 

Meat 

Frying Pan 

Funnel ' . 

Grater 

Griddle 

Gridiron 

Ice Pick 

Jelly Mould 

Kettle, for Range 

6 Knives 



.50 
I.oo 
I.oo 

1.50 

6.00 
2.00 
I.oo 

.70 
.35 

•45 
1.50 
1.50 

•25 
I.oo 

1-75 
2.50 
2.00 
1.50 
.70 

i'75 
.50 

•75 
.20 
.50 
•35 
•15 
I.oo 
1.50 

.40 
I.oo 
•IS 
•15 
.90 

'•75 

.25 

.50 

2.25 

1.2s 



Knife, for Cook 

Ladle, tin 

Lemon Squeezer 

2 match Safes 

1 Pail (Japaned) for 
Water 

2 Pails, wooden 

Pan, for Baking 

Pan, for Washing 

1 doz. Patty Pans 

6 Pie Plates 

Pint Measure 

Poker 

Potato Masher 

Refrigerator 

Rolling-pin 

3 pairs Sad Irons 

Sauce Pan (enameled). . 

Scoop 

Scrubbing Brush 

Shovel 

Sieve 

Skewers (set of ) 

Skimmer 

Skirt Board 

Slop Pail, with cover. . . 

2 Soap Cups • 

Spoon, for Basting 

6 Spoons (britannia) tea. 

2 Stands, for Irons 

Step Ladder 

Table, small 

Table, large with drav/er 

Tea Drawer 

Towel Roller 

2 Tubs 



5.00 
4.00 
2.00 
3.00 

5.00 

38.75 



'•7S 
3.00 

3-39 
1.20 
2.50 



.50 
.30 
.30 
•30 

1.25 
.60 
•50 
•35 
•75 
.60 
•25 
•25 
•'5 
20.00 

•25 
5.00 

•75 
•25 
.25 
.50 

•50 
I.oo 

•30 
2.00 

1.25 

.20 

•30 
1.25 

•30 
2.50 
2.50 

4.50 

•75 

•50 

4.50 



Total 



?97-95 



SUMMARY LIST NO. I. 



Hall and Stairway. . . $ 50.00 

Parlor 204.40 

Dining Room 286.90 

Upper Hall 6.00 

Large Bedroom 188.21 

Hall Bedroom 70. 20 

This list makes no provision for cooking, heating, and light- 



Nursery 88.75 

Servant's Room 53-34 

Kitchen and Laundry, 97.95 

Total $1045.75 



234 



FURNISHING 



ing, most modern houses, no matter how modest, bemg pro- 
vided with ranges and fireplaces, and many with gas-fixtures. 
If it is necessary to provide these and keep within hmits, the 
carpeting of the first floor will have to be reduced to Ingrain, 
this will take a quarter less yards (as it is wider by one-quarter 
than the Brussells), and a quarter less price per yard. The es- 
timate gives for parlor, dinmg-room, and stairs, an aggregate 
of lOo yards, at S2.00 per yard, total, $200.00. The same 
space can be covered by 75 yards of American Ingram at $1.50. 
Total, $112.50. Leaving $87.50 for other purooses. But in 
any room that is used, it is really cheaper, if the money is 
available, to pay $200.00 for good body Brussels than any less 
sura for any lower grade of carpet. 

LIST No. 2. 

A small, English basement house, 16.8x50, in 
a fashionable locality, where the usual expense 
for furnishing a similar establishment would be 
$4,000 to $5,000. This list follows quite closely 
one that was very pleasantly furnished (includ- 
ing gas-fixtures) for about $2,500, and a consid- 
erable amount in addition was invested in works 
of art. This house was furnished prior to the 
recent revolution in prices. Prices are now 
(1877) twenty to thirty per cent, lower. List 
omits shades and curtains. 

4®"Through this list let itbe understood, without repetition 
in each instance, that prices of carpets include making, lay- 
ing, and lining. 

HALL AND STAIRWAY. 

Furnished in Oak. 



Carpet, as in list No. i.$4o oo 

Table with marble slab, 
and umbrella stand at 
each end, ( second 
hand) lo oo 

2 pair deer's horns 
mount'd on oak shields 
for hat and coat racks. 20 00 

Oblong mirror framed 
. in oak. 25 00 



Bronze statuette on 
newel post for gas- 
light, with globe 54 00 

Outside mat with lock 
and chain 5 00 

2 rugs at $3 6 00 



Total $160 00 



RECEPTION ROOM. 

FurnisJied in Oak. 

Which was used by the gentleman as a snuggery for study, 
■writing, etc. 



22'/^ yds. Brussels car- 
pet at $2 $45 00 

Library Desk 3800 

Book-case with closet 

underneath 1200 

Lounge, green worsted 

rep 25 00 

2 Cane-seat Chairs at 

$2 75 ; V 5 50 

Shaker rocking chair 
covered in reps with 
fringe : covering done 
at home 1 1 00 



Mantel-board covered in 
rep with fringe (cover- 
ing done at home,)gilt 
nails 8 00 

Gilt Chandelier, 3 lights 
with globes 1500 

Rug 4 00 



Total $163 50 



BACK ROOM ON FIRST FLOOR. 



"Was used as an ironing room ; the room above it being used for 
dining, the dumb-waiter being carried up an extra story. Ar- 
iticles used will be included under Kitchen. 



Furnished in Walnut and Worsted Reps. 



150 yds. Brussels carpet 
— for whole floor, in- 
cluding parlor, large 
middle hall and stair- 
way, and dining-room 

at $2 $30000 

Divan Sofa 75 00 

2 small chairs cushioned 

seat and back 22 00 

Arm-Chair upholstered 

throughout 3000 

Oriental Folding Chair 1 1 00 
Rocker 3500 



2 Dwarf Book-Cases at 
?37 50 75 00 

Centre Table, covered 
with Billiard-Cloth to 
match reps — a unique 
piece bought at second 
hand 

Rug 

Chandelier, 6 lights with 
globes 54 00 



24 00 
10 00 



Total $636 00 



HALL, PARLOR FLOOR. 

Contained a statue in a niche, two of the dining chairs gen- 
erally stood in this hall. The carpet is included under the 
parlor. 
Drop-light, of classic design, with glass, cost $17 00 

DINING-ROOM. 

Walnut aitd LeatJur. 



Carpet included under parlor 

Extension Table $45 0° 

8 Dining Chairs at $7 50 60 00 
Sideboard, a rich and 
unique old piece, 
bought, of course at 
second hand,a " find." 65 00 
Beam Rug 500 



Side Table 12 00 

Chandelier, 3 lights and 
Argand slide with 
globes 45 00 

Table linen and furni- 
ture (exclusive of sil- 
ver) 150 00 

Total $382 oa 

3RD STORY, FRONT. 



Chestnut and Oak, Cretonne Curtains, Gray Rep Lounge. 



26 yds. American In- 
grain $39 00 

Chamber Suite, less 
Washstand and Table 
(there being marble 
washstand with fau- 
cets) 75 00 

Bed Table 18 00 

Lounge 20 00 

Best Hair Mattress.... 30 00 



Spring Mattress 12 00 

Best Feather Bolster and 

Pillows 20 00 

Bed Linen, as in list 

No. 1 32 00 

2 jointed gas brackets 

with globes 8 00 

Total $254 00 



3RD STORY, back. 

Same as front, deducting Lounge $20, and bed table $i3; 
but allowing $6 for table in suite. — Net $222. 

3RD STORY, HALL AND STAIRS. 

Gas Bracket and Globe. 2 75 



14I4 yds. Brussels at 

%2 $29 00 



Total $31 75 

4TH STORY, FRONT. 

Same as 3d story back, deducting $35 because Cottage Suite 
was used. Net $187. 

3RD STORY HALL. 

Same as in List No. i..$ 6 00 I Gas Bracket and Globe, x 50 
I Total $7 50 

TWO SERVANTS ROOMS. 

Each same as in List No. i, at $43.34, adding, say, one half 
to one of them which accommodates two persons. Total for 
the two $108.35. 

kitchen, LAUNDRY, ETC. 

The following are additional to List i. 



Essentials same as in 
List No. I 



I94 75 



Apple Corer 

2 Baking Dishes 

Basket for large silver. 
" small " . 
" wash (add'nl 

to List i) 

Board (bosom) 

" (knife) 

4 Bowls, small 

1 Bowl, large, with lip. 

Bread Knife 

Brush for bottles 

" furniture 

" range 

2 Brushes for scrubbing 
(large)... 

Brush for sink 

1 pr. Butter Hands 

Butter Ladle 

Cake Box 

Cake Cutter 

2 Candlesticks 

Can opener • 



40 
7 00 
3 50 

I 50 
65 
45 
60 

75 
75 
20 
60 

75 



Carver 

Caster 

Chamois Skin 

Champagne opener 

Cracker box 

Cup mop 

Cutter for biscuit 

Egg-beater 

Fluting Machine 

Funnel 

Grater (additional to 
List i) 

Gravy Strainer 

Gridiron (wire) 

Keeler (cedar) 

Kettle^ Copper, for pre- 
serving 

Kettle for fish 

" starch 

Knife Tray 

" Washer 

50 yds. of Oilcloth for 
kitchen and basement 
hall, laid, at $i 35. .. 

Mat for door 

Meat Saw 



I 75 

I so 

50 

I 75 

40 

20 

5 

25 

8 00 

25 

30 

50 

I 00 

I SO 

4 00 
3 00 



67 so 

I 2S 

I 40 



FURNISHING 



235 



Mincing Knife 70 

Mill for Spice i 75 

Mirror i 00 

2 Mouse-traps 40 

Mop and extra handle . . 95 

I doz. Muffin Rings. .. . 40 

Oven (English) 1600 

Pail, Tin 40 

Pan, Drip 70 

" Dish, additional to 

List I I 00 

" Frying, additional 

to List 1 40 

" Frying, additional 

to List I 80 

3 Pans for Jelly Cake. . 75 
Pan for Laplanders .... 75 

" Pudding 20 

" Refrigerator 

drippings i 00 



1 doz. Patty pans for 
Oysters 75 

Pitcher 75 

2 Pots (stone) 3 00 

Refrigerator (additional 

price to List i) 10 00 

Scales and Weights. ... 3 25 

Settee, Table ironing.. 7 00 

Sieve (hair) 45 

Soup Digester 3 50 

Spice Box I 00 

Tack Hammer ■... 50 

Teapot (Britannia) 2 00 

Toast Fork.. 15 

Tray (galvanized iron). . 75 

Wash-board, zinc 75 

Water Cooler i 50 

Watering Pot 75 

Wringer 8 00 



Total $285 07 



SUMMARY OF LIST NO. 2. 



Hall... -. $i6o CO 

Reception-room 163 50 

Parlor 636 00 

Parlor Hall 1700 

Dining-room 382 00 

3d story front 25400 

" back 22200 

" hall 31 75 



4th story front 187 00 

" hall 7 50 

Servants' rooms 108 35 

Kitchen (unnecessarily 
elaborate) 2S5 07 



Total $2454 17 



LIST No. 3. 

A good-sized house, in a fashionable locality, 
conducted with considerable elegance. It usu- 
ally costs to furnish such an establishment about 
$10,000: this one was furnished for about 
$5,000, thus leaving a handsome margin for 
works of art. The result attracts general 
approval. 

HALL. 

Walnut. 

Floor being tiled, no carpet is needed. 



Mirror shaped and 
framed after original 
designs,supplied with 
hooks for coats and 
hats $100 00 

2 Chairs with drawers 
under seats for 
brushes, gloves, &c., 
seats and backs in 
leather at $18 3600 



Plain umbrella stand 
(between chairs and 
under mirror) 

Bracket for card re- 
ceiver behind door. . 

Fine Brussels stair car- 
pet with pads — See 
summary at end of 
List 



Total $14700 

PARLOR, 15 X 29. 

Maple, Birch, Oak and Satine,iuith Silk and worsted Fringe. 



Constructive Cabinet, 
elaborate m e tal 
hinges and tiles $135 00 

Divan Sofa 80 00 

2 large French Arm 

Chairs at 850 100 00 

2 Ladies' Chairs, to 

match at $27 5400 

4 small Chairs, uphol- 
stered, at $6.50 26 00 

Mantel-board 12 00 

Satine Lambrequins* 
with fringe, home- 
made, at ;J 18 each.. . 3600 

Plain construcive cen- 
tre table, after origi- 



nal design, covered 
with Persian Rug. .. 

Brussels carpet, extra 
quality (border be- 
ing carried around 
fire-place obviates 
necessity of rug, but 
is a blunder, never- 
theless). See sum- 
mary at end of List 3. 

2 pr. Superior Notting- 
ham Curtains at $10. 

2 Broad Lacquered 
Cornices at $3.50.. . . 



7 00 



4 Book Cases, in the 
constructivestyle, 5}^ 
feet high, respect- 
ively II, 6, 6 and 3 
feet wide, long one 
being in three divi- 
sions, with centre di- 
vision higher than the 
others. No doors. 
Uprights with a little 
intaglio carving, tops 
projecting, shelves 



Total J545 00 

LIBRARY, 15 X 18. 

Oak and Leather. 

with strips of leather 



(same as furniture) 
with gilt line near 



ary 



Register Guard to pro- 
tect books (painted to 
match furniture) 3 50 

Mantel-board 10 00 

Carpet, Brussels, at 
J2.22 (see summary at 
end of List 3. 

Spanish Lounge 50 00 

2 Rotary Arm Chairs, 
seats .-.nd backs cush- 
ioned, at $19 38 00 

DINING' 

Walnut and Leatlier- 

Turkish Rug $ 35 00 

Table 60 00 

8 Chairs, heavy, cush- 
ioned seats, at $9.50. 76 00 

Buffet, Gothic, elabor- 
ate metal moimtings. 115 00 

Side Table 15 00 

Small stand of shelves 
for glass, &c 20 00 

Table Linen and furni- 
ture (exclusive of sil- 
ver), say 200 00 



2 smaller but heavy 
Chairs, cushion'd seats 
at JS9.50 19 00 

I Lady's light Shaker 
Rocker vrith tape 
check seat and back. . 6 00 

1 Foot Rocker (cushion- 
ed like rest of furni- 
ture 6 50 

Total.... $356 00 

•ROOM. 

—Floor Parquetted 

Plate warmer 6 00 

2 Walnut Cornices, 
with tiles inserted, at 



14 oo 
56 00 



Curtains same as parlor 

(different pattern) ... 

Mantel-board 10 

3 Children's Chairs at 

§6.50 19 50 

Total J626 50 



BILLIARD-ROOM. 



Oak. 

6 Oak billiard chairs at 
S2-50 15 00 

Cocoa matting around 
table, bound and laid 
(floor in hard-wood). 20 00 



Total S285 00 



Table and fixtures com- 
plete from best maker 

(second-hand table, 

but with new cloth 

and entirely refinish- 

ed ; fixtures all new, 

the whole bought 

from the Factory and 

not to be in any way 

distinguished from 

new $250 00 

^W Shades were bought for the light over the table, but 
subsequently discarded because they darkened the room and 
did not help the players. 

BED-ROOM I, 15 X 20. 

Chestnut, Oak, and Worsted Reps with Fringe of Different 
Colors. 



Oak Bedstead, plain and 
substantial 28 00 

Oak and Chestnut Dress 
ing Bureau, construc- 
tive, from original de- 
signs, with elaborate 
metal mountings 80 00 

Bed Table 1500 

Gardner Rack for 
brushes, bottles, &c., 
in wash closet 2 50 

Mug, Soap-tray and 
brush-tray 1 00 

Mantel-board, home- 
made s 50 

Best Hair Mattress 45 
lbs. at 80c 36 00 

Best Hair Bolster, 7 lbs. 
at 80c 5 60 

2 Feather Pillows, 4 lbs. 
each, atj^i.io 880 



Bed Covering, as in 

List No. 2 700 

Best Spring Mattress.. 25 00 

Lounge 30 00 

2 Chairs, upholstered 

seats, at $5.50 11 00 

I Large Shaker Rocker. 10 00 

1 Small " " # 
tape check seat and 

back 6 00 

2 Gilt Lacquer Cornices 

at J2 4 00 

Curtains, French Dotted 
Muslin, ruffled and 
lined with paper mus- 
lin List 1 31 41 

Cai-pet, Brussels, at 
51.94, see summary at 
end of List 3. 



Total $30681. 



NIGHT NURSERY. 

Chestnut. 



Constructive Libra 
Table with elaborate 
metal mountings 80 00 

Curtains same as parlor 
except lambrequms in 
rep, and cor»ices to 
match furniture, to- 
gether 63 00 i 



2 Bureaus at $25 5000 

Table 9 00 

Bed for attendant, as in 

List 1 40 00 

3 Cribs at $24 72 00 

3 Sets Mattresses and 

bedclothes for cribs at 

$20 60 00 

2 Substantial Shaker 
Rockers at $5 10 00 



2 Straight Shaker Rock- 
ers at $3 

Carpet, Brussels — See 
summary at end of 
List 3. 

I Window Shade, heavy 
green, best fittmgs... 



5 00 



Total $252 00 



DAY NURSERY. 

CItestnut, and Oak Floor Parquetted. 



Table (as described in 
general hints on nur- 
sery) 10 00 

Chairs as in Night Nut~ 
sery 1600 

Sewing-table 5 00 

3 Low Children's Ch'irs 
at $2 6 00 



3 Gardner Book-racks 
for books and toys, at 
$2-50 

Drugget for centre of 
floor 



S <x> 



Total % 49 50 



♦ A bad business, see Curtains. 



236 



FURNITURE OIL 



FUSTIAN 



HALL BED-ROOM, 8 X 12. 



Bedstead (three-quarter 
size) same quality as 
in Bed-room I aS oo 

Bedding and Covering, 
say % less than Bed- 
room 1 79 77 

Bureau Washstand, mar 
ble top 25 oo 

Curtains and Cornice, 
one window, same as 
Bfedroom 25 oo 

I SmaU Walnut Chair, 



IValttui. 



cushioned seat 5 50 

I Folding Easy Chair.. 25 00 
I Gardner Rack for 

brushes, bottles &c.. 2 50 

Toilet Set 7 50 

Carpet, Brussels, same 

as Bed-room i. See 

summary at end o£ 

List 3. 



Total J198 27 



BED-ROOM II, 15 X iS. 

IValnut and Worsted Reps. 



Bedstead J28 00 

Mattresses and bedding 
same as bedroom I, de- 
ducting $13 for Spring 
Mattress on account 
of less frequent use.. 91 36 
Bureau, Marble Top 
(which ought not to 

have been) 45 00 

Small Table 7 50 

Lounge 20 00 

3 small Chairs, cushion- 



ed seat, at ;f 5.50 16 50 

Shaker Rocker, covered 

to match furniture. . . 10 00 
2 Cornices, lacquered, 

at $1.50 3 00 

2 Prs. Curtains, as in 

Bed-room i 

Carpet, Ingrain, at $1.45 

See summary at end 

of List 3. 



5 50 



Total $-zz(i 86 



SERVANTS ROOMS (XVITO 8 X 12 AND ONE 15 X l8 



2 single rooms, same as 
List I (these rooms 
being larger than in 
List I, the carpet will 
be included twice — the 
second time in sum- 
mary at end of List 3) 



Same as List II. 



at $53.34 106 68 

double room, at say 
50 per cent, additional 
to above 65 00 

Total $171 68 



Hall J 147 00 

Parlor 545 00 

Library 356 00 

Dining-room 626 50 

Billiard-room 285 00 

Bedroom i 307 16 

Night Nursery 252 00 



SUMMARY OF LIST 3. 



Day Nursery 49 50 

Hall Bedroom '9827 

Bedroom II 226 86 

Servants' Rooms 171 68 



Total $3164 97 



Kitchen furniture same as List 11 285 07 

In a matter of this amount, a dollar here and there 
is not worth considering, consequently it was not 
deemed worth while to unravel the carpet bill to get at 
each room. The style of each room is specified with 
price per yard, made and laid, with lining. The total 
bill was $1053 04, from this should be deducted $67 50 
for kitchen and basement oilcloth, already being in- 
cluded under kitchen furniture, leaving net 985 54 

This house was taken with the gas fixtures in. The 
gas fixtures in List 2 cost $202 75 . Twice that amount 
ought to do for this house 405 50 



J4841 08 

Now, as a parting hint : don't buy anything 
at the start that you are not sure to need. You 
can fill in afterwards according to both neces- 
sity and taste. To furnish in taste, especially, 
even where means are unlimited, requires more 
time and waiting for lucky chances. 

FURNITURE OIL.— For mahogany and 
polished woods of all kinds the following is ex- 
cellent :— Put into a jar one pint of linseed oil, 
into which stir one ounce of powdered rose- 
pink, and add one ounce 6f alkanet-root, beaten 
in a mortar ; set the jar in a warm place for a 
few days, when the oil will be deeply colored, 
and the substances having settled, it may be 
poured off for use. Rub on with a woollen rag. 
This oil darkens mahogany or oak, and gives 
it that rich blackish surface common in old 
furniture. For unvarnished walnut kerosene 



oil is as good as any other after the first two 
or three coats, which should be of linseed oil. 
It dries quickly, and presents a smoother sur- 
face. 

FURNITURE POLISH— I. Take of but- 
ter of antimony, half an ounce ; vinegar, 
one ounce ; spirits of wine, one ounce ; lin- 
seed oil, three-quarters of a pint to one 
pint. Mix and shake well together ; the 
'linseed oil should be added in sufficient quan- 
tity to make the liquid of the consistency of 
cream. Rub on with a flannel and plenty of 
friction. 

II. French polish: Dissolve half a pound of 
shellac in as much wood-naphtha as will suf- 
fice to take it up and make a creamy fluid — 
and add to this a quarter of a pint of spirit 
copal varnish. Pour a litde of this into a cup 
and add half as much naphtha, and apply 
rapidly to the surface of the wood with a bold 
sweep of a rubber composed of some woollen 
material, which must be changed as fast as it 
gets sticky. As soon as the first coat is thor- 
oughly dry, which may be known by its not 
sticking to the finger, add another coat in the 
same way ; but when the body of polish is suf- 
ficiently thick, mix some spirits of wine with 
the naphtha and bring the surface to a fine 
gloss, using fresh rubbers, and finishing off 
with the polish mixed with spirits alone, in- 
stead of naphtha. 

III. Mix two parts linseed oil, two parts 
alcohol, one part turpentine, and spirits of 
ether in proportion of one ounce to one quart 
of the mixture. Rub on with rags. This is a 
good floor polish. 

FURS. — These should be combed now and 
then while in use, and especially as the Spring 
approaches. When put away for the Summer 
they should be first beaten with a small cane 
and carefully combed through, and then sewed 
up in small folds of calico or calico carefully 
turned in at the edges. A barrel or keg in 
which whiskey has been kept is the most re- 
liable place known. Keep in a dry place 
and examine once a month. It is a mistake 
to suppose that moths can be kept away by 
camphor, pepper, cedar-wood, and the like ; 
these substances are distasteful to insects un- 
der ordinary conditions ; but that they cannot 
be relied upon is proved by the fact that moths 
have been known to hatch in an atmosphere 
impregnated with camphor. 

FUSTIAN. — A species of coarse cotton 
cloth, very similar in its manufacture to that of 
velvet, having in addition to the warp and 
woof a pile consisting of threads doubled to- 
gether and thrown in ridges, and presenting a 
smooth evenly-ribbed surface on the exterior. 
The best descriptions of this class of goods are 
known as cotton velvet, velveteen, and the like. 
Fustian is also used as a general term com- 
prehending a variety of cotton fabrics, as cor- 
diiroy, jean, thickset, moleskin, and other stout 
cloths for wearing apparel. They are either 
plan or twilled ; and are strong, durable, and 
cheap. 



GAMBOGE 



GARDENING 



m 



GAMBOGE. — A gum resin exuded by a 
species of tree found chiefly in Cambodia, and 
of a brilliant yellow color. It is used chiefly as 
a pigment by painters ; but is sometimes pre- 
scribed medicinally. It is a very powerful 
cathartic, unless taken in excessive doses, when 
it causes vomiting and acute pain. On account 
of its rapid action, and producing watery evacu- 
ations. Gamboge is a drug of great importance in 
all cases of dropsy, apoplexy, and where a 
brisk effort and copious discharge from the 
bowels are required. It should never be taken, 
however, except as directd by a physician. 

GAME. — Under this head are included all 
the edible wild animals and wild fowl. No 
markets in the world are so abundantly suppli- 
ed with this species of food as the American, 
and it would take up too much space even to 
enumerate the various forms in which it appears. 
Each separate species is treated of in its prop- 
er place ; and we shall here only call attention 



to the fact that white-meated game should 
be thoroughly cooked, and dark-meated eaten 
rare, and to the relation which Game in gen- 
eral bears to other foods. The point of con- 
trast between the flesh of wild animals and 
that of domesticated and artificially fed ones 
is the greater hardness and solidity of the flesh, 
the greater proportion of solid fibre to the juices, 
the less proportion of water and fat in the juices, 
and the greater proportion of lean to fat. Hence 
it follows that under the same circumstances (say 
when both the wild and the tame animals have 
been killed within a day) the mastication of 
the flesh of wild animals is less easy, the flavor 
is more concentrated, and the proportion of 
flesh-forming compounds is greater. They are 
therefore strong foods, and if well digested, 
are highly nutritious. Their decided flavor 
is also a recommendation to invalids or others 
who, being satiated with ordinary food, need 
something to stimulate defective appetite. For 




the difference between wild and domestic fowl, 
see Birds. 

Keeping Game not only renders it more ten- 
der, but brings out its flavor. If it be wrapped 
in a cloth moistened with pyroligneous acid and 
water in equal proportions, it will keep good for 
many days in the hottest weather ; this is better 
than putting it on ice. If there be any danger 
that the birds will not keep till a convenient 
time for dressing them, pick and draw them, 
wash them well in water, and rub them with 
salt ; plunge them singly into a large pot of 
boiling water, draw them up and down by the 
legs, to let the water pass through them ; after 



they have been in the water five minutes hang 
them up to dry in a cold place, sprinkle them 
with pepper, and salt well inside. By this 
means they may be kept a long time ; before 
dressing them, they must be washed in clear 
water. When feathered game has become 
tainted, pick and clean the birds as soon as 
possible, and immerse them in new milk. Let 
them remain in this till next day, when they 
will be quite sweet and fit for cooking. Birds 
should be hung up by the neck, and not by the 
feet, notwithstanding our artist having done it. 
GARDENING. — The practical directions 
concerning soil, drainage, etc., in the article on 



238 



GARLIC 



Floriculture, apply equally to the garden 
designed for vegetables, and need not be re- 
peated here. The soil should be turned up as 
deep as the spade will reach as soon as the 
frost is out of the ground ; a liberal supply of 
manure "should be forked in at a second work- 
ing ; and the garden should be laid out in such 
a manner that every portion can be reached 
easily without injuring the giants when in full 
growth. To plant garden seeds, lay across the 
beds a board about a foot wide and with a stick, 
make a furrow on each side of it, one inch deep. 
Scatter the seeds, say a dozen to a foot, in this 
furrow, and cover them ; then lay the board 
over them and step on it, to press down the 
earth, and to mark the next row. When the 
plants are an inch high, thin them out, leaving 
space proportioned to their sizes. Seeds of 
similar species, such as melons and squashes, 
should not be planted near together, as this 
causes them to degenerate by a cross-fertiliza- 
tion of their flowers. Neither should the same 
vegetables, with the exception of onions, be 
planted in the same place for two years in 
succession. The seeds of nearly all the early 
vegetables require to be started in a hot-bed 
{see Hot-bed). Full directions for culture are 
given under the name of each vegetable. {See 
Floriculture.) 

GARLIC. — A species of _ the 
onion, with a taste more acrimo- 
nious than any other, and an ex- 
tremely disagreeable smell. It is 
a native of Sicily, but now grows 
'throughout the world. Its culture 
is the same as that of the onion in 
all respects {see Onion). Garlic 
is extensively used as a seasoning 
herb on the Continent, and es- 
pecially in France, where ii is con- 
sidered essential to many dishes. 
In this country it is used compara- 
tively little, though with the in- 
troduction of foreign methods of 
cookery its use is spreading. The 
root, which is the only part of the 
plant made use of, consists of a 
group of several bulbs, called 
cloves of garlic, enclosed in a 
single membranous skin. These are usually 
found strung in ropes or bunches, like onions ; 
and are in season throughout the year. 

Vinegar (Garlic). — On two ounces of garlic, 
peeled and bruised, pour a quart of the best 
vinegar ; stop the jar or bottle close, and in a 
fortnight or three weeks the vinegar may be 
strained off for use. A few drops will give a 
sufficient flavor to a sauce or to a tureen of 
gravy. The garlic may be used in smaller or 
larger proportions, as a slighter or stronger 
flavor is desired, and may remain longer in the 
vinegar. 

GAS. — Gas is at once the cheapest and 
brightest of all generally employed artificial 
lights. Of its economy, as to the quantity of 
light, there can be no doubt ; for when gas is 
used regularly and properly attended to, an or- 




GAS 

dinary burner consuming five cubic feet per 
hour, emits a light equal to sixteen to twenty 
candles. The impression that it is expensive 
arises from the fact that persons who have 
been accustomed to using one, or at most, two 
candles in their apartment are seldom satisfied 
with the same quantity of light from their gas- 
burner when it can be so easily made to yield 
more. The very excellencies of gas in this re- 
spect are turned to bad account; its high 
illuminating power leads to its use in excessive 
quantities ; and nearly every room in which gas 
is used is lighted far more brilliantly than when 
any other illuminating agent is rehed upon, or 
than is at all necessary. The evils of this do 
not end with the increased expensiveness. The 
air is heated by the excessive combustion, and 
poisoned by large quantities of carbonic acid 
which there are no means of removing. The 
eye is unprotected from the glare by screen or 
shade, extraneous light is freely admitted, 
which obscures the impression and strains the 
nerve of vision, and in proportion as the sensi- 
bility of the eye is impaired, stronger light is 
used, which gives temporary relief, but with dan- 
ger of ultimate and permanent injury to the 
sight. The use of gaslight also greatly height- 
ens the necessity for ettective ventilation of 
the house, for it generates poison exactly in 
proportion to its brilliancy. On all accounts the 
excessively bright illumination to which the 
use of gas has led is to be deplored ; the estab- 
lished rule should be that in an ordinary apart- 
ment no more than one burner should be kept 
lighted except under special circumstances. 

The light obtained from a given quantity of 
gas depends largely upon the kind of burner. 
Various burners are now in use. They are 
usually designated by some term signifying the 
kind of opening at which the gas escapes. Thus 
we have the argand burner, with a circle of 



Garlic. 




\ 




holes as in Fig. 8, named from analogy with the 
argand lamp ; W\^ fishtail burner, where the gas 
escapes by two holes inclined toward one an- 
other (Figs. 2 and 4); the datwinghurner, where 
the orifice is simply a slit (Figs, i and 3). The 
size of the orifice is adapted for different 
amounts of gas per hour ; then we have 3-foot, 4 



GAS 



239 







Rate of consumption from a s-foot burner. It will be observed that in turning down, the illumination decreases more rapidly 
than the consumption. 



foot, 7-foot etc., burners. The jet is either of 
brass or of steatite (soapstone) ; the latter, though 
the first cost is greater, are really more econom- 
ical as they do not clog with -rust. Many burners 
are what are called " check " burners ; in these 
the gas passes through two openings, an interior 
and exterior one. The interior opening at the 
base of the burner is smaller than the visible 
exterior one, and as a result the gas escapes 
and burns at a lower 
pressure than could be 
otherwise obtained, 
Figs. 6 and 7 repre- 
sent bases for check 
burners. 

Regulator burners 
contain a mechanical 
arrangement in which 
the flow of gas through 
them is regulated, in 
proportion to the pres- 
sure that no more than 
a given amout of gas 




Fig. 6. 



Fig. 7. 



maybe burned in them,and the light is kept steady. 
Such burners are , however, liable to get out of 
order. A batswing, fish tail or argand jet.may be 
used in a check or regulator burner. The most 
economical burner giving the maximum of light 
for the amount of gas consumed is the argand 
burner. These, however, require a chimney 



which with its liability to break, and necessity for 
constant cleaning, is objectionable. Moreover, 
these burners are more susceptible to the inev- 
itable variations in pressure of the gas reaching 
our dwellings. A batswing check burner is more 
advantageous for simplicity ; but the breadth 
of the flame would prevent its being used 
when globes are employed, for the flame would 
come so near the glass as to endanger it. In 
such a case a check fishtail or argand burner 




Fig. 8. 

should be used. The most perfect burner yet 
constructed is Suggs' London burner (Fig. 8). 
This burner is used in the tests made upon 



24(J 



GAS. 



gas. The maximum illuminating power is 
obtained when the flame is just on the verge of 
smoking. 

The loss of light by the use of shades, chim- 
neys, etc., is very considerable and largely due 
to the conversion of light into heat. The follow- 
ing numbers, selected from the results of 
William King, of Liverpool, and Prof. F. H. 
Storer, of Boston, are a sufficient illustration : — 

Thickness of Loss of 
Description of glass glass. light. 

Clear glass (King) 10.57 

Ground glass " . " 29.48 

Smooth opal " . • 52.82 

Ground opal " SS-^S 

Thick English plate (Storer) . 1-3 inch. 6-15 
Crystal plate " 1-8 " 8-61 

English Crown " 1-8 " 13.08 

Double English window •' 1-8 " 6.39 

Double German (Belgian) Storer, 1-8 " 13.00 
Single German (Belgian) " 1-6 " 4.27 
Double " (Belgian) ground 

(Storer) 1-8 " 62.34 

Single " " " " 1-16 " 65.74 

Berkshire, Mass. ground (Storer) 1-66 " 62.74 
Orange-colored window glass 

(Storer) .... 1-16 " 34.48 

Purple " " " " 1-8 " 35-11 

Ruby " " " " 1-16 " 89-62 

Green " " " « 1-16 " 81.97 

A porcelain transparency . .1.16 " 97.68 

Probably many of our readers have been 
frequently annoyed while engaged in study, 
writing, or in some evening occupation, by a' 
sudden flaring up of the gas, accompanied with 
a sharp hissing sound. This is caused by an 
unnecessary force or pressure and causes a 
large waste of gas. This cannot be remedied 
effectually by the simple change of burners, but 
requires a self-acting cock which will regulate 
the pressure and maintain an even amount of 




Fig. 9. 

force. Frost's Gas Regulator (Fig. 9) has been 
practically tested by the writer in his home and 
has been found to distribute to each light 
enough gas to supply the orifice and adapt 
itself to all alike as they are opened or shut 
off. 

The conical valve is connected with the 
diaphragm, which, when raised by pressure of 



the gas, raises the valve and vice versa. If the 
diaphragm is raised too easily, a slight weight 
can be laid upon it by taking off the top. 

Every housekeeper is aware of the annoyance 
and danger attendant upon the use of matches, 
and we therefore mention in this connection a 
very ingenious little invention, also success- 
fully used by the writer, known as the Stock- 





Fig, 10. 

well Self-Lighting Burner. It consists of a 
burner to the lower part of which is attached 
a circular chamber provided with a swinging 
cover, within and fitting against the wall of 
this compartment is a disk rotated by the key, 
the projecting spindle of which holds a coil 
of paper, Fig. 11, con- 
taining 135 dots of fulmi- 
nating compound. A (Fig. 
ro)is a bent piece of met- 
al, the lower portion of 
which so 'joins the disk 
thatthe motion of the key Jig. n. 

causes it to ascend or descend, while its upper 
portion presses against the tape. As the key 
is turned, the piece A pushes back the hammer 
B, until the bend at C is reached when the 
hammer is released and springs forward strik- 
ing one of the fulminating dots which explodes 
and lights the gas. There is nothing about the 
device to get out of order and no skill is 
required to operate it, as it works automatically 
through turning the same key which must be 
moved to turn on the gas. There is no chance 
of lighting the fulminate save by the operation 
specified and the arrangement is such that the 
hammer does not fall until just as the key is 
placed so as to turn the gas fully on, which 
insures ignition. It is very safe and handy in 
closets, cellars, and all places where the gas 
is used occasionally. 

Dr. Arnott, a well-known English writer on 



GAS 



GENTIAN 



241 



the subject, suggests the following rules for 
using gas : — i. Have the apparatus made by 
competent workmen. 2. If any leak be per- 
■ celved, turn off the meter. Have it promptly 
attended to, and open the doors or windows to 
prevent accumulation. 3. On no account carry 
a light of any kind where there is a smell of 
gas. 4. Have rooms in which gas is burnt 
ventilated from near the ceiling. To these may 
be added -.—5. If the gas flickers noisily, turn 
it lower to save both the eyes and the gas and 
to prevent smoke. If turning lower does not 
produce a steady flame, probably the burner is 
worn out and economy requires a fresh one. 
6. At least once a year make the rounds of the 
burners in frequent use and substitute fresh 
ones for those worn out. Any man who uses 
gas ought to be able, if disposed, to keep a pair 
of pliers, and do this himself. 7. Use one large 
burner rather than two small ones. You get 
more light for the money. 8. If the gas gen- 
erally "goes up and down," water in the pipes 
is indicated. This is apt to come from con- 
densation outside the house, in cold weather. 
Notify the company to pump it out. Some- 
times water will thus accumulate at the bottom 
of a bend in the pipe operating as a sort of trap, 
and shut off thegas entirely. {See Meter.) 

GAUFFERING. — This is done with a pair 
of light tongs, about the size of a pair of shears, 
with the blades nearly round. The frill, wrong 
side upwards, is held on the edge of the iron- 
ing cloth with the left hand, while the right, 
taking the gauffering-iron, properly heated, 
seizes hold of the frill well in the gathers, with 
the left blade under and the right over it, after 
which with a slight twist from left to right, two 
flutes in opposite directions are made by one 
action, the fingers of the left hand pressing the 
adjacent part of the frill against the cloth, thus 
resisting the twist of the iron, and causing it to 
smooth and round out the flutes. As the irons 
cool very rapidly, two or three must be kept 
heated, placing them on the ironing-stove or 
in the fire ; use them of about the same degree 
of heat as ordinary irons. 

GAUZE.— An extremely light and trans- 
parent fabric of silk, very loosely woven, the 
threads being all at some distance from each 
other. Common gauze is cotton, plain, striped, 
or figured, and can be gotten from a yard to two 
yards wide. In the best kind the figure is formed 
of silk ; a sort with fllowers of gold is brought 
from China . Lisse Gajize, is a plain but superior 
kind. Craped Lisse Gauze is crimped or craped. 
Gossamer is a very rich gauze used for veils ; 
it is four times as thick and strong as the com- 
mon gauze, though nearly as open in its tex- 
ture. It may be had four and five quarters 
wide. 

GELATINE, (Cooper's Isinglass and 
Gelatine.) — This is made from the sinews of 
the feet of calves and cattle. They pass 
through a tedious process of preparation for 
some months. In the last process, before 
melting, they are transferred every day, for 
nearly two weeks, from one vat of clean water 
16 



to another. It is said that Coxe's gelatine is 
made from the clippings of skins ; it cannot be 
made from hoofs, as some suppose. Russian 
isinglass is made simply by drying the sounds 
of fish. It was formerly used for jellies, blanc- 
mange, &c., but Coxe's gelatine, and Cooper's 
gelatine and isinglass, are found so excellent, 
and are so much cheaper, that it is now but 
rarely used for these purposes. The Russian 
isinglass costs from six to seven dollars a 
pound ; Cooper's isinglass costs but ninety 
cents. The shreds of gelatine are not so fine 
as those of Russian isinglass, inasmuch as the 
gelatine having no cellular membrane to hold 
it together, will not cohere sufficiently to allow 
of the same degree of subdivisions as isinglass. 
Of the gelatines or Cooper's isinglass, one 
ounce is sufficient for a quart of jelly or blanc- 
mange ; more is often used, but it takes very 
much from the delicacy of the preparation. 

Gelatine and Russian isinglass may be distin- 
guished from each other by the following 
directions : — The shreds of isinglass when 
dissolved in cold water become white, opaque, 
soft and swollen ; the swelling is equal in aU 
directions, and under the microscope they 
appear quadrangular. In boiling they dissolve 
nearly without residue. The smell of the dis- 
solved isinglass, when hot, is somewhat fishy, 
but not unpleasant. The moistened shreds, or 
the solution, exhibit to test-paper a neutral, or 
faintly alkaline, and rarely a slightly acid, reac- 
tion. The shreds of gelatine, on the contrary, 
when placed in cold water, swell up, acquire in- 
creased transparency, and become translucent 
and glass-like. The form which they take in swell- 
ing is not regular like that of isinglass, but 
they become expanded, flat, and ribbon-like, the 
broad surfaces corresponding to the incised 
margins. The dry threads on the uncut surfaces 
frequently present a peculiar shining lustre, not 
unlike that of tinsel. In boiling water the 
shreds do not entirely dissolve, but in most 
cases a copious deposit falls to the bottom of 
the glass. The smell of the hot infusion is like 
that of glue, and therefore disagreeable. The 
moistened filaments or the solution of gelatine 
usually exhibit a strong acid reaction to test- 
paper ; this, in some cases, is due to the sub- 
stances used in bleaching it, and is not neces- 
sarily indicative of anything deleterious. 

GENTIAN. — An herb growing wild in the 
Alps, Apennines, and Pyrenees, and repre- 
sented by one or two species in the United 
States. The root is much employed in medi- 
cine. It is cylindrical, ringed, and more or less 
branched ; and is sold in a dried state, in pieces 
varying from a few inches to more than a foot 
in length, and from half an inch to two inches 
in thickness. 

Gentian is an excellent tonic bitter, and not 
being astringent, is often used in diseases of 
the digestive organs, in cases of general debil- 
ity, and as a febrifuge. It can be administered 
in the form of an infusion, an extract, or a tinc- 
ture — the two latter are sold in the drug-stores. 
Only small quantities of the infusion should be 



242 



GERANIUM 



GERMAN SILVER 



made at any one time, as it ferments rapidly 
and spoils. 

GBRANIXTM. — This most popular of plants, 
is also one of the easiest to cultivate. Plants 
of any kind, and in every stage of grovi^th, can 
be gotten of florists ; and these may be propa- 
gated to any extent by cuttings, with little or 
no trouble. Take the cuttings in June or July 
from the healthiest plants ; plant them in small 
pots filled with a compost of loam and sand, 
having one or two inches of the former on the 
top of the pot. Insert the cutting firmly about 
half its length, and keep the sand sopping wet 
until it has rooted ; when one or two leaves are 
developed, transplant it into a larger pot filled 
with good rich loam mixed liberally with 
manure, and by November you will have 
vigorous plants for house culture. In the open 
border, a rich light loam will grow geraniums to 
perfection, and the soil fresh from the woods 
and pastures is best of all ; persons in the 
country can obtain this by hfting the sods from 
cow or sheep pastures, and taking the earth 
from under them. Liquid manure applied twice 
a week during the summer will cause them to 
bloom profusely. 

The shrubby kinds of geraniums are the 
most tender, and when placed out of doors, 
should be defended from strong winds, and be 
so placed as to enjoy the sun until eleven 
o'clock in the morning. As the shrubby kinds 
grow fast, so as to fill the pots with their roots, 
and push them through the opening at the 
bottom, they should be moved every two or 
three weeks in summer, and the fresh roots 
cut off. They should also be newly potted 
twice in the summer ; once about a month after 
they are placed out of doors, and again towards 
the end of August. When this is done, all the 
roots outside the earth should be pared off, and 
as much of the old earth removed as can be 
done without injuring the plants. They should 
then be planted in a larger pot ; some fresh 
earth should first be laid at the bottom, and 
on that the plant should be placed so that the 
old earth adhering to it may be about an inch 
below the rim of the pot ; it should next be 
filled up, and the pot slightly shaken; the 
earth must then be gently pressed down at the 
top, leaving out a little space for water to be 
given without runnmg over the rim ; finally, the 
plant should be liberally watered, and the stem 
fastened to a stake, to prevent the wind dis- 
placing the roots before they are newly fixed. 
As the branches grow, and new leaves are 
formed at the top of them, the lower ones may 
die, and should be plucked off every week. 
Geraniums, except the shrubby kinds, require 
shelter from frost only, and should have free 
air admitted to them, when the weather is not 
very severe. In sultry weather, they should 
all be watered liberally every morning, except 
some few of a succulent nature, which must be 
watered sparingly; the latter may be known by 
plucking a leaf from them. During the winter, 
geraniums are usually kept as house plants, 
and are unsurpassed for this purpose ; but they 



can also be preserved in this way : — Dig them 
up before the first frost blights their leaves, and 
after cutting away all the tender shoots and 
buds, and shaking the earth from their roots, 
hang them up in a dark, cool, dry cellar, heads 
downward. In the spring, they can be 
brought to light, the branches trimmed off, 
and planted in boxes in a warm kitchen. They 
will soon put forth leaves and be ready to 
transplant to the garden. 

Double Geraniums. — These do not drop 
their leaves like the single varieties, and their 
clusters of flowers — of all shades of scarlet 
and pink — are of an immense size. They 
flourish better if partially shaded from the in- 
tense heat of the noonday sun, and will bloom 
until the first frost comes. Choice varieties 
are : — Crown Prince, brightest rose color ; 
Emile Letnoine, cherry-carmine, Gloire de 
Doubles, cerise with white centre (finest of all); 
Gloire de Nancy, brilliant scarlet ; Marie Le- 
moine, rosy-pink. 

Sweet-scented Geraniums. — These are in- 
dispensable for bouquets and vases. Formerly, 
the Rose and the Oak-leaved v^tx^ the only kind 
commonly cultivated, but now there are more 
than a dozen fine varieties. The following are 
the best : — Dentic7ilatura ; Graveolus ; Lady 
Plyjnouth J Odoratissiinu?n ; Shrubland Pet. 

Zonale Geraniums. — These are admirable 
in coloring, and of very free growth ; their 
trusses of flowers are five to six inches in diam- 
eter, and are of all shades, from the most 
dazzling crimson and brightest rose, to the 
purest white. Choice varieties are : — Blue 
Bells, magenta pink ; Christine, rose pink ; 
Coleshill, scarlet, enormous flowers ; Giant de 
Battailes, dark crimson ; General Grant, daz- 
zling scarlet ; Incomparable, striped ; King of 
Roses, scarlet, shaded to magenta ; Madame 
Werle, white, with pink centre ; Maid of Kent, 
richest pink ; Mrs. Keeler, peach blossom hue ; 
Reine des Vierges, pure white ; Warrior, intense 
scarlet. 

Lilliptitian Zonales, or Tom Thumb Geran- 
iums, are dwarfs, growing from six to ten or 
twelve inches high; they are very stocky, and 
their flowers are fully equal in size and beauty of 
coloring to those of the larger kinds. Desir- 
able varieties are -.—Baby Boy, scarlet, with 
white eye ; Little Dear, delicate rose, spotted 
white; Little Gem, brilliant vermilion, white 
centre ; Pretty Jemima, scarlet with white 
centre. 

GERMAN SILVER.— The best ware of 
this material resembles silver, and is equally 
durable. It is verv cheap, and, when properly 
taken care of and kept bright, looks very well. 
After using, it should be put immediately into 
hot water, washed well, and wiped dry with a 
soft cloth. Once a week it should be washed 
in soap-suds, and then cleaned with whatever is 
used for cleaning silver-ware. Should it be- 
come discolored or spotted by vinegar or other 
acids, wash it first, and then clean it with sweet 
oil and powdered rotten-stone. If the ware has 
become very much discolored, mix a quarter of 



GERMAN STUDENT LAMP 



243 



a pint of vinegar with half an ounce each of 
alum and cream of tartar ; add to this a pint of 
boiling water, dip the plate into the mixture, 
and rub it dry. 




German Student Lamp {or St. Germain). 
— This favorite and really excellent lamp is 
constructed on the same principle as the Ar- 
gand Lamp. {See Argand). Its peculiarity 
is that the fountain of oil (A)., is placed on 
the side of the centre piece higher up than the 
wick with a self-acting valve H, by which the 
reservoir X is fed from it. For study, sevv'ing, 
or any work requiring a concentrated light this 
lamp is unequalled. It gives a very soft, bril- 
liant and steady light, and, with ordinary care, 
will emit neither smell nor smoke. To fill the 
lamp take out the holder, A, invert it and pour 
in the oil till it reaches the valve H ; then pull 




up the valve by means of the wire B, invert it, 



holding it above the holder X so that any oil 
which may escape drops into this holder ; re- 
place it in the holder X. To put on the wick, 




take off the chimney-holder F, take out the 
cylinder C, take out the smallest cylinder D, 




tie the wick at the base of Cylinder D, then re- 
place the cylinder D in the large one C, taking 
care to push it down as far as the point E. 
Replace everything as before, the large cylin- 
der C having the brass catches G up, and the 
ring E down ; To raise the wick turn the 
chimney-holder. 



244 



GHERKIN 



GINGER 



The wick should be trimmed regularly. If 
a crust has formed, do not disturb it, but only 
remove any little point or unevenness that may, 
occur; do not use the scissors unless the wick, 
through uneven draft, should have coaled or 
charred unevenly. By this method you will 
have an even flame, and the wick will last much 
longer than when cut frequently. If your 
lamp should make a humming noise, which is 
caused by the shank of the chimney being of 
the wrong length, raise the chimney slightly, 
or change it for one with a longer shank. 

Use kerosene or spirits in place of water for 
cleaning chimneys. The brass part of the 
lamp may be cleaned with Vienna lime and 
kerosene, and polished with rouge. 

Some lamps are made to burn sperm, lard, 
or olive oils. Those made for heavy oils will 
not burn kerosene, and vice versa. A kero- 
sene lamp, with one-twelfth or one-eighth of a 
heavier oil mixed with kerosene, is all that can 
be desired. 

GHERKIN. — A very small species of the 
cucumber — it is sometimes called "Jamaica 
cucumber." The fruit is oval in shape, and of 
a light green color, about the size of a common 
egg-plum, and thickly covered on the outside 
with prominent flesh species or prickles. When 
cut its smell is like that of a cucumber, and it is 
very full of small seeds. Gherkins are used 
only for pickles, and for this purpose are excel- 
lent. They are not much cultivated here, but 
may generally be found in the markets in 
August and September. The method of rais- 
ing them is the same in all respects as that for 
raising cucumbers. (See Pickles.) 

GIBLETS. — These include the heads, neck, 
gizzards, livers, legs, and ends of wings of 
chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, and other birds, 
tame or wild. They are used for stewing, fric- 
assee, soups, pot-pie, and gravies. Prepare 
them thus : — After carefully plucking and 
singeing those that are covered with skin, cut 
off the beak, take out the eyes, and split the 
head in two ; cut the neck into not less than 
three pieces ; chop the wings across in two ; 
skin the feet, by scalding, and cut off the 
claws ; cut the heart in two ; cut the gizzard, 
after skinning and cleaning, into four pieces ; 
leave the liver as it is. Place them in a bowl 
or pan, pour boiling water and a little salt on 
them, let them stand five or six minutes, then 
wash and drain them, and they will be ready 
for cooking. {See Pies, and Soups.) 

Fricasseed Giblets. — Put a piece of butter 
or lard in a stew-pan, and set it on a good fire ; 
when melted, sprinkle into it, little by little, a 
teaspoonful of flour ; stir together, and when 
of a brownish color add a gill of broth, the 
same quantity of warm water, a sprig of pars- 
ley, a pinch of grated nutmeg, two small 
onions, salt and pepper, and lastly the giblets. 
Cook for about two hours. Dish the pieces, 
strain the sauce, mix with the yolk of an egg 
well-beaten, and pour it over the giblets ; then 
serve. 
Stewed Giblets. — Prepare them as above. 



Put them in a stew-pan with a small quantity of 
water, season with onion, sweet herbs, a very 
small piece of mace, salt and pepper, and stew 
slowly for two or three hours. Before serving 
give them one boil with a teacupful of cream, 
and a tablespoonful of butter rubbed in a tea- 
spoonful of flour. 

GIDDINESS. {See Vertigo.) 

GILLIFLOTVER. — The annual varieties of 
the Gilliflower are very pretty summer bloom- 
ing plants. The seeds should be sown in a 
hot-bed in April, and when the frost is well out 
of the ground, transplant them to the gar- 
den. Select a showery day ; or transplant 
after nightfall, water freely, and protect from 
the sun next day. The removal must be made 
very carefully, for they bear it poorly, owing to 
their long, fibreless roots. The flowers are 
white, purple, red, and yellow all summer. 

GILT FRAMES.— 7l7 protect from flies. 
{See Frames.) 

GIMP. — A kind of silk, woollen, or cotton 
twist, often with a metallic wire, or sometimes 
a coarse thread, running through it. It comes 
of various widths, woven in a variety of pat- 
terns and colors, and is much used as a trim- 
ming for dresses, furniture, etc. The worsted 
is the most durable, but the silk is the 
richest. 

GIN. — An ardent spirit, formerly made by 
fermenting juniper berries, but now produced 
chiefly from corn, wheat, barley, or some other 
grain. Hollands is a variety of corn spirit, 
flavored with juniper berries ; and English 
gin consists generally of plain corn spirit 
flavored with oil of turpentine and a small 
quantity of other substances. American gin 
varies in flavor with every distiller. Probably 
nothing used as a food by man is liable to 
greater and more injurious adulterations than 
gin ; and the difilculty of getting it free from 
any poisonous drug should induce every one to 
abstain from its use. 

Julep (Gin). — Take one gill of gin, half a gill 
of maraschino, four sprigs of mint, and one 
pint of pounded ice ; shake together, sweeten 
with a spoonful of sugar, and as the ice melts, 
drink the julep with a straw. 

GINGER. — The ginger of commerce is the 
root of a plant (the Zingiber officinale) which is 
cultivated in Asia, Africa, and the tropical parts 
of America, the largest supply being furnish- 
ed by the West Indies. There are two kinds 
of ginger, but the difference consists chiefly in 
the mode of preparing it. White ginger is com- 
posed of the best pieces, from which the outer 
skin has been stripped off; they are then well 
washed and dried in the sun : it breaks with a 
fibrous fracture, and is the strongest and best 
flavored. Black ginger is an inferior kind, 
which is only scalded before being dried. 
Preserved ginger comes from the West Indies. 
It is made by scalding the roots when they are 
young and full of sap ; then peeling them in 
cold water, and putting them into jars with a 
rich syrup, in which state we receive them. It 
should be chosen of a high yellow color with a 



GINGHAM 



GLADIOLUS 



245 



little transparency; that which is dark-color- 
ed, fibrous, and stringy is not good. 

Ginger is one of the most agreeable and 
wholesome of spices ; it is stimulating to the 
digestive organs, and much less hurtful than 
pepper. As a medicine it is highly useful, and 
an essence or essential oil of ginger is prepared 
as a more convenient mode of administering it. 
Ground ginger is frequently adulterated with 
wheat flour, potato flour, sago, cayenne pepper, 
and turmeric powder, none of which are prejudi- 
cial to health, but which detract greatly from its 
usefulness as a spice. It is best to buy it in 
the roots, and prepare it for use at home. 
{See Cake, and Cordial.) 

Essence of Gin. — Mix four ounces of pow- 
dered ginger with a quart of gin ; let it stand 
ten days, shaking it up every day. This is an 
excellent stomachic, relieving flatulence, and 
aiding slow digestion. Dose : A teaspoonful 
in a glass of cold water. 

Ginger-pop. — Put into an earthen pot two 
pounds of loaf sugar, two ounces of cream tar- 
tar, two ounces of best ginger bruised, and two 
lemons cut into slices. Pour over them three 
gallons of boiling water ; w^ien lukewarm, toast 
a slice of bread, spread it thickly with yeast, 
and put it into the liquor ; mix with it also 
the whites of two eggs and their crushed 
shells. Let it stand till next morning ; then 
strain and bottle. It will be ready for use in 
three or four days. 

Mock Ginger. — Boil, as if for the table, 
small, tender, white carrots ; scrape them until 
free from all spots, and take out the hearts. Steep 
them in water, changing it every day, until 
all vegetable flavor has left tliem. To every 
pound of carrot so prepared add one quart of 
water, two pounds of loaf sugar, two ounces of 
whole ginger, and the shred rind of a lemon. 
Boil for a quarter of an hour every day, until 
the carrots clear ; and, when nearly done, add 
red pepper to taste. This will be found equal 
to West India preserved ginger. 

Wine (Ginger). — Take .--V^z.ttr. i gall; loaf 
sugar, 3 lbs ; ginger, i oz ; raisins % lb ; one 
lemon, and one orange ; isinglass, i oz ; yeast, 
I tablespoonful. 

Boil the sugar and water a quarter of an 
hour, then take a little of it to boil with the 
ginger and peel of the lemon and orange for one 
hour. When nearly cold, mix the two togeth- 
er, and put in the juice of the orange and 
lemon, with one ounce of isinglass and a table- 
spoonful of yeast. Lastly, after twenty-four 
hours, pour the whole into a small cask, let it 
remain six weeks, then rack carefully ; let it 
remain another month, and bottle. This is an 
excellent receipt. 

GINGER BEER. {See Beer.) 

GINGERBREAD. {See Cake.) 

GINGHAM.^A thin cotton fabric, general- 
ly of a check pattern, which is produced, not by 
dyeing or stamping the manufactured material, 
but by interweaving the colored threads. There 
are various kinds and qualities of gingham, 
bearing different names ; " umbrella gingham " 



is woven with threads all of the same color. 
Gingham is generally a yard wide. 

GLADIOLUS.— This has of late years be- 
come the chief favorite among the bulbous 
plants, and a few at least of its numberless 
varieties should find a place in every garden. It 
has become a regular "florist's flower," and 
good varieties can be purchased at from $1.50 
to $3.00 per dozen. To grow the bulbs in per- 
fection they should be planted in a sandy loam, 
enriched with peat and leaf-mould ; a mixture 
of one-half loam, one-quarter peal, and one- 
quarter leaf-mould will prove the best soil. If 
strong manures are used, they cause the colors 
of the flowers to run into each other, and give 
them a muddy appearance. They may be 
planted in the open air during April or May. 
Plant in groups or singly ; groups of three or 
five is the prettiest way. They should be set 
from two to four inches deep, according to the 
size of the bulbs. As they grow up they should 
be tied to a Hght stake, three to four feet long, 
which should be set when the bulbs are planted. 
Gladioli show to excellent advantage when 
planted around rose bushes or large shrubs ; 
they bloom late in the season when most other 
flowers are passed, and if properly trained pro- 
duce a charming effect. They are also very 
nice plants for house culture ; six or eight bulbs 
can be grown in a twelve inch pot, and each 
kind tied to a thin stake. They will bloom 
finely. If the stalks are cut off for vases or 
bouquets, they will continue to bloom for a week 
or tv/o, sending forth fresh flowers daily. 

The gladiolus may be propagated by seed ; 
the sowing should be in the fall, as soon as the 
seeds are gathered, or in February, March, or 
April, in peaty soil, in a frame covered with 
glass to exclude the frost, or in pots or pans, 
well drained. The seeds should be barely 
covered. The young bulbs require the same 
attention as the older plants, but as they do not 
bloom until the third summer, it is more con- 
venient and satisfactory as a general thing to 
buy the bulbs of the florist. They increase 
very rapidly ; from one bulb, two or three will 
spring. 

The gladiolus will not survive our northern 
winters, and must always be kept in a cool dry 
place. When the frost has killed the leaves, 
dig up the bulbs, dry them in the sun, cut o£E 
the leaves an inch from the stem, and put the 
bulbs in a paper bag. Kept in a frost-proof 
cellar, they will retain all their life, and may be 
planted out in the spring as soon as the frost is 
out of the ground. There are three species, 
however, {G. Byzantiiium, Co)nmu7ies, and Ro- 
seus,) which are tolerably hardy, and if once 
planted in the open border Avill flower well year 
after year with little attention. Bulbs of these 
varieties should be planted in November, and 
need no protection ; though they must be planted 
deep enough to escape severe frosts and to 
avoid being thawed out of the ground. 

The varieties of the gladiolus are almost 
numberless and nearly all are worthy of culti- 
vation. Long lists are given in the florists' 



246 



GLASSWARE 



GLUE 



catalogues, and these may be consulted ; but 
Mr. Rand suggests that for a dozen cJioice 
varieties one should choose : Surprise, clear red; 
Lord Caiupbcll, splendid yellow ; Vulcain, dark 
scarlet; Pleuion, clear red, shading to pure 
white; Celine, rosy white, with amaranthine 
lines ; Ophir, straw color, mottled with purple. 
La Qjiintaitie peach cherry; Raphael, deep 
cherry, lighted with white; Re7?tbrandt, vivid 
scarle't; /j-£»//;/^, white, shading to pink ; Jeanne 
d'Arc,puTe white, rose-tipped petals; Princess 
Clothilde, rose,with cherry markings ; and Count 
de Monty, deep, cherry crimson, with white 
lines. For the same number of cheaper sorts 
he recommends : Petielope' rosy white ; Goliah, 
rose cherry; Aristotle, rose, marbled with red; 
Empress white, marked with pale pink ; Jajiire 
cherry with white; Nemesis, cherry, clouded 
with white ; Hebe, clear rose ; Fanny Rouget, 
carmine and flesh color ; Sulphurejis, sulphur 
yellow ; Archimedes, rosy red ; Vesta, pure 
white Avith purple lines ; and Don J-uan, deep 
red, with faint white lines. The following, he 
says, should be in every collection, however 
small : Count de Morny, La Poussin, Breuchley- 
ensis, Vesta, Penlope, Hebe, Pleuton, Calypso, 
Vulcain, Madame de Vatry. 

GLANDERS. {See Horse.) 

GLASS — Glass is commonly classified as 
follows: bottle glass, window glass, plate glass, 
fiint glass, crystal, strass, enamel. The prin- 
cipal ingredients are silica, lime, soda, potash, 
and oxide of lead; and the various kinds are 
made by varying the ingredients and their 
proportions. The coloring matters are metal- 
lic oxides. Many different substances will 
attack one or another of the substances in 
glass, and in time change its color or texture. 
Glass that loses its polish when heated will be 
affected by acids. Attempts have been made to 
produce a glass which will not break; but thus 
far the only result is a glass which stands 
heavy blows so long as it is free from scratches 
and bruises. If the minutest corner be broken, 
the whole instantly flies into fragments. 

Blue Glass — There is just now a furor about 
blue glass as a promoter of health. It is 
claimed that it intercepts certain rays of the 
sunlight, and transmits others. But it remains 
to be proved that this is of any benefit to ani- 
mal or vegetable life. 

To Clean Out Glass. — Wash it in warm 
water, and let it dry thoroughly; then polish 
with a soft brush and prepared chalk. 

GLAZU. — This is merely strong, clear gravy 
or animal jelly boiled down to the consistency 
of thin cream ; but this reduction must be care- 
fully managed that the glaze may be brought to 
the proper point without being burned ; it must 
be attentively watched, and stirred without be- 
ing quitted for a moment from the time of its 
beginning to thicken ; when it has reached the 
proper degree of boiling, it will jelly in dropping 
from the spoon, like preserves, and should then 
be poured out immediately, or it will burn. 
When wanted for use, melt it gently by placing 
the vessel which contains it in a pan of boiling 



water, and with a paste-brush lay it on the meat, 
upon which it will form a sort of clear varnish. 
In consequence of the very great reduction which 
it undergoes, salt should be added to it spar- 
ingly when it is made. Any kind of stock may 
be boiled down to glaze ; but unless it be strong, 
a pint will afford but a spoonful or two : a small 
quantity of it, however, is generally sufficient, 
unless a large repast is to be served. Two or 
three layers must be given to each joint. The 
glaze, when cold, becoming a jelly, gives a rich 
and savory appearance to the articles which it 
envelops. 

GLAZING. — The glaze for meats is made as 
above. A beaten egg, or syrup, or jelly, or egg 




Glazing Pot. 

and sugar, etc., is used to glaze cakes, and pas- 
try. Glazing is done with a brush or with 
feathers ; dip the brush into the egg or jelly 
and spread it on the cake or other object as di- 
rected in the different receipts. It is also done 




Glazing Brush. 

by sifting powdered sugar on cakes which are 
put back into the oven for a short time — till the 
sugar is melted. 

GLOVES. — Light kid gloves may be cleaned 
by rubbing them thoroughly with magnesia, moist 
bread, or India rubber; Indian meal is also 
good. Or, lay them on a clean towel, rub 
them with a piece of flannel dipped in hot, 
strong lather of white soap, till the dirt is 
removed, using as little water as possible. 
Hang them up at a distance from the fire to 
dry gradually, and after they are quite dry, pull 
out the shrivels and stretch them on the hand. 
If so badly soiled that they cannot be cleaned, 
sew up the tops of the gloves and rub them 
over with a sponge dipped in a decoction of saf- 
fron and water. The gloves will be yellow or 
brown, according to the strength of the decoc- 
tion. {See Cleaning and Dyeing.) 

GLUE. — A common substance for cementing, 
made of the skins and gelatinous parts of ani- 
mals, boiled to a thick jelly, and then formed 
into a solid mass by spreading it out in thin 
layers upon a net and drying it until it is quite 
ihard, in which state it is sold. Good glue is of 



GLYCERINE 



GOLD-FISH 



247 



a light brown color, semi-transparent, and free 
from waves or cloudy lines. When desired for 
use it should be broken into small pieces and 
placed in a vessel containing sufficient water to 
cover it, in which it will soften and swell ; then 
set this vessel into another one containing 
water in which are placed a few pebbles or nails 
to prevent the bottoms of the two vessels from 
coming in contact ; set this over the fire, and 
when the glue is dissolved and has boiled a few 
minutes, it is ready for use. It must be kept hot 
while using it. 

GLYCERINE. — When an alkali is added to 
oils and fats, the fatty acids combine with the 
alkali and form soaps. At the same time gly- 
cerine is formed ; easily soluble in water or alco- 
hol, it has scarcely any perceptible smell, and 
only a sweet, and rather insipid taste. It forms 
a moist and pleasant covering for the skin in 
many of its diseases. Its healing, as well as pro- 
tective, properties render it peculiarly applicable 
as a dressing for bruised or excoriated surfaces, 
such as burns or scalds, to which it may be ap- 
plied with a camel's hair brush. Where there 
is harshness, dryness, or a scurfy state of the 
skin, a lotion composed of one part glycerine 
to fifteen parts of plain water, or elder-flower 
water, is very serviceable. Glycerine soap is 
also excellent for all these purposes ; and a 
salve for chapped hands, cracked lips, etc., may 
be made as follows ; dissolve one ounce of 
powdered borax in one ounce of rose-water, 
and add half an ounce of glycerine ; melt one 
drachm of spermaceti in the' same quantity of 
olive oil and ten drachms of pure lard ; add 
the latter to the former mixture little by little, 
stirring all the time, and continuing to do so 
until nearly cold. 

In deafness and other affections of the ear 
glycerine has also been found serviceable. In 
many cases of dysentery it is often adminis- 
tered both as a medicine and as an emetic ; for 
the former mix twelve drachms of glycerine in 
three ounces of orange-flower water and three 
ounces of plain water : dose, two tablespoon- 
fuls every hour; for the latter, add one ounce 
of glycerine to five ounces of a decoction of 
bran or linseed, and take twice a day. 

GOAT-FLESH. — This is very commonly 
eaten in Switzerland and other mountainous 
parts of the world ; but though occasionally 
found in our markets can scarcely be reckoned 
among the articles of food used generally in this 
country. In its general characters, goat-flesh 
resembles mutton, but it is harder and tougher 
and has a stronger flavor, so that it is seldom 
preferred to it. According to Dr. Smith, how- 
ever, it is much more nutritious than mutton, 
so far as nitrogenous or flesh-forming elements 
are concerned, but is inferior in the carbona- 
ceous or fat forming elements. The flesh of the 
kid is more esteemed than that of the goat ; 
it has a flavor not unlike that of venison. Cook 
in the same way as mutton or lamb. 

GOITRE. — An enlargement of the thyroid 
gland, occasioning a swelling of the throat, 
which frequently attains a very large size. It 



is not inflammatory or malignant in char- 
acter, is free from pain, and generally of the 
natural color of the skin. At first the tumor is 
soft and elastic, but as it increases in size it 
becomes hard and firm. Its size sometimes 
becomes so great as not only to be a serious 
inconvenience, but even to impede respiration 
and obstruct the voice. Goitre is endemic or 
common in certain regions of the world, such as 
Switzerland, Savoy, and the Tyrol, in Europe, 
and certain portions of the Andes and Hima- 
layas ; but to what peculiarity of these regions 
it is owing is very uncertain, though it is gen- 
erally attributed to a calcareous impregnation 
of the water. It also occurs hereditarily, inde- 
pendent of endemic influence. It is much 
more common among females than males, and 
usually occurs about the age of puberty. 

Treatment. — Iodine is the great remedy for 
this disease, either administered internally in 
small doses for a long time, or applied exter- 
nally in the form of an ointment or of the tinc- 
ture painted over it every night. 

GOLD-FISH. — The extreme elegance of 
form of gold-fish, the splendor of their scaly 
covering, the ease and agility of their move- 
ments, and the facility with which they may be 
kept alive in very small vessels, render them 
very popular household pets. Though the fish 
are seen to best advantage when kept in glass 
globes, yet these globes are very unsuitable 
dwellings for them. Fish require abundance 
of air ; and scarcely any other vessel than a 
globular one contains so much water with so 
httle exposure to the air. They also require 
shade when they feel the want of it ; and it 
need scarcely be said that all day long a glass 
globe is in a blaze of Hght. Further, the water 
in a globe m.ust be changed daily ; consequent- 
ly the fish must be lifted out either by the hand 
or a small net, and it is utterly impossible to 
handle these delicate creatures without injur- 
ing them at one time or another. Where 
there can be a contrivance made for letting in 
a flow of water, be it ever so small, say a drop a 
minute, in and out of the vessel containing the 
fish, the water will not require to be changed ; 
and a small water plant, say the very curious 
vallisneria sph'alis, would afford the required 
shade. But as a globe is always the most popu- 
lar domicile for these fish, we may ^ive a few 
directions as to how they should be treated in 
it. When purchasing a globe, select as wide- 
mouthed a one as can be had, and subse- 
quently never fill it more than three-fourths full 
of water ; by these means you will secure as 
much air for the fish as is possible under the 
circumstances. Keep the globe also in the 
most airy part of the room, never letting it be 
in the sun or near the fire. Change the water 
daily, and handle the fish tenderly in doing so. 
Never give the fish any food ; all they require 
when in a globe is plenty of fresh water and 
fresh air— they will derive sufficient nutriment 
from the animalcule contained in the water. 
Many gold-fish are killed by having bread given 
to them. They eat it eagerly, but the uneaten 



248 



GOLD-LACE 



crumbs immediately turn sour and deteriorate 
the water to an extent which makes it unfit to 
sustain Hfe. 

Two diseases, being the most frequent, may 
be pointed out as the ones to which gold-fish 
are most fatally liable. Sometimes a fish seems 
less lively than usual, and, on a close inspec- 
tion, will have a sort of mealy look, and, in a 
day or two, this mealiness will turn out to be a 
parasitical fungus. There are several reputed 
remedies for this very mysterious disease, but 
there is absolutely nothing for it but to take the 
fish, at the first appearance of the disease, and 
throw it away, for it will not recover, and it 
will only infect the others. We would, how- 
ever, advise the inexperienced gold-fish keeper, 
whenever a fish seems unhealthy, to place it by 
itself for a few days : he will then see whether 
the fungus makes its appearance ; if not, the 
fish may recover, and be returned to the globe. 
The other disease is apparently an affection of 
the air-bladder, arising from being supplied 
with too little air. When under the influence 
of this disease, the fish swims sideways, with 
its body bent as if its back were broken, and in 
a short time dies. Whenever these symptoms 
are observed, the fish should be placed in a 
large tub of water, and a small stream of water 
allowed to drop into it. The water, through 
dropping, becomes more aerated, and the fish, 
thus receiving an abundant supply of air, will 
frequently recover. 

GOLD-LACE, (to clean.) — Burn some rock 
alum ; then powder it very fine and sift it. Dip 
a clean soft brush into the powdered alum and 
rub the gold-lace with it very briskly ; after- 
wards wipe it with a clean soft flannel. Gold 
-embroidery may be brightened in the same 
manner. 

GOOSE. — Among the best breeds of geese 
•for the table are the Bremen, Chinese, and 
African. Hybrids are also highly prized for 
their superior size and flesh. Though greatly 
■relished by some, the goose is seldom a favorite 
food, and is generally considered very poor 
eating. The flesh abounds in flavor, and is 
said to be highly stimulating. When young it 
is tender, but, in general, it is only adapted for 
good stomachs and powerful digestion, and 
should be sparingly used by the sedentary or 
the weak, and by persons subject to cutaneous 
diseases. Its strong flavor is thought by some 
to require modification by stuffing with sage and 
onions, while others relish it only when this is 
not demanded. The fat of the goose is reck- 
oned peculiarly subtle, penetrating, and resolv- 
ent, and is usually preserved for domestic ap- 
plication. The average weight of the large 
kind of geese is from nine to fifteen pounds, 
and instances have been known of their weigh- 
ing thirty pounds wben duly fattened ; but the 
smaller breeds are preferable for the table. 
Geese are called green until they are three or 
four months old, and these are something of a 
delicacy. 

In purchasing geese, select those which are 
fresh and iat, with the head and giblets cut off, 



GOOSEBERRY 

and nicely drawn, as it will make a saving of 
nearly two pounds in weight. The bills and 
feet are red when the goose is old, yellow when 
young ; fresh killed, the feet are pliable, stiff 
when too long kept. 

Wild Geese are considered superior to the 
domestic for eating purposes, and the young 
are very fine. They are best in October, 
November, and December; but are found in 
the markets as late as January. Brajtt or Brent 
geese have long been famous among wild fowl 
and are much sought after 

Roast Goose. — Truss, stuff, baste, and 
roast exactly like Duck; but serve with apple 
sauce. A specially nice way to roast is to begin 
by basting with a teacupful of cider ; then, when 
it begins to warm, dredge with flour; after- 




Goose for Roasting. 

wards baste with its own fat and gravy, mixing 
with the cider. The roasting of a full-grown 
goose takes at least two hours ; and the nearer 
it draws to a close, the more assiduous must be 
the basting; the fatter the goose the more 
liberal may be the dredging with flour. 

Green Geese are never stuffed. Season 
the inside with pepper and salt, and roast the 
goose at a brisk fire from forty to fifty minutes. 
Serve it with good brown gravy only. 

Ste-wed Goose. — Take an oval or ob- 
long boiler, just big enough to hold the goose. 
Cover the bottom with thin slices of bacon, and 
lay the goose upon them ; surround it with a 
calf's foot cut in pieces (this may be omitted), 
and season with cloves, onions, sHced carrots, 
pepper, salt, and blades of mace ; pour over it 
a wineglassful of brandy, one of white wine, a 
pint of broth, and a pint of water. Close the lid 
tightly, and stew slowly for five or six hours. 
This may be eaten either hot, with its accom- 
paniments, or cold, with the gravy about it in 
the shape of jelly. 

GOOSEBERRY.-— This does not attain the 
perfection with us which it reaches in England, 
but is nevertheless one of the pleasantest and 
i most useful of our smaller fruits. The berries 
are acid and at the same time sweet, and have 
a peculiarly bland and grateful flavor. When 
ripe they form an excellent dessert eaten with 
sugar, but they are used chiefly in making pies, 
tarts, sauces, preserves, etc. There are a j^reat 
number of varieties of the gooseberry, but the 
red, yellow, green, and white, and those of a 
medium size and free from mould are tlie best. 
They make their appearance in our markets 
from the South early in May and continue until 
about the ist of August. 

Gooseberries may be propagated by layers 
and cuttings ; they should be grown in a rich 



GOURD 



GOUT 



249 



but not wet soil. They are best if kept free 
from suckers and trained like trees. One third 
of the old wood should be trimmed away every 
autumn. {See Compotes, Jam, Jelly, Pies, 
Preserves and Sauces.) 

Champagne (Gooseberry). — Gather the 
red gooseberries when just turning, and 
pour cold water over them in the proportion of 
three quarts of water to one gallon of fruit ; let 
this stand a week, stirring every day, and bruis- 
ing the berries till they are thoroughly mashed ; 
then strain through a sieve, and add to every 
gallon of liquor four pounds of moist sugar ; 
let the fermentation proceed for two or three 
days ; then pass through a flannel bag into the 
cask, leaving the latter open till fermentation 
subsides ; add to every five gallons of wine 
half an ounce of isinglass dissolved in a little of 
the wine, and close the cask. If the cham- 
pagne is desired to be strong, add, before 
closing the cask, a bottle or two of brandy ; but 
it will be brisk and agreeable without. It 
should remain twelve months in the cask before 
bottling. 

Dried Gooseberries. — To seven pounds 
of gooseberries add a pound and a half of 
powdered sugar, which must be strewed over 
them in the preserving-kettle. Let them remain 
over a .slow fire till they begin to break, and 
then remove them. Repeat this process for 
two or three days ; then take the gooseberries 
from the syrup and spread them out on sieves 
near the fire to dry. The syrup may be used 
for other preserves. When the gooseberries 
are quite dry, store them in tin boxes on layers 
of paper. They will keep in this way all winter, 
and may be used for pies, tarts, etc. 

Wine (Gooseberry). — I. Take .--Gooseber- 
ries; sugar; Malaga raisins ; brandy. 

Take ripe gooseberries, mash them well, 
and put them into a tub allowing for each 
quart a quart of water ; let them stand all night, 
then strain them through a sieve, and press 
them with the hand. To every gallon put three 
pounds of moist sugar. Let it stand two days, 
and then put it into a cask with one pound of 
Malaga raisins to each gallon of liquor, and a 
little brandy ; let it remain in the barrel three or 
four months, or till fine ; then bottle it. 

II. Take .--Gooseberries, 36 lbs ; boiling wa- 
ter, 3 galls ; sugar, 1 2 lbs. 

To thirty-six pounds of ripe fruit add three 
gallons of boiling water; let it stand twenty- 
four hours, then strain off; add twelve pounds 
of good brown sugar, stir and skim occasionally 
for twenty-four hours more, and then put it 
into the cask to ferment. It will be ready to 
bottle in four months. 

GOSSAMER. {See Gauze.; 

GOURD. — The gourd family is a large one, 
embracing the pumpkin, squash, etc. ; but the 
name is usually applied only to the common 
gourd, or calabash. It is a creeping vine, 
rather ornamental in appearance, and grows 
luxuriantly wherever planted and without any 
attention. Plant the seeds in the early Spring. 
The fruit when very young and tender can be 



used for pickling, like cucumbers ; as it grows 
old the shell or rind becomes hard, light, and 
strong, and makes excellent water-dippers, 
buckets, etc., etc. 

GOUT. — A painful disease of the joints, 
generally of the feet and hands, and especially 
of the great toes. It occurs mostly in persons 
advanced in life and who indulge freely in the 
pleasures of the table, and is hereditary. A fit 
of the gout is generally preceded by indiges- 
tion, drowsiness, eructation, a slight headache, 
and sometimes vomiting. The appetite is often 
remarkably keen a day or two before the fit, and 
there is a slight pain in passing urine, and 
frequently an involuntary shedding of tears. 
Sometimes these symptoms are much more 
violent, especially upon the approach of the fit ; 
and it has been observed that as is the fever 
which ushers in the gout so will the fit be ; if 
the fever be short and sharp, the fit will be so 
likewise ; if it be feeble, long and lingering, 
such will the fit be also. The regular gout 
generally makes its attack in the spring or the 
beginning of winter, in the following manner : 
At some time during the night the patient is 
seized with a pain in his great toe, or occasion- 
ally in the heel, or ankle, or calf of the leg. 
This pain is accompanied with a sensation as 
if cold water were poured upon the part, which 
is succeeded by a shivering with some degree 
of fever. Afterwards the pain increases, and 
settling among the small bones of the foot, the 
patient feels as if the part were stretched, 
burnt, squeezed, gnawed, or torn in pieces. 
The part at length becomes so exquisitely sen- 
sitive that the patient cannot bear to have it 
touched, or even to suffer any one to walk 
across the room. This torture usually lasts for 
twenty-four hours from the coming on of the fit ; 
the patient then becomes easier, and the part 
begins to swell, api^ears red, and is covered with 
a slight moisture. Towards morning he drops 
asleeps, and generally falls into a gentle sweat. 
This terminates the first paroxysm, a number 
of which constitute a fit of the gout, which is 
longer or shorter according to the patient's age, 
strength, the season of the year, and the dispo- 
sition of the body to the disease. The parox- 
ysms, however, generally grow milder evei"y day, 
till at length the disease is carried off by per- 
spiration, urine, and other evacuations. In 
some patients this happens in a few days ; in 
others, it requires weeks, and in some, months 
to complete the fit. When the fit is over, the sys- 
tem is relieved, and the patient feels, both in 
mind and body, better than before the attack. 
At first a fit of gout occurs only once in 
two or three years ; but by degrees they be- 
come more and more frequent, more severe, 
and of longer duration. In its progress various 
parts of the body become affected and trans- 
lations take place from one joint or limb to 
another, and after frequent attacks, the joints 
lose their strength and flexibility, and become 
so stiff as to be deprived of all motion. As the 
fits become more frequent and severe, so the 
constitutional derangements become more mark- 



250 



GRAFTING 



GRAFTING 



ed and constant. The appetite fails, indiges- 
tion is rarely absent, there is a tendency to 
costiveness, the mind becomes restless and 
irritable, calcareous deposits are formed in the 
arteries, calculi form in the bladder, and fre- 
quently the heart becomes diseased. 

Treatment. — Topical applications should be 
only of soothing remedies. Colchicum is ap- 
proved, but must be used with great caution, 
the dose should not exceed twenty drops once 
in four to six hours in a tumbler of water with 
some alkali, such as half a drachm of the bicar- 
bonate of potash. As soon as it purges, or if 
there be great pain at the pit of the stomach, it 
must be discontinued. The judicious use of pur- 
gatives ; abstinence from highly nitrogenous 
food and stimulating drinks ; pure air, exercise, 
regular habits of labor and sleep, and avoiding 
exposure to cold, dampness, and fatigue of 
body or mind, is the only treatment that can 
be relied on ; though, in special cases, a phy- 
sician's advice may supplement it with direct 
remedies. If during an attack of gout, the pain 
quit the great toe, or knee, or hand, or what- 
ever part "it happened to be located in, and the 
swelling and redness disappear, and if at the 
same time, there ensues an agonizing pain in 
the stomach, coming on in paroxysms, lauda- 
num in doses of twenty drops every hour may 
be of the utmost service till the doctor comes, 
who will probably give larger doses ; hot bottles 
should also be unceasingly appHed to the region 
of the stomach. If laudanum cannot be pro- 
cured, strong brandy is the best substitute ; but 
if the pain be inflammatory, and not spasmodic, 
brandy would do much more harm than lauda- 
num. Some gouty persons experience great 
relief by drinking a tumblerful of an infusion 
made from green coffee. 

GRAFTING. — The following directions are 
from the " American Fruit Culturist," by John 
J. Thomas (published by W. Wood & Co.) : — 

" Propagation by grafting differs from in- 
creasing by cuttings, by inserting the cutting 
into the growing-stock of another tree instead 
of directly into the soil. To effect these two 
requisites, it is needful fij-st, that the opera- 
tion be performed with a sharp knife that the 
vessels and pores may be cut smoothly and 
evenly, and the two parts be brought into im- 
mediate and even contact. Secondly that the 
operation be so contrived, that a permanent 
and considerable pressure be applied to keep 
all parts of these cut faces closely together. 
Thirdly, that the line of division between the 
inner bark and the wood should coincide or 
exactly correspond in each ; for if the inner 
bark of the one sets wholly on the bark of the 
other, the upward current through the wood 
and back through the bark is broken and the 
graft cannot flourish or grow. Fourthly, 
that the wounded parts made by the operation 
be effectually excluded from the external air, 
chiefly to retain a due quantity of moisture in 
the graft, but also to exclude the wet, until, by 
the growth of the graft, the union is effected." 
« I — The first requisite is best attained by 



keeping a keen, flat bladed-knife to cut the 
faces, and another knife for other purposes. 

2 — The second requires that the jaws of the 
stock, in cleft grafting press with some force, 
but not too much, against the wedge-shaped 
sides of the graft, a stock one-third of an inch 
in diameter will somtimes do this sufficiently ; 
but three-quarters of an inch is a more conve- 
nient size. In whip grafting, the tongue and slip 
should be firmly crowded or bound together. 

3 — The third requisite is attained by close 
examination with the eye. 

4 — The fourth is accomplished by grafting 
wax, or grafting clay. An excellent grafting wax 
is made of three parts of rosin, three of bees- 
wax and two of tallow. The wax may be directly 
applied when just warm enough to run, by means 
of a brush ; or it may be spread thickly with a 
brush on sheets of muslin, which are afterwards, 
during a cold day, cut up into plasters of con- 
venient size for applying; or, the wax, when 
cold, may be worked up with wet hands, and 
drawn out into thin strips or ribbons, and wrap- 
ped closely around the inserted graft ; in all 
cases success is more certain when the wax is 
closely pressed so as to fit to every part, and 
leave no interstices ; and it is indispensable 
that every portion of the wound on the stock 
and graft be totally excluded from the external 
air. In cool weather, a lantern, chafing dish 
or hot brick, will be found necessary to soften 
the plasters before applying them." 





Fig. I, 



Fig. 2, 



Fig. 3f Fig. 4- 



" The above figures represent the two 
most common modes of grafting fruit-trees ; 
Figs. I to 4, representing successive stages of 
whip or t07tgne grafting, ixom the sloping cut 
of the scion and stock, 'to the completion of the 
operation by the covering with the wax-plaster." 



GRAFTING 



GRAPES 



251 



" Whip-grafting may be employed for large 
stocks, as shown by the following cut. In 
order that the line of separation between the 
bark and wood may coincide in both, the graft 
must be placed at one side of the large stock, 
«, sloped and tongued for the reception of the 
graft, b, their union being represented by c. 




Fig. s- 

To facilitate the wrapping of the wax-plaster, 
one side and the upper point of the stock are 
pared off with a knife, before the two are join- 
ed, as shown by the dotted line. This is a 
good mode of grafting any stocks not over 
three-fourths of an inch in diameter, in the nur- 
sery row. 




Fig. 6. 




Fig. 7. 



Fig. 6 shows a stock cut off for cleft-graft- 
ing, with the upright cleft separated by an iron 
or steel wedge, ready for the graft ; Fig. 7, the 
graft cut wedge-form to fit it ; and Fig. 8 the 
graft in its place after the wedge has been with- 
drawn, the projecting angle of the stock sloped 




Fig. 9. 



off with a knife, and the whole ready for the 
application of the wax. 

" Whip-grafting is particularly applicable to 
small stocks, or where the graft and stock are 
nearly all equal size; and cleft-grafting to 
stocks considerably larger than the 
scion. In all cases, where the stock 
is in any degree larger, the graft 
must be placed toward one side, 
so that the line between the bark 
and wood may exactly coincide at 
one point at least in both, as in the 
cross-section of cleft-grafting, Fig.9. 
" In grafting the peach which, from its large 
pith and spongy wood, scarcely ever succeeds 
as commonly performed, it is found advantage- 
ous, in selecting the grafts to leave a quarter 
of an inch of the more compact two years' 
wood at the lower extremity. 

With the plum and cherry, success is much 
more certain very early in spring, before the 
buds commence swelling, or even before the 
snow is off the ground. Apples and pears may 
be grafted later, and if the scions have been kept 
in good condition in a dormant state, they will 
mostly grow if inserted even after the trees are 
in leaf. 

" After a graft is inserted, and as soon as the 
tree commences growth, the buds on the stock 
must be rubbed off in order to throw the rising 
sap into the scion. If large trees are grafted, 
the buds need only rubbing off the branch 
which holds it." 

" Grafts are usually cut during the latter part 
of winter or early in spring. They maybe pre- 
served out-of-doors safely if buried in moder- 
ately moist earth by placing them in a box open 
downwards, and buried on a dry spot, being 
kept from contact with the earth by sticks 
across the box. They may be preserved in a 
cellar in a box of damp powdered moss. Saw- 
dust answers the same purpose if not in large 
quantities so as to become heated. 

GRAPES. — Grapes may be raised from 
either cuttings or seeds ; the former is much 
the best way. Select the cuttings in the au- 
tumn from the well-ripened wood of the former 
year, and take five joints for each ; bury 
them till April, then soak them for some hours 
and set them out aslant, so that all the eyes 
but one shall be covered. A gravelly or sandy 
soil is best for grapes. A southern exposure 
is best. Manure from the stable is more likely 
to do harm than good ; the best fertilizer is 
some old bones sunk into the soil near the 
roots. Prune the vines the first year so as to 
leave only two main branches, pinching off all 
other shoots as fast as they appear. In No- 
vember cut off all of these two branches except 
four joints. The second year, in the spring, 
loosen the earth around the roots, and allow 
only two branches to grow, and every month 
pinch off all side shoots ; if they are very 
strong take off only a part and prune off the 
rest in the fall. In November cut off all the 
two main stems except eight joints. After the 
second year no more pruning is needed except 



252 



GRAPE 



GRAVY 



to reduce the side shoots for the purpose of 
increasing the fruit. There are several species 
of the native hardy grape, of which the Isa- 
bella is the most popular. The Catawba ranks 
very high, as do the Concord, Diana, Clinton, 
Delaware, etc. 

Grapes ripen, according to locality, from the 
1st of September until November, and, when 
carefully kept, a month or two longer. We 
have also the luscious foreign grapes, raised in 
hot and cold graperies from April until De- 
cember, among which are the Black Hamburgh, 
White Muscat, White Sweetwater, Tokay, etc. 
The Syrian, a white species, produces the 
largest clusters. The White Malayan, of for- 
eign growth, is found throughout the winter in 
grocery stores where imported fruits are kept. 
Fox or wild grapes are abundant from the mid- 
dle of August to November ; they are round 
and soft, with a pleasant, tart taste, and are 
used for pies, preserves, etc. 

Grapes may be kept fresh for winter use in 
the following. manner: Pick the bunches only 
on a warm day, and place them in a cool, shady 
place for at least three days; then pack 
them in paper boxes that will hold about ten 
pounds each. Between each layer of grapes 
place a single thickness of newspaper; the 
boxes should not contain more than three lay- 
ers in thickness. Then place in a cool, dry 
room — not in the cellar, for the comparative 
dampness there will cause mold and decay. A 
few fine clusters for special table purposes may 
be preserved by cutting the bunches late in 
the season, but in good condition and on a 




Grapes Preserved Fresh. 

piece of the vine. Wax one end of the stem 
and put the other through a cork into a vial of 
water containing a layer of charcoal ; make 
the cork around the vine tight with beeswax ; 
then place the whole in a cool room with an 
even temperature. {See Jelly, and Pre- 
serves.) 

Wine (Grape). — I. Bruise the grapes, which 
should be perfectly ripe. To each gallon of 
grapes put a gallon of water, and let the whole 
stand a week without stirring. At the end of 
that time draw off the liquor carefully, and put 



to each gallon three pounds of lump sugar. 
Let it ferment in a cool place, and when fer- 
mentation ceases stop it up tight. In six 
months it will be fit to bottle. 

11. Pick the grapes from the stems and break 
them slightly with the hand. Allow fifteen 
pounds of them to each gallon of water ; let 
them stand for three days, then press them 
and draw off the liquor. Add two pounds of 
sugar to each gallon of the juice and water, and 
put into a cask and ferment. Examine it care- 
fully once a week, and when fermentation 
has nearly ceased rack it off. Bung it down 
close for six months, and it will then be fit 
either to drink or to bottle, 

GRATE. — Whenever coal is used as a fuel, 
grates are an essential part of the fire-place, 
and, next to the wood fire they furnish by far 
the healthiest means of warming a room. They 
are, however, the most expensive fires that can 
be had, and this is largely owing to the fact 
that the grate is constructed on wrong princi- 
ples. It is nearly always too shallow — seldom 
more than two bars in height — and too deep 
from front to rear, so that in order to warm 
the room as much as possible the coal has to 
be piled on in a large heap, only the front part 
of which sends heat into the room — the greater 
portion of that which is consumed at the back 
merely heating the grate and chimney. A high 
grate, with four or five narrow bars in front, 
and a depth from front to rear of from five to 
six inches at the top and from three to four at 
the bottom, with a sloping back of fire-brick, 
though less elegant, would be infinitely more 
economical than the ordinary grate. Its ad- 
vantages are that it would give a large front 
area of burning coal without any superfluous 
consumption of fuel behind, and that the ashes 
and cinders cleared out of the lowest bars 
could be thrown in the top of the grate, and, 
having to pass through the whole extent of the 
fire again, would be mostly consumed, leaving 
nothing but a little dust behind. Bituminous 
coal is pleasantest to burn in grates, but where 
it is used the flue should be nearly as deep as 
the grate itself, and the bars of the grate should 
be round and not close together. 

The best material for grates is dead wrought 
iron. The polished steel bars, besides being 
hard to keep in order, are objectionable, be- 
cause bright surfaces, while they reflect heat 
well, throw it off by radiation very imperfectly. 
See Chimney. 

GRAVY.— In any household, gravies are 
usually required only in moderation and a clev- 
er cook can always manage to supply at trifling 




Gravy Kettle. 

cost all that is generally needed for plain fam- 
ily dinners. But, however small the quantities 



GRAVY 



GREASE-SPOTS 



253 



in which they are made, their quality should 
be particularly attended to, and they should be 
well adapted in flavor to the dishes they are to 
accompany. For some a high degree of savor 
is desirable ; but for fricassees and other 
dishes of delicate white meats this should be 
avoided and a soft, smooth sauce of mild flavor 
should be used in preference to any more 
piquant relish. The necks of poultry, with the 
feet properly skinned, a few herbs, a morsel of 
ham or lean bacon, a bit of spice, and a few 
drops of mushroom catsup, will of them- 
selves suffice to make a gravy for the broils 
from which they are taken ; and if not wanted 
for this purpose they should always be stewed 
down or thrown into a stock pot, for which the 
shank bones of beef or mutton and all trim- 
mings of meats should be reserved. No parti- 
cle of fat should ever be perceptible upon gra- 
vies when they are sent to table, and when it 
cannot be removed by skimming they should 
be allowed to cool sufficiently for it to congeal, 
and be taken off at once. It may be cleared 
from such as have not been thickened by pass- 
ing them through a closely woven cloth, which 
has been jjreviously wetted with cold water. 
For burnt sugar browning for gravies, see 
Caramel. This should always be kept on 
hand. 

Brown Gravy. — Put fresh meat cut in small 
pieces into a sauce-pan ; season with salt and 
pepper and a bit of butter, and heat it half an 
hour, till brown, stirring so that it shall not 
stick. Pour on boiling water (a pint for each 
pound), simmer three hours, and skim it well. 
Settle and strain it, and set it aside for 
use ; thicken as you need it with brown flour, 
a teaspoonful to half a pint. 

Clear Gravy. — Slice beef thin; broil a part 
of it over a quick fire, just enough to give color 
to the gravy, but not to dress it ; put that and 
the raw part into a stew-pan with onions, a clove 
or two, whole black peppers, berries of allspice, 
and a bunch of sweet herbs ; cover it with hot 
water, give it one boil, and skim it well two or 
three times ; then cover it over, and simmer 
till quite strong. 

Fish Gravy. — Skin two or three eels or some 
flounders ; clean them well ; cut them into 
small pieces, and put into a sauce-pan ; cover 
them with water, and add a little crust of 
bread toasted down, two blades of mace, whole 
peppers, sweet herbs, a piece of lemon-peel, 
and a teaspoonful of grated horse-radish; 
cover close and simmer ; add a teaspoonful 
each of butter and flour, and boil till strong. 

Game or Poultry Gravy. — A plain gravy 
for game or poultry may be made so that it will 
keep a week in moderately cool weather as 
follows : Cut lean beef thin, put it into a fry- 
ing-pan without any butter, and set it on a fire, 
covered, but take care not to let it burn ; let it 
stay till the juice that comes out of the meat is 
dried up into it again ; pour in as much water 
as will cover the meat, and let that stew away. 
Then put to the meat a small quantity of 
waterj herbs, onions, spice, and a bit of lean 



ham ; simmer till rich, and keep it in a cold, 
dry place. Do not take off the fat till about 
to be used. 

Hasty Gravy. — Chop up a pound of lean 
meat, a small onion, a few slices of carrot and 
turnip, and a little thyme and parsley ; put 
these into a sauce-pan with half an ounce of 
butter, and stir them until they are slightly 
browned ; add a little spice and a pint of water ; 
clear the gravy from scum, let it boil half an 
hour, and then strain it for use. 

Kidney Gravy. — Strip the skin and remove 
the fat from three fresh mutton kidneys ; slice 
and flour them ; melt two ounces of butter in a 
deep sauce-pan, and put in the kidneys with an 
onion cut small and a teaspoonful of fine herbs, 
stripped from the stalks. Keep these well 
shaken over a small fire until nearly all the 
moisture is dried up ; then pour in a pint of 
boiling water, add half a teaspoonful of salt 
and a little cayenne or black pepper, and let 
the gravy boil gently for an hour and a half — 
or longer, if it be not rich and thick. Strain it 
through a fine sieve, and take off the fat ; spice 
or catsup may be added at pleasure. 

Poultry Gravy. — A little good broth added 
to half a dozen slices of lean ham, lightly 
browned in a morsel of butter, with half a 
dozen corns of pepper and a sprig or two of 
parsley, and stewed for half an hour, will 
make excellent gravy of a common kind. 
When there is no broth the neck of the 
chicken must be stewed down to supply its 
place. 

Veal Gravy. — I. Flour and fry lightly in a 
bit of butter two pounds of veal; drain the 
meat well from the fat, and lay it into a small 
stew-pan ; pour in a quart of boiling water ; 
skim well, and add a little salt, a fried onion 
sliced, a carrot sHced, a small bunch of thyme 
and parsley, a blade of mace, and a few pepper 
corns. Stew these gently for three hours, pass 
the gravy through a sieve into a pan, and when 
it is quite cold clear it entirely of fat ; heat as 
much as is wanted for table, and if not suffi- 
ciently thick stir in some browned flour and a 
little catsup. Beef gravy may be made in the 
same way. 

n. Veal gravy may be made as directed for 
Clear Gravy, omitting the spice, herbs and 
flour. 

GREASE-SPOTS. — (To Remove from 
Cloth.) — Grease-spots, if not made by mineral 
oils, may generally be removed from silk, wool- 
en, cotton, or linen cloth, by simply using soap 
and water and a nail-brush, and afterwards wip- 
ing off the lather with a wet towel. When this 
fails, cover the spots with French chalk, scraped 
to a fine powder, lay a piece of brown paper 
over them, and on this set a warm iron. This 
will melt the grease, and the chalk will absorb 
it, and the whole may then be removed by brush- 
ing. If once is not sufficient, repeat the pro- 
cess. Or, the French chalk may be mixed with 
lavender water, or with benzine, so as to make a 
paste, which is to be put upon the stain : over 
this lay a piece of blotting paper, and run it over 



254 



GRIDIRON 



GROUSE 



with a hot iron ; then brush off the chalk ; com- 
mon chalk will answer when French chalk 
cannot be had, but it is not so good. 

Or, grate raw potatoes into water, so as to 
form a pulp ; pass the liquid through a sieve 
into another vessel with an equal quantity of 
water in it, and let the potato subside ; pour the 
clear liquor from the top, and bottle it for use ; 
dip a sponge or a small brush in this, and wet 
the spot till it disappears ; then wash it in 
clear water. Be very careful not to wet more 
than the spot or it will discharge the color of 
the fabric. 

Scouring drops, made by mixing equal 
quantities of oil of turpentine and essence 
of lemon are excellent for taking stains and 
grease out of silk. Rub them on with a bit of 
flannel. 

Marble. — Grease can be removed from mar- 
ble by ox-gall and potter's clay wet with soap- 
suds (a gill of each) ; it is better also to add a 
gill of spirits of turpentine. Rub the mixture 
on the spots, let it remain for some time, and 
then wash off with warm water. 

Paper. — Oil or grease can be removed from 
paper or books by rolling up each leaf and in- 
serting it in a wide-mouthed bottle half full of 
sulphuric ether ; shake it gently up and down 
for a minute, and on its removal the stains will 
be found to have disappeared. The ether 
evaporates rapidly, and a single sponging with 
cold water is all that is afterward required. 

Or, dust on a little magnesia or French chalk, 
lay over it a piece of blotting paper, and pass 
a moderately heated iron across a few times. 

Benzine also removes grease spots. Place 
a piece of linen of several folds on a table 
to act as a sponge in absorbing the benzine 
stretch the soiled article over the linen, dip 
a piece of cotton or flannel into the benzine, 
and rub the spot well; after which dry with 
blotting paper or fine linen. The benzine 
ought to be applied in a circular direction. Do 
not leave off until the liquid evaporates ; then 
expose the article to a good current of air. 
Benzine is sold by all druggists, and should be 
kept in the house, ready for use. Never carry 
it near a fire or bunting substance of any kind, 
as it is likely to explode. See Cleaning, 
Stains and Washing. 

GREEN GAGE. {See Plum.) 

GREY-PO"WDER. — The name commonly 
given to a combination of three parts of mer- 
cury with five parts of chalk. It is most fre- 
quently given to children with clay-colored 
passages in doses of two to three grains once, 
or oftener, in the twenty-four hours. 

GRIDIRON. — The ordinary gridiron is 
merely a square frame of iron, with cross-bars 
of the same. An improvement upon this con- 
sists in making the upper surface of these bars 
concave or grooved, and all terminating in a 
hollow trough near the handle, so as to save 
the rich gravy which would otherwise fall into 
the fire. Before using a gridiron it should be 
cleaned thoroughly and the upper surface well 
greased with lard or dripping. It should be 



placed on the fire so as to slant down towards 
the hand of the cook. The " Sprat " gridiron 
is double, folding together like waffle-irons ; 
it is useful in broiling steaks when the fire is 
low. 

GRILLING. (.5"^^ Broiling.) 

GROCERIES. — In the purchase of groceries 
at a retail shop it does not appear that any ad- 
vantage in price is obtained by laying in large 
stores at once, though the practice may, under 
some circumstances, be convenient. The retail 
grocer is compelled by competition to put the 
lowest price he can afford on his goods to 
ready-money customers ; and only those re- 
quiring credit have to pay high prices. In 
purchasing from the wholesale dealer, a house- 
keeper may occasionally gain some advantage ; 
but to do so uniformly would not be desirable 
for either buyer or seller. A quick consumption 
of the finer articles of grocery is necessary, 
especially of those with aromatic qualities 
which exposure to the air dissipates. Family 
stores, which are slowly consumed, are daily 
deteriorating in quality ; excepting only some 
few articles which are supposed to improve by 
keeping. By purchasing in small quantities 
as needed, from the retail dealer, this incon- 
venience is avoided. The different articles 
of grocery are treated of in their respective 
places. 

GROG. — A mixture of rum and water, drunk 
cold, without any sugar. Hot grog'x?, a name 
often applied to rum punch. 

GROUSE. — The only species of grouse suf- 
ficiently numerous in this country to enter 
largely into diet is the pinnated grouse or 
" prairie-hen " as it is generally called. This 
is one of the finest of the game-birds, and is 
somewhat the color, form, and size of the par- 
tridge which it also resembles in flavor. Prairie- 
hens are very abundant througliout the West- 
ern States, and especially on the prairies, and 
are sent to all the Eastern markets in great 
numbers. They begin to arrive in October, 
and continue until April ; usually brought in 
barrels and other packages in a frozen state. 
Their flesh is dark, but from a fat young bird 
it is excellent eating and highly nutritious. In 
purchasing, select the heaviest, and at the 
same time try the feathers around the vent ; if 
they pull out easily the bird is apt to be too 
stale. The nose must also be brought into 
requisition to detect the least unpleasant smell. 
An old prairie-hen has a white bill and bluish 
legs ; when young the bill is of a dark gray 
color, and the legs are yellowish. 

Baked Prairie-hen.— -Clean and prepare the 
bird as directed for chicken. Truss like 
chicken, grease the fleshy portions with apiece 
of salt pork or with lard, and place it on its 
back in the baking-pan, in which a tablespoon- 
ful of butter has been melted ; set it in a quick 
oven, baste often, and serve when rather under- 
done. Mix some lemon-juice with the jjravy, 
and turn it over the bird before serving. 

Broiled Prairie-hen. — Clean and prepare as 
for baking, and then split the bird down the 



GRUEL 



GUINEA-FOWL 



255 



breast so as to open it ; butter all over, inside 
and out, and sprinkle on a little salt and pep- 
per; place it on the gridiron over a good fire, 
breast downwards ; turn it over three or four 
times ; serve it as soon as it has turned a nice 
brown. 

Fricasseed Prairie-hen. — Prepare, cook and 
serve like chicken \vl fricassee. 

Roast Prairie-hen. — Truss in the same way 
as for roast chicken, grease the fleshy portions 
with a bit of salt pork, and roast about half an 
hour at a clear, brisk fire, keeping it basted 
almost without intermission. Serve on buttered 
toast which has been laid under it in the pan 
for ten minutes, or with gravy and bread-sauce 
only. 

Salmi of Prairie-hen. — This is an excellent 
way of serving the remains of roasted game ; 
but when a choice salmi is desired, the birds 
must be scarcely more than half roasted for it. 
In either case cut them up neatly, and strip 
every particle of fat and skin from the legs, 
wings, and breasts ; bruise the bodies well, and 
put them with the skin and other trimmings 
into a stew-pan ; add two or three sliced escha- 
lots, a small blade of mace, and a few pepper 
corns ; then pour in a pint or more of good veal 
gravy or strong broth, and boil it briskly until 
reduced nearly half ; strain the gravy, pressing 
the bones well to obtain all the flavor, skim off 
the fat, add a little cayenne and lemon-juice, 
heat the birds very gradually in it without 
allowing it to boil ; place bits of fried bread 
round a dish, arrange the birds in the centre, 
give the sauce a boil, and pour it over them. 
Partridges and other wild-fowl can be prepared 
in the same way. 

Stewed Prairie-hen. — Put about an ounce 
of butter and two ounces of salt pork, cut into 
bits, into a sauce-pan, and set it on a quick fire ; 
when the butter is melted, put the bird in, and 
brown it all around ; then add four small 
onions, half a carrot in shces, salt, and pep- 
per ; stir till the onions and carrots are partly 
fried ; then add a pint of good broth (or half 
a pint of broth and the same of white wine), and 
a bunch of sweet herbs ; boil gently till done. 
Dish the bird, strain the gravy over it, and serve 
warm. 

GRUEL. — This is one of the most important 
branches of " cookery for the sick," as it can 
be eaten and digested when every other kind 
of food is rejected by the stomach. Gruel can 
be made either very thick or very thin, and 
should be adapted to the invalid's taste in this 
respect. By the addition of a little spice, or 
wine, or brandy, it can also be made very tooth- 
some and nutritious ; but where gruel is pre- 
scribed by a physician, this must never be 
ventured upon without his express consent. 

Barley Gruel. — Boil four ounces of pearl 
barley in two quarts of water till reduced about 
one half ; then strain, and sweeten. 

Common Gruel. — Mix three tablespoonfuls 
of Indian meal in enough cold water to make 
a thick paste ; add by degrees a pint of boil- 
ing water, and half a teaspoonful (or less) 



of salt, and boil it ten minutes, stirring all the 
time. 

Oatmeal Gruel. — According to the thickness 
required, rub smooth in a bowl one or two 
tablespoonfuls of oatmeal with three table- 
spoonfuls of water ; stir into this by degrees a 
pint of boiling water; set it on the fire in a 
sauce-pan and boil ten minutes, stirring all the 
while ; then strain it into the bowl into which 
it is to be served. Gruel made in this way 
with milk instead of water is more nutritious ; 
seasoned with salt and butter it is less insipid. 
If the doctor consents, a dessert-spoonful of 
brandy, or a tablespoonful of wine may be 
added. 

Rice Gruel. — Put a tablespoonful of un- 
ground rice into a pint and a half of boiling 
water, with a stick of cinnamon or mace ; strain 
it when boiled soft, add half a pint of milk and 
a teaspoonful of salt, and boil a few minutes 
longer. If rice /lour is used, mix a tablespoon- 
ful of it smoothly, with three tablespoonfuls of 
cold water, and stir it into a quart of boiling 
water ; let it boil five or six minutes, stirring con- 
stantly; season with salt and a little butter, 
and, if liked, add sugar and nutmeg to taste. 

Water Gruel. — Make one gill of Indian 
meal and a heaping tablespoonful of wheat 
flour into a thick and smooth paste with cold 
water ; stir it into two quarts of boiling water ; 
let it boil slowly twenty minutes. Add salt, 
sugar and nutmeg to taste. Oatmeal may be 
used instead of the Indian meal in this receipt. 

GUAVA. — There are several species of the 
guava, some of which are natives of Asia, some 
of America, and some common to both. The 
best of these is the white guava, which is abun- 
dant in the West Indies. The fruit of this 
species is rather larger than a hen's egg, smooth, 
yellow, and of a peculiar smell. The pulp is of 
a very agreeable taste, sweet and aromatic ; it 
is used at dessert and preserved. Guava jelly 
comes from the West Indies, and is one of the 
most highly esteemed of conserves. It is ex- 
cellent for giving strength and tone to the 
stomach after a spell of sickness, or when the 
digestion is out of order. 

GUINEA-FOWL.— This bird is so called 
because first brought from Africa, where only 




Guinea-Fowl. 



it is wild in great abundance. Though do- 
mesticated in this country, Guinea-fowls still 
retain much of their wild nature, and are apt to 
wander. (.S"^^ Poultry.) They lay very abun- 
dantly, and the egg is excellent — more delicate 



256 



GUMBO 



HAGGIS 



in flavor and more nutritious than that of the 
common fowl. The flesh is dark, like that of 
the prairie-hen, and many consider it more 
savory than the common fowl, though not so 
juicy. They are generally found unpicked in 
our markets, and by raising the feathers on the 
breast it can easily be seen whether they are fat 
and plump. A good fowl will weigh from three 
and a hr.lf to five pounds, the smaller ones are 
best for broiling and roasting. The guinea-fowl 
is considered best in the Winter months, tak- 
ing the place of partridges after the latter are out 
of season. Cook and serve them like Grouse. 
GUMBO.-A slang term applied in Louisiana 
to the vegetable Okra, and now generally used 
to describe okra soup. (^See Soup.) 

GC7M-BOIL should be let alone unless very 
troublesome, when see Ulcerated Teeth under 
Teeth. 

GUTTA-PEROHA. — This resembles India- 
rubber in composition and in resistance to the 
action of chemical agents ; but it has not the 
same elasticity, and it is much harder at the 
ordinary temperature. It is dissolved in naph- 
tha and melted by heat, and can be moulded, 
when warm, into any shape. In this way it is 
made to take the variety of forms now so 
common, as picture-frames, ink-stands, dolls, 
combs, buttons, and numerous household 
utensils. Articles made of gutta - percha 
should never be exposed to a high tempera- 
ture, 

GUTTERS. — Great attention should be 
paid to the gutters on the roof of a house, not 
only in their first construction, but in seeing 
that they are kept in proper repair, otherwise 
the water will penetrate and injure the apart- 
ments. All metal gutters must have a small 



degree of slope, so as to give the water a cur- 
rent, which, particularly in those of consider- 
able length, increases the width of the gutter 
at one end, and, therefore, requires a greater 
quantity of metal. Builders, to avoid expense, 
are apt to make this slope too small. The 
sheets ought never to be joined by solder, 
because, if confined, the expansion in warm 
weather will cause the metal to crack; but 
they should be connected by drips— 2. kind of 
step of two inches, made in laying the boards 
for the metal. The metal over this is only 
hammered close, and not soldered. With the 
same object of saving metal, builders often 
make this step too little ; and, when this is the 
case, the snow, in thawing, is liable to rise up 
in the joint and damage the ceilings. When wet 
appears in the ceiling of the upper story of a 
house it is generally owing to one of these cir- 
cumstances having been neglected, or, perhaps, 
to some crack in the gutter. The whole should 
therefore be carefully examined by a plumber; 
but if the defect arises from the metal of the 
gutter having been cut too narrow originally, 
there is no effectual remedy but taking it up 
and putting down wider metal. 

Gutters are now frequently made of tin, but 
this is a frail material, especially for large 
roofs, and is very likely to rust through in a 
few years. Gutters should always be cleaned 
out at regular intervals, as much damage is 
caused occasionally by overflows arising from 
an accumulation of dirt, which prevents the 
gutter from draining the roof. During our 
Northern winters gutters are often frozen just 
where they enter the ground. In such cases 
pour boiling water on the outside till the ob- 
struction is melted out, or throw in salt. 



H 



HADDOCK.— The haddock is a smaller 
fish than the cod, which it resembles a good 
deal in every other respect. The flesh, how- 
ever, is more watery and the flavor inferior. 
The average size is not more than two or three 




Haddock. 

pounds, but sometimes they reach a much 
greater weight. They are at their best in No- 
vember and December, and again in June and 
July. They are better for being hung up for a 
day or two, with a sprinkling of salt. When 
large, haddock is dressed in the same way as 
cod, and takes an equal time to cook. Small 
haddock may be either boiled or fried. They 



scarcely hold together well enough to stand 
broiling without considerable trouble. 

Fried Haddock. — Cut the fish in pieces of 
the proper size for serving; wash and wipe 
them dry, and roll in Indian meal. Fry some 
pieces of salt pork ; take out the pork and put 
a little lard into the frying-pan ; when it is 
boiling hot put in the fish, and fry it to a light 
brown. Dish it with the fried pork, and serve 
with drawn butter. 

HAGGIS. — A favorite dish in Scotland, 
made by boiling a sheep or calf's liver, heart, 
etc., for several hours, mincing them up fine, 
mixing this mincemeat with scorched oatmeal, 
onions, a small quantity of beef suet, salt, 
pepper, and some strong broth or gravy, and 
putting the whole into a sheep's paunch or 
stomach, carefully tied at both ends, and of 
which the mixture fills about two-thirds, the 
rest of the space being left for the expansion 
of the steam generated by the boiling to which 
it is subjected for three or four hours. Haggis 



HAIR 



HAKE 



257 



is very savory to the nostrils when freshly 
cooked, but it requires a very strong stomach 
to digest it without reproach or inconvenience. 

HAIR. — The proper management of the hair 
is very simple. It should be kept as clean as 
possible by daily brushing with a stiff brush, 
by removal of the scurf that forms upon the 
skin (see Dandruff), and by occasionally 
washing it with pure, cold water, which will 
have no injurious effect upon the health, pro- 
vided the hair is not so long as to make its 
drying difficult. To assist in drying it thor- 
oughly, dip the brush into a very little hair- 
powder or starch, brush it into the hair and 
then brush it out. After this a little perfumed 
pomatum may be brushed in — too much not 
only makes the hair greasy, but injures it. 
There is a natural oil secreted by the hair 
which ought to be sufficient for keeping it in 
good order, but this is often deficient, and the 
hair becomes dry and harsh ; then it is that the 
deficiency may be supplied by a little pomatum 
or oil. A multitude of hair oils are sold by 
perfumers, their compositions being kept se- 
cret, and each being represented as having ex- 
traordinary qualities. It is best to have nothing 
to do with any of them, for when they are not 
injurious they are no better than preparations 
which can be made at home with little trouble, 
and for which we shall give a receipt or two, 
further along. When hair has become too 
greasy from too free use of oil or pomatum, it 
is proper to remove the unctuous matter by 
persistent brushing. Occasionally soap is re- 
sorted to for this purpose, but soap will change 
the color of the hair, and should be used cau- 
tiously. A little white soap dissolved in spirits 
of wine is most effectual and less injurious 
than soap alone. After using it the hair must 
be well washed with water. 

It is very doubtful whether frequent cutting 
of the hair is favorable to its growth and 
beauty, as is generally assumed. It always 
renders the hair coarse and stubby, and it is 
certain that the common practice of cropping 
or shaving the head, for the purpose of 
strengthening the growth of the hair, not only 
fails of this effect, but often produces total 
baldness. 

The loosening and falling out of the hair is 
frequently the direct result of fever or derange- 
ment of the system, but is more often the con- 
sequence of weakness of the nervous power. 
It may be checked by improvement of the gen- 
eral health and the use of proper local reme- 
dies. A useful practice, when the hair is 
sufficiently short, is to plunge the head into 
cold water every morning and night, and, after 
thoroughly drying, to brush it briskly until the 
scalp is warmed to a glow. A simple lotion, 
composed of 2 drachms of Tincture of Canthar- 
ides, 6 drachms of essence of Rosemary and 
II ounces of elder-flower water may be effect- 
ively employed as a tonic. In cases of bald- 
ness the scalp may be advantageously shaved 
and the secretion of the hair stimulated by 
dry friction, tonic lotions (rum, for example), and 
17 



by a stimulating diet. There is a premature 
grayness which sometimes occurs in the young, 
chiefly in those of light complexion and light- 
colored hair. It comes from the same causes 
as the loosening or falling out of the hair. 

Dyeing the hair is the most absurd of all 
attempts at human deceit, since it never is 
successful, and deceives no one but the de- 
ceiver himself. The practice is generally begun 
with the idea that a single application will be 
sufficient for all time ; but the dye only dis- 
colors that portion of the hair above the sur- 
face of the scalp. The new growth, which is 
constantly taking place from the roots, appears 
always with the natural tint. Moreover, there 
is no dye which does not injure the hair itself ; 
and many of them — those containing lead or 
arsenic — tend to paralyze the brain and nerv- 
ous system. 

To remove superfluous hair, see Depila- 
tory. 

Castor-Oil Pomatum. — Take tube-rose po- 
matum, one pound ; castor oil, half a pound ; 
otto of bergamot, one ounce. Melt these to- 
gether ; then beat up with a whisk or spoon 
for half an hour or more, as the grease cools. 
Minute particles of air are inclosed by the po- 
matum when prepared in this way, and render 
it light and spongy. 

Hair Grease. — I. Melt half a pound of lard 
and six ounces of olive oil in a jar placed in 
hot water ; when nearly cool add about two 
drachms of essence of lemon, oil of lavender, 
or any other perfume, and then pour it into 
glass bottles, or earthen pots. 

II. Mix fresh beef marrow and clear neats- 
foot oil in equal proportions ; melt as before 
and decant, leaving the dregs behind ; after 
which, when nearly cool, the scent is to be 
added as above, and the whole stirred till quite 
firm. 

Hair Tonic. — An excellent tonic to prevent 
the hair from falling off may be made as fol- 
lows : — Spirit of turpentine and neats-foot oil, 
of each one ounce ; active solution of canthar- 
ides, thirty drops : mix. Apply to the roots of 
the hair two or three times a week. 

Hair "Wash. — A most excellent hair wash, 
which cleanses the scalp, and at the same time 
softens and promotes the growth of the hair, 
can be put up by any druggist from the fol- 
lowing prescription, which should be copied out 
and given to him : Rose-water, 7 oz ; aromatic 
spirits of ammonia, i oz; tincture of can- 
tharides, 1 }< drachms; glycerine, ^ oz. Mix 
and shake before using; apply to the scalp 
with an old tooth-brush. 

HAIR CLOTH. — This is made of the long 
hair taken from horses' tails, and is extensively 
used for covering chairs, sofas, etc., and for 
making sieves. It is very durable, not being' 
liable to decay through ordinary causes. It is 
insoluble in water, but is acted upon and dis- 
solved by alkalies ; much soap, of course, in- 
jures it. A little salt may be added to the- 
water with which it is washed. 

HAKE.— These fish (called also " Stock- 



258 



HALIBUT 



HAM 



fish") are occasionally taken with the cod and 
haddock, and seem of their species ; but are 
longer, with a tapering, cylindrical body. In 
season from June to September. Their flesh 
is sweet and tender, but a little dry. Prepar- 
ed, cooked and served in all respects like cod. 
HALIBUT. — In season throughout the 
year. On the fish-stands it is usually cut as 
wanted. The thick portions are best for steaks 




Halibut. 

and stews ; but the nape or thin flank part is 
an excellent piece for broiling, being usually 
fat and juicy. The flesh is pearly white and 
very nutritious ; that taken from a fish weigh- 
ing from fifty to seventy-five pounds is the best. 
The very large fish is coarse-grained dry and 
tasteless ; that of a j'ellowish tint, without the 
pearly brightness, is apt to be rank and un- 
wholesome. Halibut is also found in a cured 
state — pickled, salted and smoked, and by 
many is considered superior to cod. 

Baked Halibut. — The part next to the tail- 
piece is considered best. Wash it nicely and 
laj' in salt and water for a couple of hours be- 
fore cooking ; wipe dry, and score the outer 
skin ; bake in a moderately hot oven, basting 
often with butter and water heated together in 
a tin cup. A piece weighing six povmds will 
require an hour for baking ; when a fork will 
penetrate it easily it is done. Serve with a 
sauce made of the gravy left in baking it, a 
tablespoonful of walnut catsup, a teaspoonful 
of Worcestershire sauce, and the juice of 
lemon, thickened with browned flour, and boiled 
up once. 

Boiled Halibut — Lay it in cold water, well 
salted, for two hours ; wash and scrape clean ; 
lay it in the fish-kettle, cover with boiling water, 
well salted ; i onion, a bouquet of parsley, 1 
blade mace, i sprig thyme, i carrot, 6 pepper- 
corns; skim; set where it will simmer; dish 
on a napkin; sauce in tureen. 

Broiled Halibut. — The nape or thin flank 
is best for broiling. Soak in salt water for 
two hours ; then wash it and wipe it dry ; 
sprinkle a little flour over it ; put the outside 
to the fire first, and broil slowly for half an 
hour. When it is dished, spread a little butter 
over it, and sprinkle pepper on. 

Fried Halibut. — Cut into slices half an 
inch thick, shake some flour over them, or 
dip them in tgi^ and roll in bread-crumbs, 
and fry them in butter or sweet oil to a crisp 
brown. 

Steak (Halibut). — The receipt for frying 
halibut steaks is given above, but it is best 
to broil them on a buttered gridiron over a 
clear fire, first seasoning them with salt and 
pepper. When dished, butter well, cover 
closely, and serve hot. 



HAM. — The best hams, whether corned or 
cured and smoked, are those from eight to 
fifteen pounds in weight, having a thin skin, 
solid fat, and a small, short, tapering leg or 
shank. In selecting them, run a knife along 
the bone on the fleshy side ; if it comes out 
clean the ham is good, but if the knife is 
smeared, it is spoilt. 

To cttre hams, rub the meat side well with 
fine salt, when perfectly cool, and lay them 
in a clean cask for a couple of days. Then, 
to every hundred pounds of meat, take eight 
pounds of ground rock-salt, two ounces of 
saltpetre or saleratus (saleratus is best), two 
pounds of sugar, one and a half ounces ojf pot- 
ash, and four gallons of water ; mix these 
well together until quite dissolved, then skim 
the mixture and pour it over the meat. Some 
boil this pickle, and when cool pour it over 
the meat. Let the hams remain in this brine 
for about six weeks ; after which, take them 
out, soak them in cold water four or five 
hours, and then hang them up to dry for two 
clays, when they will be ready for the smoke- 
house. Hang them hock end downwards, 
and smoke them about four weeks ; then take 
them down, examine closely, and if there is a 
suspicion of insects lay them in the hot sun 
for a day or two. 

There are innumerable ways of keeping 
hams after they are cured ; the best and 
easiest is to wrap them snugly in brown 
paper, lay them in a box, and fill this up 
with wood ashes. They may be kept sweet 
and tender for twenty years by this simple 
method. Slaked ashes are best, as they will 
not act on the meat, even when they come in 
contact with it. Another good plan is to 
wrap them in paper, sew them up in coarse 
cotton bags, whitewashed on the outside, and 
hang them near the roof in a garret. 

Baked Ham. — Soak over night, in cold 
water ; trim away the rusty part from the under 
side and edges, wipe dry, and cover the bottom 
with a paste made of flour and hot water ; Jay 
it upside down in the baking-pan, with enough 
water to keep it from burning, and bake till 
done — allowing twenty-five minutes to a pound. 
Baste now and then, to prevent the crust from 
scaling off. 

Boiled Ham. — Soak over night, and in the 
morning wash hard with a coarse cloth or stiff 
brush ; put on the fire in cold water, and boil a 
common-sized ham four or five hours — allowing 
a quarter of an hour to a pound ; then skin it, 
and set it in the oven for half an hour ; then 
cover it thickly with fine bread-crumbs, and set 
it back in the oven for half an hour. 

Broiled Ham. — Cut the ham in thin slices, 
and broil quickly over a brisk fire ; then spread 
on some butter shake a little pepper over it ; and 
add a spoonful or two of vinegar. 

Bggs with Ham. — Fry the ham as directed, 
having the slices as nearly as possible of a uni- 
form size suitable for serving. Break the eggs 
carefully, and drop them one at a time into the 
hot fat; have a large pan for this purpose 



HAM 



HARE 



259 



so that they will not touch. Fry them until 
the white is set, then lift them out without 
breaking, and lay one on each slice of ham, 
which should have been kept hot meanwhile. 
Serve at once, without the gravy. 

Fried Ham. — Cut as for broiling, soak the 
slices for half an hour in hot water, and fry brisk- 
ly over a hot fire. Remove the meat, add a little 
cream to the gravy and thicken with flour, boil 
up once and turn over the ham. Or serve the 
ham without gravy, as some prefer it thus. 

Glazed Ham. — Take a cold boiled ham, 
from which the skin has been removed, and 
brush it all over with beaten egg. To a cup of 
powdered cracker allow enough rich milk or 
cream to make into a thick paste, salt, and 
work in a teaspoonful of butter ; spread this 
evenly a quarter of an inch thick over the ham, 
and brown in a moderate oven. 

Grated Ham. — Take the lean parts of cold 
boiled ham, and grate it up like cheese ; keep 
in a stone jar. This makes excellent sand- 
wiches, and seasoning, or may be eaten so. 

Potted Ham. — Take a pound of cold boiled 
ham (lean only), which should be weighed after 
every morsel of skin and fibre has been re- 
moved ; and six ounces of cold roast veal pre- 
pared with equal nicety. Mince these as fine as 
possible with a sharp knife, taking care to C7(t 
through the meat, and not to tear the fibre, as 
on this much of the excellence of the prepara- 
tion depends. Next put it into a mortar and 
pound it to a smooth paste with eight ounces 
of butter, which must be added gradually. 
When beaten smooth, add a teaspoonful of 
freshly-pounded mace, half a large or the whole 
of a small nutmeg, and the third of a teaspoon- 
ful of cayenne well mixed together. After the 
spice is added, keep the meat turned from the 
sides to the middle of the mortar, so that it may 
be seasoned equally in every part. When 
perfectly mixed, press it into small potting-pans, 
and pour melted butter (lukewarm, not hot) over 
the top. If kept in a cool and dry place, this 
meat will remain good for a fortnight or more. 

Roast Ham. — Soak the ham for twenty-four 
hours and then wash it hard with a coarse cloth 
or stiff brush. Spit it like a fowl ; set it before 
a moderate fire and roast about two hours ; 
then take it up on a dish and peel off the rind ; 
scrape all the fat out of the roaster, and put the 
ham to the fire to roast about two hours longer, 
basting it frequently in the same way as beef. 
To make the gravy, put the dripping from the 
roaster into a sauce-pan, add a teaspoonful of 
water, and a little flour, and give it one boil ; 
serve in a sauce-boat. This is an excellent 
method of cooking a ham. 

Steamed Ham. — This is by far the best way 
of cooking a ham — especially if the " Warren's 
Patent Steam Cooker," which really prevents 
all contact either with the fire or with the water, 
be used. Prepare the ham as for boiling ; 
keep the water under the steamer at a hard 
boil, and allow twenty minutes to a pound for 
the cooking. When done, brown slightly in the 
baking-oven. 



HAND. — Such excessive care is now be- 
stowed upon the hands by some persons, that 
it would seem as if it was not supposed that 
they were made to be used ; nevertheless, it 
is essential in good society to have them in 
good condition. When any sort of work is to 
be done which will injure them, it is best to 
wear gloves. Further than that, and washing 
them frequently with soap and water, and a soft 
brush, more attention is not necessary, except 
in the case of the nails (see Finger-Nail). 
Few things are more injurious to the beauty and 
usefulness of the hands than the practice of 
wearing tight gloves. Kid gloves, as generally 
worn by ladies, are not only extremely uncom- 
fortable, especially in cold weather, but they 
permanently deform the hand by destroying its 
proportion ; and nothing could be uglier. 
Artists have such a horror of them that they 
avail themselves of every pretext to keep them 
out of the pictures of their female sitters. 

There is a not uncommon affection of the 
hands which is a serious annoyance to those 
afflicted with it. This is a moist condition, 
which resists all the ordinary efforts of absorp- 
tion. Such hands are so constantly humid that 
everything they wear or touch becomes satura- 
ted; the glove shows the effect at once in ugly 
stains, and the bare hand leaves a blur of 
dampness on every surface with which it may 
come in contact. This infirmity is not seldom 
constitutional, and though difficult of eradica- 
tion, may be gently relieved by whatever tends 
to strengthen the constitution and invigorate 
the body. Exercise in the open air, cold bath- 
ing, a generous but not too stimulating diet, 
and a daily draught of some mineral water or 
medicine containing iron, are the best general 
means of treatment. The most effective local 
applications are the juice of the lemon and 
starch powder. 

The practice of " snapping the knuckles," as 
it is called, is fatal to the beauty of the fingers. 
It stretches and weakens the ligaments, and so 
enlarges the knuckles and joints that the whole 
hand becomes knotty and of a very unsightly 
appearance. 

HARE. — No genuine hares have been found 
in the United States except in California. 
Those in the Eastern markets come either from 
Canada or Europe. The Canadian hares are 
very inferior in quality, and when old are tough, 
dry, and insipid; the leveret, or young one, 
when in good condition, is very fair eating, 
though not so good as the rabbit. They are 
found in the markets during November, Decem- 
ber, and January, but are good until March. 
The Gray hare, as it is called, is not a hare 
but a rabbit. (.5"^^ Rabbit.) 

Fried, or Fricasseed Hare. — Same as 
Chicken. 

Roast Hare {English Receipt). — After the 
hare has been skinned, wash it thoroughly in 
cold water, and afterwards in warm. If in any 
degree spoilt or musty on the outside, use 
vinegar or the pyroligneous acid, well diluted, 
to render it sweet; then wash it again in 



260 



HAZLENUT 



HEALTH 



clean water, that it may retain no taste of the 
acid. Pierce with the point of a knife any 
parts in which the blood appears to have set- 
tled, and soak them in tepid water, that it 
may be well drawn out. Wipe the hare dry, 
fill it with forcemeat, made according to taste, 
sew it up, truss and spit it firmly; baste it for 
the first ten minutes with lukewarm water con- 
taining a little salt ; throw this away, and put 
into the pan a quart of new milk; ladle it con- 
tinually over the hare until it is nearly dried 
up, then add a large lump of butter ; continue 
the basting steadily until the hare is well 
browned ; for, unless this be done, and the 
roast kept at a proper distance from the fire, 
the outside will become so dry and hard as 
to be quite uneatable. Serve the hare with 
good brown gravy (of which a little should be 
poured round it on the dish), and with red 
currant jelly. This is an improved English 
method of dressing hare, but we would rec- 
ommend in preference that it should be 
basted plentifully with butter or beef-drip- 
pings from the beginning, and that the salt 
and water should be altogether omitted. It 
takes from an hour to an hour and a half to 
roast a hare. 

Stewed Hare. — Wash and soak the hare 
thoroughly, wipe it perfectly dry, cut it down 
into joints, dividing the largest ; flour these, 
and brown them slightly in butter with some 
bits of lean ham; pour to them by degrees a 
pint and a half of gravy, and stew very 
gently from an hour and a half to two hours ; 
when it is about one-third done add the very 
thin rind of half a lemon, and ten minutes be- 
fore it is served stir to it a large dessert- 
spoonful of rice-flour, smoothly mixed with 
two tablespoonfuls of mushroom catsup, a quar- 
ter teaspoonful of mace, and a small pinch of 
cayenne. This is an excellent plain recipe 
for stewing a hare ; but the dish may be en- 
livened with forcemeat, rolled into small balls 
and simmered for ten minutes in the stew, or 
fried and -added to it after it is dished. 

HARTSHORN. {See Ammonia.) 

HAZLENUT.— These are also called wild 
filberts. They are of almost the same shape 
and color as the filbert, but smaller, with a 
thicker shell, and better flavored. They grow 
in clusters on bushes along the borders of 
woods and fences ; the husks are frizzled, and 
when they begin to open and show the end of 
the nut, then the nuts are fit to eat. Hazle- 
nuts usually appear in the markets in August 
and September. 

HEADACHE. — There are so many causes 
of headache, that it is impossiljle to make any 
suggestions which will invariably apply. The 
great majority of cases arise from indigestion. 
Then there is apt to be a feeling of nausea ; 
the tongue is white, and the mouth parched 
and clammy. The remedy is a dose of some 
aperient medicine, and such attention to diet 
subsequently as will keep the bowels in good 
order. [See Indigestion.) Intense head- 
ache proceeding from no apparent cause is an 



indication either of nervous irritation or nerv- 
ous exhaustion, and the most effective cure is 
rest and perfect quiet. Many persons experi- 
ence relief from Guarana, the product of the 
Paullinia sorbilis, either as a powder or an 
elixir. With the first symptoms of headache, 
a teaspoonful of the latter or fifteen grains of the 
former should be taken and repeated at half 
hour intervals until three doses have been swal- 
lowed. More is unnecessary. The elixir Gel- 
semirens compound just introduced by F. V. 
Rushton, of New York, has also made some 
wonderful cures. Directions accompany it. 
Habitual sufferers from headache would do 
well to try these remedies. Bandages, sat- 
urated with vinegar, and applied to the tem- 
ples and forehead, will often give great relief ; 
or, moisten a linen rag with sulphuric ether, ap- 
ply it to the forehead, and prevent evaporation 
by covering it with a piece of oiled silk. When 
headache arises from an overloaded condition 
of the blood-vessels of the brain, there is usu- 
ally a bloated countenance, a full red eye, with 
a dull, inanimate expression. Cold applications 
to the head, and leeches to the temple, or cui> 
ping on the back of the neck, and 30-gr. doses 
of bromide of potassium are the proper means 
to be adopted in this case. In rheumatic head- 
ache the pain is of an intermittent, shifting 
nature, shooting from point to point, and is felt 
most at night when the patient is warm in bed. 
For treatment, see Rheumatism. 

HEAD-CHEESE.— r^7/&^: Pig's head, feet 
and ears, 7 lbs ; salt, i teaspoonful ; black 
pepper, j4 teaspoonful ; cayenne, j^ teaspoon- 
ful ; mace, % teaspoonful ; a small onion 
minced fine. 

Put on the meat in enough cold water 
to cover it, and boil till the meat is ready 
to drop from the bones ; remove these, and 
chop the meat up fine while it is hot; add 
the seasonings to the liquor, mix the meat in, 
and while hot tie all in a strong bag, and keep 
a heavy stone upon it until quite cold. A tin 
mould in the shape of a boar's head, will give 
a fine appearance to the cheese ; the mould 
should be wetted with cold water and the 
cheese poured in hot. 

HEALTH. — A moment's reflection will 
show how wide is the subject of health, for it 
not only embraces the structures and func- 
tions of the body, but all the influences which 
act upon it from without. To cover it with 
anything like completeness would require a 
treatise on physiology and hygiene, and would 
be out of place of course in a book like this; 
but there are certain essentials to the preser- 
vation of health, of which every housekeeper, 
at least, both can and should have practical 
knowledge, and these are treated of in the 
articles "on AiR, Baths, Clothing, Diet, 
Digestion, Exercise, House, Sleep, Ven- 
tilation and Warming. Attention to the 
principles laid down in these various articles 
will ensure good health so far as it is de- 
pendent upon bodily conditions ; and any de- 
clension from it into actual disease is treated 



HELIOTROPE 



HEPATICA 



261 



of under the various diseases. Tliere is such 
intimate connection, however, between the 
body and mind, that the health of one cannot 
be preserved without a proper care of the 
other. It is from a neglect of this principle 
that some of the most exemplary persons in 
the world suffer a thousand mental agonies 
from a diseased state of the body, while others 
ruin the health of the body by neglecting the 
proper care of the mind. One of the most 
common mental causes of ill-health is the ex- 
cessive exercise of intellect and feelings. Men- 
tal occupation, and in a variety of forms, is not 
only healthful, but necessary, as Dr. Combe 
says: " Inactivity of the intellect and of feeling 
is a very frequent predisposing cause of every 
form of nervous disease. But mental work, 
like bodily work, must be done within wise 
limitations, and must neither be excessive in 
amount nor monotonous in kind." General 
remarks of this character, however, though 
their importance may be recognized, are sel- 
dom of any practical use ; and we will close by 
quoting a paragraph from Dr. Edward Smith's 
treatise on " Health." According to him the 
"cardinal rules of health" for students and 
brain workers — for all workers in fact — are : 

(I.) Work in the early, rather than in the 
later part of the day, and do not rob yourself of 
sleep before midnight. (2.) Alternate your 
mental work with bodily recreation, and make 
as much use of the latter as the time will allow. 
Gymnastics which expand the chest, singing, 
shouting, running, jumping and walking are 
proper kinds of relaxation. (3.) Limit your 
mental toil to that number of hours which will 
enable you to work well with the mind, and 
to obtain proper recreation for it and the body. 
^ HEARTBURN. (5<r^ DYSPEPSIA.) 

HEARTH {To clean). {See CLEANING.) 

HEATING. {See Warming.) 

HELIOTROPE. — This is an excellent 
plant, either for indoor or garden culture, be- 
ing delightfully fragrant, and giving a plentiful 
supply of flowers from June to October. Plants 
of any of the numerous varieties can be pro- 
cured of the florists, and after that it is propa- 
gated from cuttings with great ease. A cut- 
ting the first year will grow very rank, but if 
cut back and pruned into one stem it becomes 
woody, and will make a fine shrub. The helio- 
trope is generally seen as a low bush, but it 
makes a very fine standard, if trained on a 
single stem, from one to four feet high, with a 
head several feet in diameter. Train the main 
stem of the plant to a trellis, or against the 
fence, and let the branches drop naturally, as 
they will gracefully. The plant bears the knife 
well, and breaks freely, so it can be trained to 
any shape. The older the plant the more 
profuse are its clusters of fragrant flowers. 
In the garden the heliotrope will grow vigor- 
ously if planted in the early Spring in any 
kind of rich, loamy soil. In pot-culture the 
soil should be strong loam, with a little sand 
and manure. It should have frequent re-pot- 
tings, and be allowed to grow large. 



The florists' catalogues contain many varie- 
ties of the heliotrope. The following are 
among the best : Beauty of tlie Boudoir, dark ; 
Due de Lavendrj, rich blue, with a. dark eye ; 
Etoile de Marseilles, deep violet, with white 
centre ; Flore, violet, light centre ; Garibaldi, 
nearly white ; Incomparable, bluish lilac ; Jean 
Mesiner, light bluish; La Petite Negress, very 
dark, dwarf; Leopold 1st, deep violet blue; 
Madame Farilon, violet tint ; Malulatie, deli- 
cate lilac ; Miss Nightingale, deep violet ; 
Reine des Heliotropes, violet and lilac. 

HEMORRHAGE. {See Bleeding.) 

HEMP. — A plant, the fibres of which are 
coarser and stronger than those of flax. It 
grows well in any soil which has a rich, loamy 
surface and good under-drainage ; but, though 
there are many portions of the Western States 
exactly adapted to its culture, by far the larger 
part is imported from Russia. It is used for 
making sail-cloth, and a kind of coarse canvas 
adapted for common clothing, tents, bags, etc., 
and also in making cords, twine and ropes. 
Buckram is a kind of coarse hempen cloth, 
woven very open, and stiffened with gum. 
The sap of the hemp plant contains a resinous 
substance which is a very powerful narcotic, 
and is much used in medicine. The extract 
made in India and imported has been found to 
be much stronger than that made in this 
country. 

HENBANE. — The common henbane is a 
native of Europe, and grows on waste grounds, 
banks and commons. Two varieties, the an- 
nual and the biennial, are cultivated here, the 
latter being generally regarded as the most 
active in its properties. The henbane is gland- 
ular and viscid, and exhales a peculiar and 
disgusting odor. The entire plant possesses 
narcotic properties, and has been employed 
medicinally from the earliest times as a nar- 
cotic, anodyne, and soporific. It is sometimes 
used by oculists in place of belladonna to di- 
late the pupil. When swallowed in sufficient 
quantity, it is said to cause loss of speech, dis- 
turbance of vision, distortion of face, coma, 
delirium, and paralysis. No antidote is known, 
but powerful emetics may be given if an over- 
dose is suspected. The leaves only are used 
in regular practice. They are given internally 
in the form of powders, or in extract or tinc- 
ture, and applied externally in fomentations 
and cataplasms. It should never be used in 
any way, except under medical advice. The 
fumes of the seeds of henbane, heated in the 
bowl of a tobacco-pipe, and inhaled, are said to 
allay the toothache. 

HEPATICA. — Popularly known as " Squir- 
rel Cups." This is a hardy, herbaceous jjlant, 
and is the first of the Spring flowers to open 
after the snow-drop and crocus, usually ex- 
panding about the first week in April. The 
leaves are evergreen and the flowers double 
and single, white, blue, rose and red, and very 
profuse in bloom. The plant may be raised 
from seeds (plant in the Autumn or in the very 
early Spring), or obtained ready started from 



262 



HERBS 



HERRING 



the florist. It flourishes best in a moderately 
rich, loamy soil, and m sunny spots of the 
garden. Some of the double varieties are 
among the most desirable flowers for forcing, 
a pot of any of them being a mass of bloom 
for several weeks. 

HERBS. — The vegetables comprising the 
group of what are called "sweet herbs" are 
not eaten as a dish by themselves, but enter 
into other dishes as seasoning, flavor, etc., and 
are also used to some extent in perfumery. 
Those usually employed in cookery in this 
country are bali/i, basil, fennel, lavende?; inar- 
jonpn, juint, parsley, ?-osefnaty, sage, tansy, 
tarragoti and ihytne. Each of them is treated 
of in its ai^propriate place, and we shall only 
make room here for a few suggestions about 
gathering and preserving them. Sweet herbs 
that are to be dried for use should be gathered 
early in the morning at the season when they 
are just beginning to flower. The dust should 
be washed or brushed off them, and they 
should then be dried by a gentle heat as quick- 
ly as possible. The stalks should be picked 
out and thrown away and the leaves and small 
twigs i)ut into corked, large-mouth bottles, or 
tin boxes closely covered. When dried and 
pressed into cakes, and wrapped in paper (the 
form in which they are usually sold in the 
stores), herbs may be kept two or three years ; 
but when hung up in loose bundles, they soon 
lose their flavor. 

Drinks (Herb). — Balm tea is often relished 
by the sick, and sage, and pennyroyal, and 
tansy tea have excellent medicinal effects. 
Balm, sage and sorrel, mixed in equal propor- 
tions with sliced lemon, and boiling water 
poured on, and then sweetened, is a fine drink. 
Herb drinks must be made in small quantities 
and renewed often, as they become insipid by 
standing. 

Mixture (Herb). — For general cooking pur- 
poses the following is a good mixture : Equal 
proportions of sweet marjorum and winter 
savory, with half the quantity of basil, thyme 
and tarragon. Rub to a powder, mixing well 
together, and keep in a bottle closely corked. 

Po-wder (Herb). — Take equal quanthies of 
dried parsley, savory, sweet marjorum, and 
thyme ; half the quantity of basil, and a few 
drops of essence of lemon ; warm them in a 
moderately hot oven, and pound them in a 
mortar ; sift the powder and keep it closely 
stopped. This is useful to flavor sauces, soups, 
and forcemeats, but the flavor of fresh herbs 
is finer. 

HERNIA. — A general term applied to any 
protrusion of any inner organ, or intestine, from 
its natural cavity. In a more restricted sense, 
however, and as generally used, the word only 
signifies a protrusion of the abdominal viscera. 
Children and old people are most liable to this 
disease. In the former it is generally caused 
by excessive crying, coughing, vomiting and 
the like ; in the latter it usually results from 
blows or violent exertions of the strength, as 
leaping, carrying heavy weights, etc. In both, 



a relaxed habit, indolence, and an oily diet, 
dispose the body to the disease. A rupture 
sometimes proves fatal before it is discovered. 
Whenever sickness, vomiting, or obstinate 
costivencss gives reason to suspect an obstruc- 
tion of the bowels, all those places where 
ruptures usually happen (the nmbilicus and 
the itigumal zxi^ femoral canals), ought to be 
carefully examined. The protrusion of a very 
small part of the intestines will occasion all 
these symptoms, and, if not returned in due 
time, may prove fatal. 

Treatment. — On the first appearance of 
rupture in an infant, it ought to be laid upon its 
back with its head very low. While in this 
posture, if the gut does not return of itself, it 
may easily be put up by gentle pressure. After 
it is returned, a piece of sticking plaster may 
be put on over the part, and a proper truss or 
bandage must be constantly worn for a consid- 
erable time. The child must, as far as pos- 
sible, be kept from crying and from all violent 
exertions, until the rupture is cured. 

In adults, when the intestine has been forced 
down with great violence, or happens from any 
cause to be inflamed, there is often great dif- 
ficulty in returning it, and sometimes the thing 
is quite impracticable without a surgical opera- 
tion — a description of which is foreign to our 
purpose. When the rapture is discovered, lay 
the patient on his back, with his head very low, 
and his back raised high with pillows. In this 
situation, flannel cloths wrung out in a decoc- 
tion of camomile flowers, or simply in warm 
water, must be applied for a considerable time. 
If these should not prove successful, recourse 
must be had to pressure. If the tumor be very 
hard, considerable force will be necessary ; but 
it is not force alone which succeeds here. The 
operator, at the same time he makes a pressure 
with the palms of his hands, must with his 
flngers artfully conduct the intestine in by the 
same aperture through which it came out. 
There is reason to believe that by persisting in 
the use of these, and such other means as the 
circumstances of the case may suggest, most 
herjiias ought to be cured without an operation, 
Sometimes, however, the surgeon's help is the 
only chance, and must be sought without delay. 
An adult, after his intestine has been return- 
ed, must wear a proper truss. Such bandages 
are generally annoying to the wearer at first, 
but by custom they become quite easy. No 
person who has had a rupture after arriving at 
man's estate should be without one of these 
trusses. Persons who have a rapture ought 
carefully to avoid all violent exercise, such as 
leaping, lamning, and the like ; they should 
abstain from strong liquors, and should guard 
carefully against catching cold. 

HERRING.— There are five or six different 
species of fish which pass in our market under 
this name ; but only one is abundant, and that 
is the common herring (known as "wliite her- 
ring " in England), which is caught in vast num- 
bers on our coasts and passes into commerce 
as salted or smoked herring. Herrings may 



HICCOUGH 



HODGE-PODGE 



263 



be obtained in a fresh state during the months 
of February, March, and April ; their usual 
weight is almost half a pound. Red herring 
derive their appellation from the brownish, red 
color given to them by smoke after they have 
been salted. As food, fresh herring, though 
rather oily, are healthful, if used moderately. 
Red herrings are less a food than a luxury ; 
they excite thirst, and tend to create fever. 

Broiled Herring — Cut off the tip of their 
heads immediately behind the eyes ; split down 
the back ; remove the bone and entrails ; lay on 
a deep dish, with oil, vinegar, pepper and salt ; 
turn often to absorb well the flavor of the mar- 
inade. Broil on a clear fire, and serve with 
Dutch sauce, separately in tureen. 

Red Herrings. — I. This fish is rendered 
much more delicate by pouring boiling water 
on it before it is dressed, and leaving it to soak 
for half an hour or more, should it be highly 
dried. Cut off the heads and tails, open the 
herrings at the back, and warm them through 
before the fire or upon the gridiron. They 
may be rubbed with a bit of cold butter, and 
seasoned with a slight sprinkling of pepper or 
cayenne, when these are liked, or served quite 
plain. 

IL Take off the heads, open the backs of 
the fish, and remove the backbones ; soak the 
herrings for two or three hours in warm milk 
and water; drain and wipe them. Melt a tea- 
spoonful of butter and mix it with the beaten 
yolks of two eggs and some savory herbs 
minced fine; dip the fish into this mixture and 
spread them thickly with fine bread-crumbs ; 
broil them to a light brown over a moderate fire, 
and serve them on hot buttered toast, sprinkled 
with a little cayenne. 

HICCOUGH. — This is generally called 
"hiccup." It is a spasmodic or convulsive af- 
fection of the diaphragm, often arising from 
some cause that irritates the nerves of the 
stomach. It may come from excess in eat- 
ing or drinking, from external injury to 
the stomach, from poison, from inflamma- 
tion or tumors in the stomach or any of 
the viscera. In gangrenes, and acute and ma- 
lignant fevers, a hiccough is often the fore- 
runner of death. The common hiccough may 
generally be removed by drinking off a glass of 
cold water rapidly, or by taking a pinch of 
snuff or anything that will cause sneezing; 
quite troublesome cases are frequently cured 
by swallowing quickly a glass of strong soda 
water in a state of brisk effervescence. When 
the hiccough proceeds from indigestion, a 
draught of generous wine or of any spirituous 
liquor will generally remove it. When a sick 
person has the hiccoughs, and a sudden ejacu- 
lation or diversion of the patient's mind fails 
to remove it, give twenty drops of sal-volatile 
and fifteen drops of ether in a wineglass of 
camphor-water ; or in severe cases, give thirty 
drops of laudanum. 

HICKORY-NUTS. — There are several va- 
rieties of hickory-nuts, which are very different 
from each other in quality, and it requires 



some knowledge to select the best. Those 
known as " shell-barks " or " shag-barks " are 
the choicest. They grow in shaggy-bodied 
trees, are flatter than the ordinary kind, have 
a thin shell, easily cracked, and a full kernel of 
large, proportionate size. They ripen in Octo- 
ber, and are found in market all winter. The 
next best kind are the " mocker-nuts" or thick- 
shelled hickories. These are both larger and 
rounder than the shag-barks, and have a very 
thick shell, with a small but SAveet kernel. The 
" pig-nuts " are small, pear-shaped and smooth, 
and are very inferior — being sometimes unfit 
to eat. The " hog-nuts " or " swamp-hick- 
ories " are the poorest of all the varieties, 
the kernel being hard and bitter. All the va- 
rieties ripen in October. 

HOARHOUND. — A perennial plant grow- 
ing wild in many portions of the country, and 
also cultivated for its medicinal virtues. Large 
quantities of the parts used are gathered and 
prepared for the market, and may usually be 
obtained at the herb-stands and at drug stores. 
It has an aromatic smell and a bitter taste. A 
strong decoction of hoarhound, sweetened, and 
drunk cold, is excellent for coughs or weak 
lungs. The well-known hoarkomid candy is 
good for the same purposes ; dissolved slowly 
in the mouth and swallowed, it relieves that 
titillation in the throat which is one of the 
most irritating features of a cough, and also 
exerts a soothing influence. {See Candy.) 

HOARSENESS. — In general, hoarseness is 
a symptom of a severe cold, and may be re- 
moved by alleviating the latter. For a sudden 
hoarseness, where the throat alone seems to 
be affected, take a teaspoonful of sweet spirits 
of nitre in a wineglassful of water two or three 
times a day. When the voice has become 
hoarse by loud speaking, it may be restored 
usually by simply eating a piece of anchovy. 
Borax, however, as has recently been discov- 
ered, is the sovereign remedy for hoarseness 
of any kind. Dissolve a piece of the size of a 
pea slowly in the mouth, and swallow the 
saliva. The effect is like magic. 

HOCK. — One of the favorites among the 
Rhenish wines. The true Hock is so called 
from the vineyards of Hochheim, a little town, 
not on the Rhine, but on the Maine, a few 
miles from its junction with the former river j 
but it is always classed with the Rhenish or 
Rhine wines, being of nearly the same excel- 
lence. With us, not only the wines made near 
Hochheim receive, in general, the name of 
Hock, but likewise those of the Rhine, the 
Maine, the Nabe, and even the Moselle : 
though the character of these sometimes varies 
considerably. Hock has all the characteristic 
quahties of the Rhine wines. When old, 
though generous and durable, it is considered 
as less heating, and more exhilarating than 
many other wines, and is consequently excel- 
lent for invalids requiring a stimulant. Drink 
a little cooler than the room. 

HODGE-PODGE This is a genuine 

Scotch recipe : — Put as much water into a 



264 



HOE-CAKE 



HOMINY 



large sauce-pan as will make two days' supply 
of soup for a family of six or eight, three hours 
before dinner ; add two pounds of leg of beef, 
half a pound of dried peas, one dozen carrots 
cut in small pieces, and four onions, also 
minced ; let this boil an hour and a halt, and 
then add another half pound of peas and two 
pounds of mutton chops. When it has all 
boiled for three hours, take out the beef, and 
serve the hodge-podge with the mutton chops. 
It should be as thick as porridge nearly; a 
few beans and turnips can be added, but the 
turnips are apt to sour it ; yet when peas are 
scarce and young, it is necessary to use tur- 
nips in order to make it thick enough. Tlie 
dish is considered best the second day after 
making. 

HOE-CAKE. — A kind of bread made of In- 
dian meal, which is very popular in the South. 
Take a quart of Indian meal, and mix it with 
enough boiling water to make a tliick batter ; 
stir in two tablespoonfuls of butter and two tea- 
spoonfuls of salt ; turn it into a buttered pan, 
flatten to one-third of an inch, and bake half 
an hour in a moderate oven. Eat hot, with 
butter. 

HOG. (See PoRK.^ 

HOLLANDS. (See GiN.) 

HOLLYHOCK.— This is a tall flowering 
plant, of the genus Althea, cultivated exten- 
sively in gardens. When grown amongst 
shrubs in situations moderately sheltered, few 
plants produce a finer floral display during the 
autumn months. The great drawback to its 
cultivation is the liability of the plants to get 
broken by the wind ; but if secured when eigh- 
teen inches high, to suitable stakes, this can 
easily be obviated. Procure the plant from a 
florist (or raise from seed in a hot-bed), and 
set them out when all danger from frost is pass- 
ed, say at the end of April. Give each plant a 
few spadefuls of rotten manure ; press the 
earth firmly around the roots ; and if the ground 
is dry, give a good watering. In due time, 
stake each plant, and as the stems advance in 
growth secure them to it with strong but soft 
cord or strips of cloth. Let only one stem rise 
from a plant, and nip out all the laterals as 
they appear. Never allow the plants to suffer 
from want of water ; and as soon as flower-buds 
are formed, dig in a little more well-rotted ma- 
nure. In most instances, two flower-buds will 
start from the axil of each leaf; nip out the 
smaller of the two, and in any case of crowding, 
thin to the requisite number. 

HOMEOPATHY.— A system of medical 
practice, of which the fundamental principle is 
the treatment of diseases by the administration 
of such remedies as, when given to a healthy 
man, will produce, it is claimed, symptoms simi- 
lar to those from which the patient is suffering. 
The magnitude of the dose has no connection 
with the principle ("like cures like,") but is 
determined, as in all modes of practice, by the 
circumstance of each case. It must be said, 
however, that in homeopathic practice much 
smaller doses are generally used than by the 



Regular School of physicians, on the theory that 

the remedies are claimed to act specifically and 
directly on the diseased part, which is assumed 
to be more sensitive than in health, and conse- 
quently will not tolerate as large doses as might 
be prescribed under other and more indirect 
modes of treatment. The chief merit of Ho- 
meopathy, according to its leading advocates, 
does not consist in its discovery of the efficacy 
of small doses, but in the principle that mala- 
dies can best be cured by impressing diseased 
tissue with medicines which operate specifically 
upon these tissues themselves, rather than on 
distant parts. 

As nearly every household in which Homeo- 
pathy is practiced has its '■'■book" and case of 
medicines, no Homeopathic prescriptions are 
given in this volume. 

HOMERIA. — A fine plant for window cul- 
ture, belonging to the class known as " Cape 
Bulbs." It will not grow out of doors in our 
climate ; but our winter suns bring them to per- 
fection at a time when other flowers are rare 
and when out-door gardening is impossible. 
The proper soil for the Ilomeria is equal parts 
of loam, leaf-mould, and sand. The bulbs 
should be treated like the Ixia as to potting, 
watering, and the rest. They flower from 
April to June, and should then be allowed to 
rest till October. The principal species are : 
liomeria lineata, with long and stiff leaves, 
marked with white and green lines, small bulbs, 
flower-stem about one and a half feet long, pro- 
ducing copper-colored flowers ; single blooms 
are transient, but many are produced in succes- 
sion, and the plants are thus in flower for a 
long time. It is a showy plant, and blooms 
about the middle of April. A number of bulbs 
•should be planted in one pot to produce a fine 
effect ; and as the roots grow, the plants should 
be repotted, for the growth of the roots is so 
strong as often to break the pot if it is not 
large enough. Be careful in repotting not to 
break the ball of earth, and to disturb the roots 
as little as possible. The homer ia spicata, is 
a beautiful plant producing an abundance of 
red and yellow flowers. Homeria Collina has 
orange and scarlet flowers. 

HOMINY. — A preparation of Indian corn, 
called large or small hominy according to the 
grinding. To cook the large: Wash, and 
add twice its depth of cold water ; cover and 
let it cook very slowly for seven or eight hours ; 
as the water boils away, add from the teaket- 
tle ; when tender, add salt to the taste, and 
when the water is absorbed, serve. Small 
hominy requires but from one to two hours. 
To prepare the cold large hominy for break- 
fast: Drop a bit of butter in a small, 
deep, frying-pan ; when hot fill it evenly with 
hominy, let it heat and brown ; serve upside 
down on a dinner plate. The small hom- 
iny may be sliced and browned. '■'■Hulled 
corn " is boiled in lye (made by boiling two 
handfuls of hard wood ashes in two quarts 
of water for twenty minutes until the hull 
loosens, washed, and rubbed through several 



HONEY 



HORSE 



265 



waters to remove the hull, and the taste of lye ; 
then boiled in clear water until tender. 

HONEY. — The natural sugar collected by 
bees from flowers and the leaves of certain 
plants. It cannot in any way serve as a sub- 
stitute for sugar ; but may be used with cau- 
tion in various ways, both as food and as a 
medicine. Honey varies greatly in color 
and in taste according to the locality of its pro- 
duction. New honey is a transparent syrup, 
varying considerably in color from nearly 
white to a yellowish brown, intensely sweet 
to the taste, with a sharp acidulous flavor, 
and an aromatic odor ; by keeping the color 
becomes deepened and the taste acquires more 
sharpness. After a few weeks, it generally 
grows thick from the formation of small, 
crystalline grains, which remain mixed with 
the fluid parts ; the same effect is produced 
by a cold temperature. The lighter colored 
honeys are most liable to granulate. Honey 
is laxative, and when eaten freely as food 
is liable to produce colic or even diarrhoea. 
It is generally abundant in the markets in 
the summer and fall months ; it is estimated 
according to the nature of the flower from 
which it was taken. The best comes in 
small boxes (showing one or two sides with 
glass), the comb well filled with nearly 
white honey which is supposed to be made 
principally from the white clover. The buck- 
wheat honey is darker, but very sweet. Large 
hives of honey are also found, but it is gen- 
erally inferior to the other kinds. Strained 
honey is looked upon with suspicion, and is 
seldom found as pure as the bees made it. 
When adulterated with sulphate of lime, it may 
be detected by being insoluble in water. {See 
Bee-Keeping.) 

Clarified Honey. — Honey is clarified by 
melting the best kind with water over a water- 
bath, adding the white of &gg, and boiling it to 
throw up the scum ; when the scum has been 
carefully removed, the water must be evapor- 
ated, and the honey brought to its former con- 
sistence. 

Honey Cakes. (^Sce Cake.) 

Honey "Water. — Take a pint of proof spirits 
of wine, and three drachms of essence of 
ambergris ; put them into a bottle, shake it 
daily for a month, and then draw off into small 
bottles. 

HONEY-SUCKLE. — One of the most de- 
sirable of the ornamental climbing vines. It 
grows rapidly in any good garden soil, is very 
easily raised, has highly ornamental foliage, 
and bears a profusion of flowers which are 
o-enerally of the most delicious fragrance. 
There are numerous varieties of the honey- 
suckle, of which the most desirable are the 
Scarlet and Yellow Trumpet, Dutch Monthly, 
and Japan Twining. Of late years some fine 
varieties have been imported from China, and 
Japan. Among the Chinese the Golden-leaved 
Loniccra is one of the best; it is a rapid 
grower, with small wiry stems, the foliage is 
netted with gold, and the flowers are white and 



very fragrant. Lonicera Halliana is evergreen ; . 
perfectly hardy, and flowering monthly in pro- 
fuse clusters ; its flowers pure white turning 
to yellow. Lonicera bracliypoda, or Japan 
Honey-suckle, is a very beautiful vine ; its 
flowers are of delicious fragrance ; the leaves 
are evergreen and very glossy. No hardy vine 
can excel it. 

Tartarian Honey-suckles are large shrubs 
of much beauty, whether covered with their 
pink or white flowers, or with scarlet berries. 
They will grow from cuttings or seeds, are 
entirely hardy, and require little care. 

HOOPING-COUGH. {See Whooping- 
Cough). 

HOPS. — Hops are the flowers of the hop 
plant, which is extensively cultivated in many 
parts of the United States, in England, in Can- 
ada, and in Belgium. A particularly rich and 
loamy clay soil is required for the successful 
growth of this plant, which also demands liber- 
al supplies of animal manure in a highly concen- 
trated form. The young shoots are good for 
the table, when cut in the Spring, when not 
more than five or six inches high ; they are eat- 
en as salad, or boiled and served as asparagus, 
which they resemble. The flowers or hops 
should be gathered in August ; after which, 
when dried and closely packed in " pockets " or 
bags, they become a solid mass, of a bright or 
greenish yellow color, with a fine dust permea- 
ting it in which the principal flavoring matter re- 
sides. The best hops are of a bright color, be- 
tween yellow and green ; if they are very green 
they were gathered too young ; if very brown, 
they were allowed to ripen too long on the vines, 
or they have been over-dried and have lost their 
peculiar flavor. They should have a powerful 
aromatic flavor, particularly when rubbed be- 
tween the fingers ; should feel sticky to the 
hand ; and should contain much of the yellow 
powder above mentioned. Porter brewers pre- 
fer hops of a rather brown color; but ale and 
table-beer brewers use pale hops. 

New hops are reckoned as one-fourth or fifth 
stronger than old ones. When one year old, 
hops have not lost much of their strength ; but 
after that every successive year takes away 
from their value, and after three or four years 
they are comparatively worthless. Hops must 
be closely packed in stout bags ; otherwise they 
will attract damp and become mouldy and use- 
less. 

HORSE. — The only kind of horses which we 
have reference to in the following remarks are 
those used for ordinary domestic purposes. 
The selection of a horse is about as delicate a 
task as one can undertake, a mistake being 
very easy to make and very difficult to rectify. 
The best policy for the purchaser (unless an 
expert) is to distrust his own judgment entire- 
ly and take the advice of some one on whom 
he can rely and who has a special knowledge 
of the subject. As this is not always practica- 
ble, however, a few rules, such as the best au- 
thorities agree upon, may be of service. The 
first step is to ascertain the age of the horse, 



266 



HORSE 



which is best done by examining his teeth. 
The complete dentition of the horse can be ex- 
pressed as follows: — Incisors or nippers |. 
Canine or tushes ^. Molars or grinders i|. 
A horse has two sets of incisor teeth, and as 
the temporary incisor or milk teeth are shed 
and replaced by permanent teeth at regular in- 
tervals, by carefully noticing the size and ap- 
pearance of the teeth we can generally arrive 
at the true age of the horse. The temporary 
grinders so closely resemble the permanent 
that no notice is taken of them by horsemen. 
It is important clearly to note the difference 
between permanent and milkteetli. The latter 
are much smaller ; are what is called constrict- 
ed, that is, narrower near the gums than on the 
cutting surface. All teeth have on the upper 
surface an indentation which is called the 
" mark." This " mark " is much more evident 
in the permanent than in the milk teeth. This 
mark is finally worn out and disappears after 
the animal is nine years old. At a year old, the 
colt has cut all his milk teeth ; the twelve in- 
cisor teeth are all full grown and the marks are 
clearly seen. These teeth appear through the 
gums as follows : — The four central ones at 
ten days ; the four middle at about two months ; 
the four corner teeth, as they are called, at 
about seven months. At two years old the 
colt's mouth is changed considerably. The 
teeth are much worn down, presenting a smooth 
surface, the marks are hardly distinguishable 
on the central or middle teeth. One of the 
differences between the permanent and milk 
teeth can be now seen. The permanent teeth 
as they are worn grow out again, while milk 
teeth become smaller. The horse loses his in- 
cisors in the same order that he cuts them — the 
central ones drop out at two years and six 
months and are replaced by the permanent. At 
three years old the central permanent incisors 
are full grown, the " marks " or black spots 
on the top, are on them, and have disappeared 
from the ""middle" teeth. These drop out at 
three years and a half, and at four years old 
the horse's mouth presents the following ap- 
pearance : — The central and middle permanent 
incisors are in their place, while the marks are 
obliterated from the corner milk teeth. The 
tushes or canine teeth are now just showing 
through the gums. These teeth are not found 
in the mare. At four years and six months the 
corner incisors drop out ; at five years old all 
the teeth are present, and from that date no 
further shedding is seen. The marks on the 
central incisors disappear at six years old. At 
seven years old the middle lose theirs, and a 
small protuberance is seen on the outer edge of 
the corner teeth. These lose their marks at 
eight years old, and from that date no great re- 
liance can be put in ascertaining the exact age. 
The gums fall away from the teeth, their upper 
surfaces are worn smooth, black streaks appear 
running up and down, covering the front of the 
teeth at about twelve or thirteen. Now it 
should be remembered that a horse is consider- 
ed to be at his prime at five years old. Hence, 



dishonest dealers resort to various expedients 
to cause horses, either older or younger, to 
show an apparently five year old mouth. 




Points of Hors,'. 
1. Muzzle.— 2. Face.— 3. Forehead.— 4. Poll.— 5. Crest.— 6. 
Withers.— 7. Back.— 8. Loins.— 9. Hip.— 10. Croup.- 11. Dock.— 
n. Quarter.— 13. Thigh, or Gaskin.— 14. Ham-string.— 15. Point 
of the Hock.— 16. Cannon.— 17. Fetlock.— 18. Pasterns.- 19. 
Coronet.— 20. Ham, or Hock.— 21 Sheath.— 22. Flank.— 23. Girth. 
—24. Elbow.— 25 Heel.— 26. Hoof.— 27. Fetlock.— 28. Cannon.— 
29. Knee.— 30. Arm.— 31. Breast or Bosom.— :«. Point of the 
Shoulder.— 33. Windpipe.— 31. Gullet.— 35 Jowl. 

" Points." — We shall not attempt here to go 
fully into all the points for which the various 
breeds of horses are noted, but only to state 
those which should be found in any horse re- 
quired to do good service. See that the nos- 
trils are large, round, well formed ; that there 
may be no impediment to the breath. Let the 
eye be full, showing little or no white. Do not 
let the throat be too narrow. See that the 
head hangs well out from the chest and there 
will be less chance of the animal roaring. The 
shoulder is a part of great consequence. If 
speed is required, a sloping shoulder is essen- 
tial, but an upright shoulder is better in a draft 
horse, as it gives the animal more power and 
more readily adjusts itself to the collar. Let 
the fore-arm be long, the knee flat and large. 
Consider it as a safe rule that all bones above 
the knee are better long, those below short ; 
hence, short cannon and pasterns are desirable. 
Look out for splints ; (which see below). 
Let the walls of the hoof be well shapen, 
not scaly but firm and smooth; lookout for corns 
on the sole ; let the frog be large. In farm horses 
large flat feet are looked for. In higher bred 
animals the feet should be small, the toes if 
anything pointing a little in. Let the chest, 
unless speed is desired, be wide and full, the 
ribs well sprung — the deep chest of the race 
horse being unsuited to the continued strain re- 
quired for farm work. See that the abdomen 
is not too prominent, but well rounded, taper- 
ing off towards the thigh joint, firm under pres- 
sure. The back should be well shaped, not 
camel-backed, as it interferes with the action 
of the animal, nor too high at the withers. Let 
the loins be well rounded to give speed, not 
too much "hog-backed," as it hurts the gait. 



HORSE 



267 



Now examine the hind quarters. Look out 
for spavin. See " Diseases " below, for symp- 
toms of Spavin. The hocks, fetlocks, and 
quarters, should be on a straight line. As in 
the front legs, all the bones about the hock 
should be as long as possible, those below the 
hock as short. 

When a horse is to be purchased, examine 
the eyes at the stable-door, before he is 
brought out; the light coming upon them in 
that situation will enable you to discover any 
defect that may exist. Both eyes must be 
in an equal degree of light; and if they are 
not alike, one must be diseased. Weeping, 
cloudy, dull-looking eyes, are unsound ; and 
if the eye be at all diseased, do not pur- 
chase. 

Now take him out of his stall and run him 
down slowly on a rough or stony descent, at 
the end of a halter, his head unsupported, 
and no whip near him. If he go boldly, with 
his knees bent, and his foot flat and firm to 
the ground, without dropping his head, his 
soundness Isefore may be calculated upon ; 
and if, on running him up hill, he go with his 
hocks regularly together, and not dragging 
the toe, nor dropping from the hip, he is free 
from lameness. Pottering on the toe, and 
feeling, denotes that he is not sound. The 
horse should be shown quietly, because, when 
he is agitated, a slight lameness may be over- 
looked ; and always see hint ridden, for many 
horses are pleasant to ride that are unpleas- 
ant to look at when ridden. When brought 
out, let the horse be placed with his fore-legs 
up hill: then, if his joints be at all bent over, 
or his legs shaken, you will best discover it. 

Never agree to take a horse before you 
have tried him, and had him examined by a 
veterinary surgeon. 

FOOD AND MANAGEMENT. 

Food. — When the horse is engaged in 
work, grain of some kind ought always to ac- 
company the hay. While he is working mode- 
rately four quarts of oats is an average " feed." 
Under hard work he may go up to six, or in 
exceptional cases, even eight, at his third 
meal, or possibly his second. Half the quan- 
tity of old corn is. considered equivalent. 
After a heavy feed a horse should not be 
worked hard under an hour, or under half 
an hour after a light one. 

Never feed a horse after hard work until 
he is cooled off. He may be permitted, how- 
ever, to have a small forkful of hay upon 
going into the stable. Oats are the best grain, 
barley next. Wheat and Indian corn are less 
suitable ; the former being too concentrated, 
and the latter too heating. Grain is always 
fed more advantageously when ground or 
crushed, and wet some time previous to eat- 
ing. Corn-meal put upon cut hay, wet and 
well mixed, is good steady feed for slow 
working horses, if not fed in too large quan- 
tities. Four quarts a day may be fed un- 



mixed with other grain ; but if the horse be 
hard worked and needs more, mix the meal 
with oats, wheat, bran, or linseed-oil meal ; or, 
use corn and oats ground together. When 
confined to dry food, roots or apples given once 
a day are excellent, being both wholesome and 
very nutritious. Carrots are the best of the 
roots, as, besides giving muscle and working 
power, they improve the wind and prevent all 
tendency to '• heaves." They have even been 
found effectual in removing an obstinate cough. 
Potatoes, parsnips, beets, and turnips, in the 
order named, are next to be preferred. The 
potatoes are improved by cooking. Mixtures 
of food are best, as of cut hay, meal, and roots. 
Old horses, or such as are worked hard, will 
thrive much better if their food be given in 
the form easiest of digestion, as cut and 
steamed. Much vital power is exhausted in 
digesting dry, raw food. 

Do not feed one kind of food too much. 
Mix a little bran with oats. Bran cannot be 
swallowed until thoroughlymoistened, and this 
requires considerable mastication, in which 
the oats become well ground and mixed with 
saliva. If these latter are crushed, a great 
saving will be effected, as horses are apt to 
bolt their food without sufficient mastication, 
and much nourishment passes out in the foeces. 

Horses should be fed regularly and at stated 
times. If their food is given at the proper 
time, and they are allowed to finish it at once 
without expecting more, they will lie down 
quietly and digest it. This will be much more 
refreshing to them than to stand at the rack or 
trough, nibbling continually at hay or oats. 
What remains when a horse is- done feeding 
should be at once withdrawn. 

Water should be given three times in sum- 
mer, and in winter twice a day. Soft or run- 
ning water is much the best. While working 
they may have it as often as they desire ; but 
they should neither be fed nor watered when 
heated; nor driven immediately afterwards. 
At the trough, on the road, &c.,give but a few 
swallows. 

Salt.— A piece of rock-salt should always be 
within a horse's reach. 

Regulating Bowels. — An old custom, and 
one not to be followed, is giving a ball to a 
horse in the spring of the year. Never give 
balls, nor strong medicines of any sort, unless 
absolutely required. A bran mash with a few 
handfuls of flax-seed mixed in with it, is often 
far better than expensive and dangerous doses. 
It is an excellent plan to give every Saturday 
night, six or eight quarts of bran, mixed up 
with hot water, with a tablespoonful of salt and 
a pinch of sulphur added. 

The Hoof.— A sponge moistened with water 
and Castile soap, may, with advantage, be used 
to clean out the hoof itself, taking care not to 
moisten the coronet. Another very common 
practice, in many parts of the country is to fill 
the hoof of the horses every night with cow- 
dung, or with Indian corn meal. Now, what is 
desired by stuffing horses hoofs is to keep 



268 



HORSE 



them soft, to prevent the horn becoming dry, 
and to promote its healtliy growth. The dan- 
ger of too often stuffing the hoofs is, that the 
horn becoming too soft from too much moist- 
ure is apt to decompose rapidly and a bad case 
of Thrush to result. The very best stuffing 
in the world is a mixture of cow-dung and stiff 
clay — equal parts of each. Apply only to the 
fore feet not oftener than threo times a week, 
and only then when the horse is kept in the 
stable. 

Grooming. — Thorough grooming is not less 
essential to the health of a horse than proper 
food. Especial care should be taken of the 
legs and fetlocks that no dirt remain to cause 
that distressing disease grease or scratches, 
which comes from filthy fetlocks and standing 
in dirty stables. When a horse comes in from 
work on muddy roads with dirty legs, the dirt 
should be dried and then brushed off, then rub- 
bed with straw ; then, if very dirty, washed 
clean with lukewarm water and rubbed dry 
with a piece of sacking. If not thoroughly 
dried they had better not have been washed. 
If the mud has been splashed thickly on the 
horse's belly and sides, these should be cleaned 
in the same way. If sweaty or warm from work 
the horse should be blanketed, if he is to stand 
a minute in the winter air. If put at once into 
the stable, he should be stripped and rubbed 
vigorously with straw for five minutes or more 
and then blanketed ; the blanket must be re- 
moved in an hour, and the horse given water 
and feed if it is the proper time. It will not 
hurt him to eat hay when hot, unless he is tho- 
roughly exhausted, in which case all food 
should be withheld for a while. A horse should 
never stand in a draught of cold air, if he can- 
not turn and put his back to it. He should 
never be turned into a yard to "cool off " even 
in summer ; neither should he be turned out 
to pasture until quite cool. 

Exercise. — When a horse is not worked, he 
should be exercised morning and evening — a 
brisk trot of three miles is not too much. 

A horse should be always driven gently 
when he is first taken out. 

DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. 

Nearly all the diseases of horses can be 
traced to improper food, air, or treatment. 
Some few are obscure in their origin and many 
are set down as contagious, when the disease 
springs from the same cause attacking all the 
animals at once. We emphatically caution 
against use of medicine by the inexperienced, 
except where the case is unmistakable or ex- 
perience is not to be had. 

Bots see Worms. 

Blind Staggers, see Staggers. 

Broken Knees see Knees. 

Canker, see Thrush. 

Catarrh, see Colds. 

Chapped Heels, see Scratches. 

Colds in themselves are very simple things, 
though often the symptoms of graver disor- 
ders. Horses badly blanketed in spring and 



fall are very liable. The treatment is simple 
— give a warm bran mash with half an ounce 
of nitre twice a day, and keep the animal bet- 
ter housed. Remember that success in treat- 
ing colds depends upon keeping the tempera- 
ture of the animal equal, day and night. Give 
no corn, and plenty of water. When colds 
increase in intensity, and we get the running 
of matter from the nose, we give the name 
Catarrh to the disease. Now it is as well to 
state, that in all disorders of the air passa- 
ges, the animal should never be bled or receive 
medicine in the shape of balls. Catarrh is 
often a fatal disease from mismanagement. 
Treat very simply with mashes and nitre ; rely 
on fresh air ; slaould the glands of the neck be 
much enlarged, apply a stimulating liniment as 
gin, vinegar, and water. In troublesome cases 
mix two drachms of camphor, the same amount 
of belladonna, with molasses, and put it on the 
back of the horse's tongue — a little sulphur 
burnt in the manger does good. Horses are 
liable to other diseases of the air passages, as 
pleurisy, pneumonia, (or lung fever), bronchitis 
etc., but the sketch of the treatment we have 
given for catarrh covers all we can really do — 
these cases must be left to nature, assisted 
by plenty of fresh air, warm clothing, and 
careful nursing. Do not give drugs at all, nor 
bleed, nor blister. If the animal is very rest- 
ive give ten drops of aconite as a sedative. If 
the animal is left unmolested, these trouble- 
some diseases easily run their course and dis- 
appear — none of them are contagious at all. 

Colic is the irritation of the coat of the 
small intestines, caused always by an active 
irritant interfering with proper functions of 
the stomach and bowels. Symptoms are strong 
contraction of the intestines — the animal 
throws itself down, jerking its legs, trying to 
ease the pain — is then better for a little — 
another spasm comes on, all symptoms repeat- 
ed. In flatulent colic, when the intestines are 
inflated with wind, the symptoms are similar. 
Purge well — give clysters of warm soap suds — 
where much pain is evident, an ounce and a 
half of opium. For the " Flatulent" give three 
drachms of carbonate of ammonia in a quart 
of cold water, and opium as above. Keep the 
animal well tied up and in a narrow stall. 

Corns should be cut out and the shoes 
changed. They arise from improper shoeing. 

Diarrhoea is due to a derangement of the in- 
testines from the presence of an irritant caus- 
ing an increased secretion — may arise from 
sudden chills acting on the blood— wet grasses 
—bad food— is often the symptom of other 
diseases. The best treatment is, when produced 
by an irritant, to remove it by giving purga- 
tive No. 2, under Remedies below, or three 
or four ounces of castor oil. Nurse well and 
give warm bran mashes. When due to sud- 
den chills, give half an ounce of opium— mjec- 
tions of warm water and salts. _ When the 
evacuations are very offensive, give carbolic 
acid, one to 25 of water. A good astringent 
for diarrhoea — not to be given too soon — is 



HORSE 



2G9 



powdered opium, i drachm; tincture of cate- 
chu, ^ ounce ; chalk mixture, i pint ; give as 
a drench. 

Dysentery is the inflammation and ulcera- 
tion of the large intestine — generally follows bad 
cases of diarrhoea. Treat with oils, in two 
ounce doses. In bad cases, when straining is 
evident, give a quart of rice milk, with one or 
two ounces of laudanum. Rely on careful nurs- 
ing and carbolic acid, as in diarrhoea, to check 
decomposition. Ipecacuanha in two-drachm 
doses is good. 

Founder, or Fever in the Feet, perhaps the 
most frequent cause of lameness, results from 
overdriving on hard roads, stones, pricks, or to 
bad shoeing. Also may arise from causes other 
than local — may be a symptom of a feverish 
condition of the system. The symptoms are 
great heat and tenderness of the feet, especially 
about the coronet, throbbing of the arteries, 
great lameness. The best treatment is sys- 
temic. Remove the shoes and give a mild 
laxative (No. 2, under Remedies below), to be 
followed by febrifuges, such as nitre, half 
an ounce ; opium, one ounce ; or ten drops of 
aconite, camphor, two or three drachms. 
Bleeding from the foot should be resorted to 
only in extreme cases. 

Glanders, a fatal disease, arises from dirty 
stables — a specific poison, causing the forma- 
tion of ulcers in the nose, with a great dis- 
charge — generally from the left nostril — and a 
lump firmly attached to the lower jaw — these 
symptoms appearing, immediately slaughter the 
animal — there is no cure, and the disease is 
very contagious, endangering even man. 

Grease. (.Sf^ Scratches.) 

Inflammation of Kidneys (Nephritis), a 
common disorder, resulting from bad food, colds, 
over-exertion, etc. The urine is very scanty 
and dark-colored. Do not give aloes, as it acts 
on the kidneys ; but treat with oil and opium 
and calomel, as in liver disorders. Hand-rub 
tlie animal well over to promote circulation. 
Put a mustard poultice on the loins, keep warm, 
and feed with mashes. 

Lice. — Rub white precipitate well into the 
hair, being careful not to sweat the animal — or 
a weak solution of carboHc acid and water. 

Liver Diseases — shown by clayey and offen- 
sive evacuations — are often difficult to detect. 
The animal appears heavy, sleepy, feverish, 
poor appetite, tenderness on the off side . The 
treatment for diseases of the liver is : Give one 
drachm of calomel, one drachm of opium, and 
linseed meal to form a ball, every night — with 
a pint of oil in the morning. 

Broken Knees. — Broken knees if neglected 
often result in permanent lameness. Cleanse 
thoroughly with warm water, put on a bran 
poultice, warmed, for twenty-four hours till the 
inflammation is somewhat lessened ; then hav- 
ing removed the poultice, bandage tight with 
water, with a few drops of carbolic acid in it. 
Should the place become too dry, grease a very 
little. Unless the case is very bad, walk the 
animal a little twice a day. 



Lameness. — Any irregularity in the move- 
ment of the horse is always sufficient to con- 
demn the animal as unsound. {See Founder, 
Knees, Quittor, Ringbone, Sand-crack, 
Scratches, Shoulder-slip, Spavin, 
Splints, Sprains.) 

Lung Fever. {See Colds.) 
Pleurisy. {See Colds.) 
Pneumonia. {See Colds.) 
Side Bones. {See Ring Bones.) 
Quittor, a very offensive disease of the inte- 
rior of the hoof, results from careless treat- 
ment of the thrush. Inject zinc or acetate of 
lead, or any strong caustic. This is a very dan- 
gerous disorder. Use the following wash ; but 
if possible consult a veterinary surgeon : 
Corrosive sublimate — half an ounce. 
Hydrochloric acid — ten drops. 
Methylated spirit — four ounces. 
Ring Bones and Side Bones are bony 
growths on the long or short pastern, generally 
noticed by the horse going lame only when first 
taken out of the stable. Light cases will yield 
to blistering, but more severe cases require fir- 
ing. (^^^ Remedies below.) 

Sand Crack is a separation (generally me- 
chanical), of the horny fibres of the foot. 
Drive a fine nail through the crust of the hoof, 
allowing it to project on either side, and bind 
up with wire. Allow perfect rest. 

" Scratches " or " Chapped Heels " gener- 
ally arise from allowing the feet to remain wet 
over night. The skin over the heel cracks and 
causes great pain. The best cure is prevention. 
Do not wash horses legs; or if you do, wipe 
them dry. If noticed early, apply glycerine with 
a soft brush twice a day. Worse cases should be 
first treated with mild astringents. Scratches, 
if neglected, are apt to turn into that trouble- 
some disorder termed by horsemen "grease." 
A filthy discharge sets in from the heel, li 
this is neglected, a red fungoid growth sets in, 
emitting an unmistakable odor. Grease must 
be treated as scratches, viz.: With glycerine 
and a weak solution of chloride of zinc ; 30 
grains to a pint of water, painted on. When 
the fungoid growths appear they must be cut 
off and'carbolic acid applied. Build up the sys- 
tem and keep your stables in better order. 

Shoulder Slip is the strain of the muscles 
of the shoulder — commonest in young draught 
horses — from sudden jerks at the plough. The 
animal very lame, will drag his foot round, 
throwing out the toe with much effort. Give 
a month's rest. Rub the shoulder with stimu- 
lating liniment, and give a mild laxative. 

Spavin is a bony growth on the inner sur. 
face of the hock joint, giving a stiff motion of 
the hind leg, and making the animal tread on 
its toe in trotting. Fire and blister early. {See 
Remedies below.) If neglected, a spavin, 
though not materially injuring the animals 
usefulness, will destroy his gait. 

Splints.— Long growths on the small cannon 
bones. Often they do not interfere with the 
movement of the animal and had better be dis- 
regarded. Veterinarians differ as to the cause 



270 



HORSE 



of these growths, but they probably arise from 
some injury to the covering of the bones them- 
selves. They are often very persistent, and 
yield only to the hot iron. Blister No. i, 
given below, is sometimes usefuL 

Sprain of the Back Tendon, just above the 
hoof, is' a common form of lameness, attended 
with much heat and swelling. Cut the hair as 
closely as possible, then should there be any dan- 
ger of a blister touching the hoof, anoint the 
hoof with lard. Then rub in blister No. 2, given 
below, with the hand thoroughly, leaving plenty 
on the surface. Tie the animal's head well up, 
or better still, put on a cradle. Do not bed with 
straw, as it will cause useless irritation to the 
animal, but put down sawdust, as the pain is 
apt to cause the animal to stamp his feet. Af- 
ter a week rub a little neatsfoot oil over the 
place with a feather, to soften it. 

The animal refuses to walk, trembles, and is 
apt soon to fall. 

Staggers. — Stomach Staggers are caused by 
over distention of the stomach with food, and 
must be distinguished from Simple Staggers 
which arise from pressure of blood on the 
brain, caused by too tight a check rein or 
throat lash. May take three forms : — I. Sleepy 
Staggers : Give purgative No. i below. — II. De- 
lirious or Blind Staggers : Bleed till the animal 
drops; then give a mild purgative. III. Para- 
lytic Staggers is rarer, blister well (with blister 
No. 2, below) along the spine, and then purge. 

Thrush and Canker are the ulceration of 
the frog and the sole. They are often found 
separately. They arise from too much mois- 
ture affecting the horn, which decomposes with 
a very offensive odor. Remove the cause — 
generally improper stuffing — treat with a so- 
lution of five grains of zinc chloride to an 
ounce of water, and stuff the feet at night with 
tow moistened with a weak solution of carbolic 
acid, a tablespoonful to a quart of water. 

Worms. I. — Bots are the larvae of a species 
of gadfly, which find their way into the stom- 
ach of the horse while turned out to grass. 
They are from half an inch to three-quar- 
ters in length, of a dark red color, some- 
what pointed at either end. They attach 
themselves to the wall of the stomach, and 
when the time comes will all pass away in the 
faeces. It has been positively ascertained that 
they do no harm whatever to the horse, nor is 
there any remedy known to veterinarians which 
will remove them without injury to the animal. 

Worms. II. — Thread Worm. A much 
smaller species of worm is found in the rec- 
tum. This pest, though not interfering with 
the condition of the animal as much as the 
former, causes much more uneasiness. The 
animal becomes very restive, stamping his hind 
legs, often throwing his heels above his head 
from the severe itching caused by the thread 
worm depositing its eggs, which it invariably 
does, on the delicate skin, immediately outside 
the rectum. If the anus of a horse afflicted 
with thread worms, be kept constantly well 
greased, these eggs will drop off when laid, 



and the supply of young worms thus being cut 
off, the disorder will cease. But it is most im- 
portant to keep grease always applied to the 
anus, as otherwise the worms, which hatch out 
in a few hours, will find their way back into 
the rectum. In addition to this, a strong in- 
jection, made from boiling tobacco in water, 
alternated with linseed oil will prove efficacious 
in allaying the irritation. 

Worms. III. — White Worms are found 
in the small intestines. They are of a pale 
pink color, about six inches in length, shaped 
not unlike the earth worm. Symptoms, a hide- 
bound, stiff coat, large appetite and poor condi- 
tion. Considerable mucus is voided, and gen- 
erally dries round the anus. Several worms pass 
with the faeces. Give a drachm of tartar emetic 
in a bran mash every night for a week and then 
administer a good purgative ball, to be followed 
by a pint of linseed oil. After which give a 
drachm of sulphate of iron mixed with the oats 
once a day for three days. Ordinary vermi- 
fuges as sold by veterinarians contain calomel 
and other preparations of mercury, and are apt 
seriously to injure the horse. 

GENERAL REMEDIES. 

We repeat the caution that the inexperienced 
should never give strong medicines, or weak 
ones, except in the most obvious cases. 

Aconite. — Ordinary dose 5 to 15 drops in a quart of water. 

Ball. — A simple condition ball, or gentle tonic, powdered 
caraway seeds, 6 drachms ; ginger, 2 drachms ; with 20 drops 
of oil of cloves — with meal. 

Bleeding. — In the roof of the mouth in the second wrinkle 
behind the front tooth ; or, if much blood is to be drawn, in 
the third wrinkle. In bleeding elsewhere professional advice 
is necessary. 

Blistef. No. 1. — A strong sweating blister for splints, 
spavins, ring bones, etc. 

Biniodide of Mercury, i drachm ; Lard, i ounce. 
After applying, wash with arnica water for several days. 

No. 2. — Powdered cantharides, i part ; Lard, 6 parts. 

Calomel, ordinary dose, i drachm. 
. Carbolic acid, ordinary dose, i teaspoonful in ^ pint water. 

Castor oil, ordinary dose, 3 ounces to a pint. 

Chalk mixture. — Take of prepared chalk i troy ounce ; gly- 
cerine, I fluid ounce ; gum arable, fine powder, 240 grains ; 
cinnamon water, water, each 8 fluid ounces. Rub them 
together till they are thoroughly mixed. Dose, i pint. 

Drench. — A gjood cooling drench when horses are in too 
good condition, is : 

Nitre i ounce 

Sweet spirits of nitre .... 2 ounces 
Tincture of digitalis .... 2 drachms 
Whey .......... I pint. 

Firing. — The application of a hot iron to promote the ab- 
sorption of a morbid growth. No one should use it before act- 
ually witnessing the operation. 

Laudanum, ordinary dose, i to 3 grains. Large doses of 
laudanum or opium should not be repeated more than once in 
four hours without experienced advice. 

Nitre, ordinary dose, J^ oz. 

opium, •• " 54 oz. to 1 54 oz. 

Purgatives. — No. 1 Mild. Barbadoes aloes, eight drachms; 
nux vomica, one drachm ; carbonate of soda, one drachm ; and 
ginger, 3 drachms ; make it into a ball with honey or soap. 

No. 2 Strong:. Barbadoes aloes, three drachms ; powdered 
rhubarb, two drachms ; ginger, one drachm ; and caraway 
oil, 15 drops ; made into a ball. 

To give liquid medicine. — Use a clean horn with one end 
open. To do this properly one person should raise the horse's 
head as high as possible, and another seize the tongue with his 
left hand, and draw it as far as he can out of the right side of 
the mouth ; then insert the small end of the horn to the roots 
of the tongue, pour in the medicine slowly, releasing the tongue 
at intervals, to let him swallow. Some horses will swallow a 
large quantity at once ; others seem unable to manage more 
than a tablespoonful at a time. 



HORSE RADISH 



HOUSE 



271 



HORSS RADISH This plant grows wild 

in wet ground, but the kinds used as a condi- 
ment are cultivated in gardens. Plant same as 
common radish in a damp shady spot. The 
tops when young are sometimes used as greens, 
but generally only the large white sorts are 
used. These are ground, or cut into very small 
pieces, and used as a sauce for roast beef and 
other meats. When finely ground the flavor is 
agreeable and very pungent, but this is soon 
lost on exposure to the air, and hence it should 
never be prepared until just before using. 
Horse radish is always in season, but it may 
be preserved by keeping moist and cold through 
burying in wet sand. {See Sauces.) 

HOSIERY. — All hosiery is to be judged by 
the fineness of the thread and the closeness of 
the texture, which, in the case of stockings es- 
pecially, may be partly appreciated by weighing, 
as it were, the articles in the hand. In ribbed 
hosiery, a deception is sometimes practised 
against which it is necessary to guard. The 
spaces between the ribs, which ought to be 
formed by an inversion of the stitch, contain no 
stitch at all, but an open range of threads, per- 
vious to the weather and utterly destitute of 
durability. As the ribs of hosiery exposed for 
sale are necessarily almost in contact, the fault 
cannot be detected without introducing the 
hand and opening the tissue, when it will in- 
stantly be apparent — exactly resembling the 
flaw caused by a dropped stitch in a stocking 
in wear. In cheap cotton stockings the feet 
are often cut out and sewed together ; but the 
seams invariably hurt the foot. Concerning 
the different materials of which hosiery is com- 
posed, the same principles apply as are laid 
down in the article on Clothing. 

HOT-BED. — A hot-bed which will serve for 
either flower or garden seeds may be made as 
follows : — Make a frame, say, six feet long, five 
feet wide, and two feet high at the back, and 
fifteen inches at the front ; the sides must slope 
from the back to the front. Let these be cleated 
so as to prevent warping, and fasten them to- 
gether at the corners with hasps. The whole 
structure, inside and out, including the sash- 
bars, should have two good coats of coarse 
paint, which will be most serviceable in pro- 
tecting it from the weather. Make or purchase 
two sashes, each three feet by five,with the panes 
of glass lapping like shingles, instead of being 
fastened with putty to cross-bars. Then dig a 
pit of the same size as the frame, and thirty 
inches deep ; set the frame over it and fill the 
pit with fresh horse-dung which has not lain 
long, nor been sodden by water ; beat it well 
down with the fork, but do not tread it down. 
Put in the sashes and let it stand three or four 
days ; after wdiich, put light and very rich soil 
into the frame six or eight inches deep. Cover 
this again with the sashes and let it stand two 
or three days, until the heat begins to subside, 
when it will be ready for use. Stir the surface 
of soil and sow the seeds in shallow drills. In 
a hot-bed designed exclusively for flowers, ^he 
soil may be composed of alternate layers of | 



manure and tan-bark, or decayed chips or 
leaves, with the latter on top. Put no soil over 
this at all, but plant the seeds in pots in mellow 
earth, and sink the pots to the rim in the tan. 
The bottom heat will soon start the seeds into 
growth. 

The care of the hot-bed involves constant 
watchfulness. The frames must be kept cov- 
ered with the glass sashes whenever it is cold 
enough to chill the plants ; at all other times, 
fresh air, which is indispensable to their health, 
must be freely but very cautiously admitted. 
When the sun is quite warm, raise the sashes 
enough to admit air, and cover them with mat- 
ting or blankets, else the sun may kill the ten- 
der young plants. If there be too much bottom 
heat in the bed, so as to scorch or wither the 
plants, lift the sashes, water freely, shade by 
day, and make deep holes in the beds with 
stakes for the easier escape of the heat, filling 
them up again when the heat is reduced. Water 
the bed at evening with water which has stood 
in the warm sun all day, or, if it be freshly drawn, 
or the weather cold, add a little warm water. 
On very cold nights, cover the sashes and 
frames with straw mats. After the Spring's 
work is done, take up the frames and store 
them away in a dry place for another season. 

HOUR-GLASS. — One which will serve all 
practical purposes may be made thus : Fit a 
cork into the necks of two oil flasks, and make 
a hole through it with a round file. In the 
middle of this hole fasten a bead, or piece of 
tobacco pipe a quarter of an inch long. Dry 
some sand over the fire, and sift it finely; fill 
one of the flasks with it, fit in the cork, and 
invert it over a pan; let it run for an hour; 
collect the sand that has passed, and pour the 
rest away ; return the sand to the flask, and fit 
in the other. Place the whole in a wooden 
frame. Egg-glasses, to run three minutes, may 
be made with small phials. The flasks should 
be cleaned and dried, and the cork sealed in. 

HOT-WATER BAG. — A very great conve- 
nience in the sick room. A rubber bag, with 
a funnel closing by a metal screw. While 
more yielding than the bottles or soap-stones, 
ordinarily used to apply heat to the body, it re- 
tains heat as long and can be applied anywhere. 
Rubber and drug stores usually have them. 

HOUSE — § I. The planning of a dwelling 
is not apt to be accomplished in a way 
that will give satisfaction without much 
previous deliberation. The particulars of 
style and arrangement are so numerous that 
much may be gained by considering a state- 
ment of the most important of them. This 
may do something toward preventing, when 
the thing is done, a frequent recurrence, in 
regard to some later suggestion, of " If I had 
only thought of that." Of course where a 
somewhat elaborate house is in contemplation, 
special books will be consulted and interviews 
held with a skilled architect ; we hope, how- 
ever, that, even in such cases, the following 
article will not prove valueless as an introduc- 
tion to the subject, and that regarding the 



272 



HOUSE 



average run of comfortable homes, it may 
enable the reader to clearly and fully decide 
what he wants, so as to start the builder readily 
and intelligently. 

§2. At the outset, it is best to arrange to 
spend no more than three quarters of what you 
can spare for the purpose, as during the jiro- 
gress of the work, new features enough to use 
up the remainder will be sure to suggest them- 
selves. 

SITUATION AND SURROUNDINGS. 

§3. In cities the ground should be high, if it 
can be had ; but if it be too high, the water 
may not rise to the upper stories. Nearness 
to old water courses is to be carefully avoided, 
as they, when covered over or choked up, are 
sources of bad odors and disease. One of the 
finest houses on Fifth Avenue is reported to 
be almost untenable on this account. 

§4. In the country many things go to the 
making of a thoroughly suitable site, but THE 

FIRST CONSIDERATION SHOULD BE FOR THE 

DRAINAGE, and for this reason both the soil 
and the subsoil should be carefully examined. 
If the subsoil be hard and impervious to water, 
no matter how gravelly and porous the soil 
itself may be, the situation will be damp, ma- 
larious and unhealthy. This is not of so much 
consequence in the very few cities where a 
thorough system of drainage has been esta- 
blished ; but in the country, or in towns where 
each house is supposed to provide for its own 
drainage, a soil that holds water and that is 
not dry for at least ten feet below the founda- 
tions of the house or that has not sufficient 
slope to allow the rain-fall to run off rapidly, 
is utterly unfit for the site of a dwelling-house. 
Next in importance is a supply of water for 
domestic use. In the country, especially, 
this is a vital consideration; and it is better 
to incur the expense of bringing water from 
a distance either by gravitation or forcing 
power, such as the hydraulic ram, or a pipe 
from adlstant spring, \\\-xs\\.o sacrifice health 
to the economical convenience of a well at 
the back-door, unless precautions are taken 
to prevent ingress of surface water and drain- 
age. Health and convenience depend so much 
on the water bcmg abundant that especial 
care should be bestowed on this point. Anv 
system of house drainage largely depends for 
its effectiveness, on the supply of water and 
without efficient drainage the best situated of 
houses will become unhealthy. A quickly 
running stream, so long as it is not subject to 
extensive floods, is an advantage, and may be 
the means of carrying off the unhealthy ac- 
cumulations of a country residence ; but 
dammed up waters of all kinds, unless there 
is a good stream through them, and especially 
stagnant ponds, however ornamental, sliould 
be carefully avoided near a house. If there is 
enough water to maintain a minimum depth of 
six feet over at least two acres, it will not 
stagnate. , Flooded meadows also are by no 
means desirable, and especially such as re- 



main wet for a long time after being sub- 
merged. No spot is so well suited for a house 
as a slight rise or knoll, which looks down on 
all the surrounding land; and from which the 
surface waters run off easily and quickly. 

§5. Exposure has much influence on gen- 
eral comfort. In this particular, two things 
are to be considered, the prevailing objection- 
able wind, and the sun. In cities, other things 
even, streets running North and South are to 
be preferred, as then all the rooms have the 
sun during either morning or afternoon ; but 
generally on the North Atlantic coast, the 
windows of houses so situated do not get the 
sea-breezes of summer, and in New York they 
do get the cold North-westers of winter. Where 
the street runs East and West, the North side 
should be chosen when the front rooms are to 
be occupied most constantly, and the South 
side when the back rooms are preferred or 
when it is desired to have sunny back yards. 
The morning sitting-rooms and especially the 

NURSERY SHOULD FACE THE MORNING SUN. 

§6. In this climate, the particular wind 
which most of us wish to avoid is that from 
the East or North, sometimes the one and 
sometimes the other being the worse according 
to surroundings. There should face the objec- 
tionable quarter, one of the sides in which 
there need be but few openings. The kitchen 

AND LARDERS HAD BEST FACE THE COLD WIND, 

as the kitchen is always heated and it is best 
to keep the larders as cool as possible. As the 
house should have plenty of sun, especially 
in the morning, a northern exposure for the 
rooms most used is not desirable. At the 
same time it is thought by some that a south- 
western aspect should be avoided, because with 
that exposure the sun is very powerful. This 
depends, of course, upon what rooms are to be 
most used and at what seasons. Most of the 
average American's waking hours at home are 
spent in his dining-room, and this should be 
the favored room if his wife cares to make the 
best of home for him. A summer-house on the 
coast should, of course, have its openings well 
exposed to the sea-breeze. The south side 
of a gentle eminence, with the house fronting 
to the south-east, is generally the best situa- 
tion, in most places where this book is apt to 
be read. 

§7. Trees. — There is, perhaps, nothing 
which conduces more to the comfort of a 
house than the shade and protection of trees ; 
and yet very often the first thing done after 
the site of a house is selected is to cut down 
all the trees for convenience in building. It 
is considered so easy to plant out young trees ; 
but it takes a long time for trees to grow, and 
it is quite worth while to go a little out of the 
way to find a spot where there are oaks, ma- 
ples, etc., for shade, and cedars and other 
evergreens for protection against the blasts of 
winter. If they cannot Ise found already 
growing, they should be planted at once. At 
the same time it is not desirable to have trees 
very near the house itself. If too tall or too 
close together, they obstruct the light, prevent 



HOUSE 



273 



the free circulation of air, and render the 
ground damp ; moreover, the decaying of the 
leaves in autumn, and the imperfect vegetation 
under the branches, sometimes give rise to un- 
wholesome exhalations. 

INTERIOR ARRANGEMENT. 

§ 8. Most of what we have to say will refer 
to the lower floor, because as most of the 
working hours are spent on that floor, the 

ARRANGEMENT OF THE OTHER FLOORS 
SHOULD BE SUBORDINATED TO MAKING THE 
LOWER FLOOR AS CONVENIENT AS POSSIBLE, 

and when it is determined upon, the other 
floors will necessarily adapt themselves to 
it. Do not adopt any feature solely be- 
cause you have admired it in another person's 
establishment. It may be very consistent 
with his needs and very inconsistent with 
yours. A person's house should be as much 
a growth from his individuality as a snail's 
shell, and people are not as nearly alike as 
snails. Ask yourself what room.s and features 
in rooms you and your family use most, and 
arrange with reference to that. 

§9. To begin at the beginning; here are 
two ways of treating a house containing but a 
single room. 





Fig. I. 



In Fig. I, "the door opens immediately op- 
posite the fire-place ; a cold draught is likely, 
therefore, to be constantly traversing the whole 
length of the floor, and as the chimney is 
l^laced in the outer wall, a great deal of heat 
will be lost. Moreover, the bed C and the 
sink S, are entirely exposed to view, and thus 
privacy and cleanliness are scarcely possible. 
Now a man may, with comfort and decency, 
make his kitchen his living room but he will 



find it disagreeable if he has in addition to use 
it as a bedroom and a sink room." 

§ 10. Now consider figure 2. Here the 
door and chimney are so placed as to oc- 
casion the minimum of draught, and the chim- 
ney being placed in the body of the house, as 
much heat as possible is saved. A few feet 
of board partition at the back of the chimnev 
makes a recess for the bed and also an en- 
trance lobby with room for the sink, both of 
which may be curtained off as shown by the 
dotted lines. The two closets are placed at 
the other end of the room, so that a window 
seat, which may also serve as a locker for coal 
or anything else, may be placed between 
them. This plan would probably cost $10 
more than the other, the interest on which 
would be about one-third of a cent a day, 
paid for the difference in comfort and decency. 
This illustrates the difference between an ill- 
considered — or rather a not-considered — and a 
well-considered way of doing the simplest 
thing, and it illustrates the fundamental prin- 
ciples of domestic architecture. 

§11. Of course a house is primarily to beslept 
in ; but as this can be done in any room, the first 
distinct necessity is a place to cook in, and the 
second step is to separate the place where are 
performed the ungraceful operationsincident to 
care of food and the person — the sink room. 
Next naturally comes a separate place to 
sleep, next a " living-room," a place to live 
as human beings, distinct from the opera- 
tions we perform in common with the beasts. 
To this room will naturally be transferred the 
dining table as man tries to elevate the taking 
of food from a purely 
animal process into a 
social and intellectual 
enjoyment, and the 
.higher man rises, the 
more he tries to ele- 
vate this function. We 
now get to something 
like this — a plan for a 
pioneer's log-house of 
one story. 



LIVING ROOM 
lb XZO 



I 

I VERANDA 

4j=« K= 



L o r?- 1-1 U S E 
Fig. 3- 



18 




Fig" 4. Pioneer's log-house. (Pei'spective for Fig. 3.) 



274 



HOUSE 



In this plan, there is a choice between 
having a draft across the foot of the bed 
in the farther bed-room, or breaking up the 
symmetry of the living-room by moving the 
door of that bed-room further forward. 

gi2. If the person building in the countiy is 
able to spread himself into all sorts of conve- 
niences for stowing fuel and food, and for 
preparing the latter and 
taking care of his clothes 
and person, he is apt, for 
his principal floor, to come 
to something like this. 

On a hill -side in the 
country or in a densely 
packed city, the back part 
of this plan will go into 
his basement, his bed- 
rooms will all be up stairs, 
and his principal floor is 
apt to be something like 
Fig. 7- 

It is always cheaper to 
use only the foundation 
and roof necessary for one- 
half or one-third of the 
floor-room, by building his 
house in two or three sto- 
ries. 




PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN. 

Fig. 5- 




(Perspective fur Fi 



1 13. Before going further let us emphasize 
the fact that the width of a room from 

WASHBOARD TO WASHBOARD SHOULD ALWAYS 
BE THE WIDTH OF A DEFINITE NUMBER OF, 

BREADTHS OF CARPET. {See Carpet.) This 
saves waste in cutting. If a number of rooms 
are ot exactly the same size, the carpet, as it 
wears, can be moved iVom the more important 
room to the less important. 

I 14. The principal floor plans Figs. 5 and 7 
have a grave but frequent fault, in not leaving 
two rooms, at least, connecting by a very wide 
door. But with this exception, the latter is 
the plan, of all yet discovered, which suits 
everybody from poor to rich, and from city to 
country. The small farmer perhaps builds a 
one-story wooden house 18 x 25, does without 
any basement, uses the front room in Fig. 7 for 
kitchen and living room, the large back-room 
for a bed-room, and stows away a child or two 
or a lot of miscellaneous traps in the small back 
room. The man on Fifth Avenue builds 25 X65, 
and has a basement arranged just like the first 



floor, only with a number of closets between 
the large rooms, one of which has a sink. The 





PLAN OF CHAMBERS. 
Fig. 8. 

front basement room he uses for a billiard 
room, the large back one for a kitchen, and 
the small back one is fitted with stationary 
tubs for a laundry. The principal floor he 
modifies like Fig 9. by put- 
ting sliding doors bet- 
ween the large rooms, in 
place of the chimneys, 
and puts a chimney in 
place of each side window 
given in Fig. 7. This he 
can do because his house 
is against his left hand 
neighbor's and his right 
hand neighbor's house is 
, - against his, so they all 

^ taL^^^^^^J keep each other warm 
Fig. 9. I Parlor.— 2 Li- '"''^1 need not be as parti- 

brary and Dining-Room Cular about heat aS the 

combined.-3 P^^fy— 4 poor fellow Hving in the 

Dumb-waiter, — 5 Hall. — 6 t^ . '^ „. 

Vestibule.-oWater-Closet One rOOm m OUr Fig. 2. 

and Lavatory. He also puts a double 

door from his front parlor into his hall. The 
small room on his principal floor, the million- 
aire has provided with a door opening into the 
dining-room, and fitted up for his waiter, with 
china closets, a sink, and a lift communicating 
with the basement. The front room he uses 
as a parlor. If his father was as rich as he is 
— or rich enough, at least, and sensible enough 
to refine the son, the son, in nine cases out of 
ten, uses the back room for a library, and as a 
dining-room during the few hours when meals 
would prevent his using his books anyhow. 
In the tenth case, the refined man uses his 
front basement room, for a dining-room, and 
vulgar men frequently do, and have their 
billiard-rooms in the top of the house so that 
the players clattering down stairs late at night 
can wake up the children. We have said that 
the rich man dining in his basement is not 
always vulvar, and we have not said that he 



HOUSE 



275 




Fig. lo. 
Library 
Room. — 3 



I Par 

and Dining- 
Dumb- Waiter. 

— 4 Recess for sideboard. 

— 5 Closet with sink. — 6 

Hall.— /Vestibule. 



always is if he has his billiard-room up stairs. 
The poor man, no matter how refined, has to 
do the best he can. Neither have we said 
that all milHonaires in New York live in just 
such houses, or that millionaires are the only 
people living in just such 
houses. On the contrary, 
such houses are the pre- 
vailing type in New York 
and, for good reasons 
which we shall soon ex- 
plain, seem to be making 
their way in other cities. 
On narrower lots the 
back room extends across 
the house, and at the end 
toward the hall has two 
closets (one containing 
the dumb-waiter from 
the basement) with an 
arched recess between 
them in which the buffet 
stands. (Fig. lo.) 

§15. The second story 
is generally like this, 
though the principal bed- 
room is also some times 
carried across the whole 
house, the stairs of 
course being carried 
farther back than in the 
plan. A small-room on 
tlie second floor is, nat- 
urally, used as a bath 
room. Space is frequently 
found for a closet at each 
end of the stairway be- 
tween it and the so called 
Bath-room.— 6 Hall. ' " hall-rooms." Such a 
closet is generally fitted as a water-closet, 
instead of having the apparatus in the bath- 
room. Likewise on the first floor, room is 
often found for a watercloset with wasli-basin 
between the stairs and butler's pantry. The 
third floor is like the second, and the fourth 
divided into more small rooms. Between 
the bedrooms, the closets are generally larger 
than represented in Fig. 8, more as in Fig. 
II. 

The only direct communication between the 
rooms is through the closets. Each room 
having two, one is provided with marble wash- 
basins and not unfrequently with bath-tub for 
feet, or even made into a regular bath-room, 
and ventilated through a well communicating 
with the roof. 

§i6. Residents of New York will proba- 
bly feel amused at finding so minute a descrip- 
tion of this simple and commonplace plan. 
Persons not familiar with New York may ex- 
perience something of the same feeling, and 
are more apt to have it mingled with surprise 
that people of wealth anywhere get along with 
two rooms on their principal floor, and dine in 
one also used for other purposes. Such 
however is the fact, although extension rooms 
are coming more into vogue, and the front 




Fig. 11 



3 & 8, Bed- 



rooms — 2 Wasli-closets. — 
4 Hanging-Closets. — 5 



room has frequently been divided by pillars or 
an arch, or even two rooms made of it. Un- 
less the house is on a corner, however, the 
middle room (unless arranged as below) is dark, 
and of questionable desirability. We have 
enlarged on this plan, because, for several 
reasons, after considerable experience in other 
cities, we believe it, as used in New York, to 
be not only the best plan, on the whole, for an 
average city house, but to contain many essen- 
tial features of all good plans. 

§17. Its simplicity is in its favor. The 
plans in vogue in several other cities, accom- 
plish no more, and make much more fuss and 
expense about it. It provides what every 

WELL PLANNED HOUSE MUST HAVE, and what 

most houses do not have, although they might 
as well as not, viz. : two large rooms that 

CAN be virtually MADE ONE AND WIDE 
DOORS WHEREVER THEY CAN BE USED. The 

reasons for having such rooms are, I. to 
secure a reasonable feeling of breadth and 
openness in the house. It cramps character 
to be shut up in narrow spaces. II. To in 
crease the amount of air ordinarily available 
for breathing and withstanding the deleterious 
influences of gas-light, furnace-heat, &c. III. 
To give an available space for social diver- 
sions, music, recitations, acting, and the cir- 
culation of people at parties. It is surprising 
how many palatial residences are scattered 
over the country, in which a large party is 
reduced to a knot of small ones, where the 
guests cannot find each other out, where two 
couples cannot get through a door at once, and 
where music played in one room, cannot be 
heard or danced to in another. One reproach 
justly cast upon America by Continental ob- 
servers — that we are so sad in our amusements, 
and have so little social entertainment but 
eating and drinking, will perhaps be quicker 
removed if our homes are made more generally 
avai:a! le for sprightly and intellectual diver- 
sions. 

§18. If a lot is too narrow 
to admit of even the plan of F-g. 
10, do not on that account give 
up the advantages of rooms eii 
.v/cZ/t', and, above all, do not din j 
in your cellar, but submit at once 
to the English basement plan, 
and have your principal floor up 
stairs, and arranged somewhat 
like P'ig. 12. Have a dumb-waiter 
come up two stories from the 
basement kitchen. 

§ 1 9. Before leaving this subject 
of rooms en suite, let us consider 
a moment the chimney question 
as illustrated in Figs. 2 and 7, 
where the chimney is put in the 
'-.iddle of the house to save 
heat ; and in a much exposed 
l.h's house in the country, such an 
"'" arrangement is desirable ; but it 
is a pity to spoil the rooms. Why 
not arrange like Fig. 13, though for our part, we 




I Parlor. — 2 
Dining - Room 
and Library. — 3 
Closet.— 4 Hall. 
--5 Dumb-waiter 
in closet, 
can have 
in front of it. 



276 



HOUSE 




J-'ig- '3- 
I Parlor. — 2 Library and 
Dining-room. — 3 Pantry. 
— 4 Dumb-waiter. — 5 Wa- 
ter-Closet. — 6 Hall. — 7 
Vestibule. 



would put tlie chimney 
on the outside, ju.st as is 
done in the city house, 
especially as it is much 
handier for the up stairs 
rooms. It will be ob- 
served that the arrange- 
ment in Fig. 7 not only 
does such fatal damage 
down stairs, but cuts the 
closet accommodation up 
stairs down to a mini- 
mum. For the sake of 
thus getting their chim 
neys into the middle of 
the house, and making 
as few of them as pos- 
sible, architects are con- 




1,}= = 



^ / 




Fig. 14. 
I Parlor. — 2 Dining- 
Room. — 3 Library, (best 
])ut here for seclusion) — 4 
Pantry. — 5 Water-Closet 
and Lavatory. — 6 Dumb- 
waiter — 7 Hall. — 8 Vesti- 
bule. 




Fig. 15- 
I Parlor. — 2 Dining- 
Room. — 3 Rear Hall. — 4 
Well for light. — 5 Library. 
— 6 Pantry. — 7 Water- 
Closet and Lavatory. 



stantly sacrificing the important considerations 

we have named in § 17. 

^ 20. Two rooms, so arranged, being pro- 
vided, add what else you please. For three 
rooms in the midst of a city block, Fig. 14 
seems the best arrangement, though Fig. 15 is 
used a good deal for narrow houses. The 

PANTRY IN EITHER FIGURE SHOULD BE LIGHT- 
ED FROM THE CEILING BY A WELL 1 8 inches 

wide, extending the length of the ceiling and 
following the outer wall to the roof. By putting 
the bath-rooms of the successive floors over this 
pantry and the water-closets over the one on 
the first floor, windows from all can open into 
this well. Its opening through the roof should 
be arranged as in Fig. 2 of our article on Ven- 
tilation. The kitchen range should be un- 
der the pantry, and its flue in the wall behind 
the well will create an upward current that 
will ventilate all the bath-rooms and closets. 

^21. Back stairs, at least from the 
Kitchen to the Second Floor, are very 
desirable. In houses of fair depth provision 
can be made for them at the rear of the pantry. 
§ 22. In the country the other rooms can 
be added on in a variety of ways. We append 
a few designs, and will treat some generalities 
of the exterior in connection with them. 




PLAN OF' PRINCIPAL FLOOit 
Fig i6. 




Fig. 17. (Perspective of Fig. 16.) 



HOUSE 



277 





Fig. ig. 



Fig. iS. 

We annex above, the chamber and attic plans 
for figs. i6 & 17, as their arrangement varies 
so materially from that of the principal floor. 




kitchen added, veranda in place of reception 
room, and the whole thing changed from right 
to left. 

§ 24. On a hill-side, or when there is no 
room for kitchen, &c., on the principal floor, the 
outbuildings of Figs. 20 and 21 could be dis- 
pensed with, and Fig. 22 used. A lift would 
be needed in the dining room, and it should 
be arranged somewhat as in Fig. 10. 

§ 25. The dimensions of Figs. 20, 21 and 
22. differ so, that we append, in order, chamber 
floor plans for each. 




Fig. 20 



§ 23. Fig. 20 is for a basement Kitchen 




rig. 21. 
Fig. 21 is the same thing as Fig. 20 with 




PLAN OF PBJNCIPAU TLOOR 
Fi'^. 22. 



Fig. 23. 




Fig. 24. 




LAN OF CHAMBERS 

Fig. 25. 



§ "6. For either Fig. 20, 21 or 22, an exte- 
rior could be had with a little ingenuity from 
either of the following figures. 



278 



HOUSE 




Fig. 26. (Perspective for Figs. 20 and 23.) 




Fig 27. (Perspective for Figs. 21 and 24.) 




i"ig. 28. (I cr.specti\c toi 1 1^,5. 22 and 25.) 



HOUSE. 



279 



The exteriors Figs. 26, 27, and 28 were 
for the three designs Figs. 20, 21 and 22 in the 
order named. We have purposely kept them 
separate from the plans, to illustrate to what 
a variety of exteriors the (virtually) same floor 
plan may be adapted ; and also to impress the 




Figs. 30 and 31 are regarded as excelling 
in effect and picturesqueness, most designs for 
houses of the size. 



contradiction of the notion sometimes held, 
that a square house cannot be made into a 
picturesque house. 

Fig. 29 illustrates the same thing. It will 
apply to all the designs from Fig. 7 to Fig. 11 
inclusive. 




'■■^^^^^s,^.S£:.:: 



Fig. 29. (Perspective for any Fig. from 7 to 11.) 




Fig. 31. (Perspective for Fig. 30.) 



280 



HOUSE 




PLAN ofPRINCIPAL FLOOR 

Fig. 32. 



PLAM OF CHAMBER FLOOR. 
Fig. 32a. 




Fig. 33. (Perspective for Figs. 31 and 32 ) 



§ 28. Figs. 32, 32a and 33 show more elab- 
orate design, with suggestions for a large 
number of " conveniences on one floor. 

Figs. 34, 35 and 36 show a house something 
of the same character, where the kitchen, 
laundry, &:c., are to go in the basement. (The 
hints for these drawings were found in a house 
by Mr. J. C. Cady.) 

One of the good features in Figs. 31 and 34 
is, that the billiard table does not impede the 
free movement of people between any parts of 
the floor outside of the billiard room. 

§ 29. We have so far, considered gener- 
alities of interior arrangement. We now pro- 
ceed to some details. 

The rooms most used should, of course, be 
put where the finest views are to be had, and 
pantrys, closets, etc., should not be placed 
where some other room might command an 
improved outlook. 

§ 30. Where there is room enough it is 
well to have doors and windows placed sym- 
metrically; but they should always be carefully 
located with reference to the furniture, by draw- 
ing the positions and dimensions of the furni- 
ture on the plan. Special care should be taken 






Fig. 34- 
I Vestibule- — 2 Hall. — 3 Parlor. — 4 
Dining-Room. — 5 Staircase hall. — 6 
Pantry. — 7 Gentlemens' dressing- 
room — 8 Billiard room. — g Library. 

SO to place windows and doors, that drafts can 
be had without going over beds and other fur- 
niture whose occupants would be exposed. 
(See§§9(S: 11). Moreover, itis well to carefully 
indicate on the plan (bearing in mind the con- 
siderations just mentioned) the way each door 
is to swing, as is done in Figs. 9, 10 &; 11. 



I 



HOUSE 



281 




^;^^nWisEbELL;HiEr 



Fig- 35- (Perspective for Fig. 34.) 



31. The hall. Let the doors be symme- 
trically arranged and as large as possible, try 
to use folding doors into the parlor at least. 
For the reasons see § 17. A retrograde move- 
ment has been made and it is an exceedingly 
good one by which the Hall, as of old, forms 



one of the finest and, on occasions of ceremony, 
most useful rooms in the house, connecting, 
as it should, all of the principal rooms. Its 
necessary height (if advantage be taken of its 
upper stories galleried) its stained glass in stair- 
case windows and others, its open fire with ingle- 




S.E.FJLLE^.SG 



Fig. 36. (Hall for Figs. 34 & 35-) 



282 



HOUSE 



side, (see § 36) so much read of but of late so 
little seen, its high clock and comfortable settles 
with high backs, sure preventative of draughts, 
all tend to weave around it the glamor of 
poetry until it becomes by its associations the 



one room, the first and last tie of home when 
the cares and vicissitudes of life necessitate a 
separation. 

Fig. 34 contains ground plan for Fig. 36. 




Fig- 37- 



§ 32. The staircase should usually be en- 
tered under an arch or arcade as in Fig. 
36 and not run into the hall. The arrange- 
ment of Hall and staircase, here suggested, 
may appear extravagant, but in a well considered 
plan is not so, as tlie pantry, china closets, etc., 
can generally be placed under the landing or 
immediately off it and a bed room can open 
from the landing, as a high ceiling to these 
generally small offices is not desirable. Again 
by the use of a galleried Hall and properly 
grouping the rooms around it, advantage is 




taken of floor space that is lost in a badly con- 
sidered plan by useless passages often dark. 

§ 33. A massive staircase going up in a 
large bold curve or as in Fig. 37, around two or 
three sides of a rectangle, with landings, is a 
fine thing and can be made of great effect. But 
a plain staircase at the end of a hall or in a niche 
at the side is not a pleasing object and much 
will be gained by placing before it a screen. 

Fig. 38 is a suggestion, though it is too heavy 
for a moderate sized house. 




Fig. 39- 



HOUSE 



283 



Fig. 39 is better for most places where it is 
apt to be called for. 

§ 34. Staircases should always be of ample 
width with broad treads and low risers approach- 
ing to the inclined plane as near as possible ; 
the treads may be of stone, marble, brick or tile 
and these should never be covered with carpet. 
Wooden ones may be, and padded to prevent 
noise. The handrail should be on both sides 
broad and moulded to accommodate itself to 
the hand and of convenient height, filled in 
with turned balausters and intermediate strings 
or they may be panelled. It is always desira- 
ble to keep the lower portion of handrails 
solid or with only a few ornamental perfora- 
tions which help the sweeping. They are more 
pleasant for, ladies using them, and oftentimes 
prevents accidents to children. The landings 
should be frequent and ample, and the handrails 
always kept at the same level, even if newel 
posts occur at landings, on which they 
should always be placed, and not rest on 
the steps. Good effects may be obtained 
from windows having stained-glass being 
placed on first landing as in Fig. 36 or by 
arcades opening into conservatories etc. 
Gas fixtures may be sometimes introduc- 
ed on the newel post at foot of or on 
landings, but is generally to be avoided 
as it is liable to give a contracted look 
to the staircase. Turned pendants and 
strings continued 4 in ches underneath 
stairs and formed into panels as a margin 
for plastering are good, preventing the 
bungling of the plaster cornice of the hall, and 
the plaster from falling off as it is apt to, 
sepecially at the junction with the outer edge 
■of the wooden string. See the underside of 
the stairs in Figs. 36 and 37. The staircase 
of the second floor may, as before suggested, 
oftentimes be embodied in the design of a 
galleried hall, so as to be seen as a prominent 
feature from the hall on the ground floor. 

§ 35. Fireplaces. Of late years the open fire- 
place has entered largely into the living rooms 
of American houses. They are always cheer- 
ful-looking, and serve as good ventilators. 

They should never be relied on to sufficient- 
ly heat a large room in an exposed situation. 
Avoid fireplaces in corners of living rooms, 
they are ungenerous, as few can sit around 
them ; and where it is possible, have your fire- 
place large and high, so as to be able to burn 
wood. On no account use the imitation of 
wood by burning gas, if (not to speak of 
honestv) j-ou value your health, and care for 
the delicate colors of your furniture. Wood 
is always quickly lighted, cheerful, healthful, 
and if cedar is burned, aromatic, and has 
everything in its favor, providing the fireplace 
is large enough. Hearths should never rest 
on floor beams, but be carried on brick or tile 
trimmer arches, properly supported, and bedded 
in mortar, to guard against fire, the joists being 
stopped short of the chimney breast, and 



carried on heavier beams past the flues at side 
of fireplace opening. 

§ 36. Ingleside. The proper way to tho- 
roughly enjoy a wood fire is to re-establish the 
ingleside, which has of late justly found favor. 
It is a nook, large bay, or arched recess in the 
side of the room, capable of receiving a hooded 
fireplace, of size ample enough to receive the 
fire-dogs, back and other logs, on a hearth 
raised four inches from the floor. Over the 
opening should be a shew-board for plate, and 
at either side of the recess proper, a seat or 
high-backed settle, lit by small windows partly 
filled with stained glass. See Fig. 61. 

§ 36. Bay jvindows are generally desir- 
able, especially in exposures adapted to cli- 
mate and scenery. In the bed-rooms, deep 
window recesses made by closets on each side 
and provided with seats are to be specially 
recommended. 




Fig.40. 
Fig. 40 is for a flat window. 




Fig. 41. 

Fig. 41 can be used in connection with either 
a plain window or a bay. 

§ 37. Kitchen. Don't have it so big that 
everything will be out of cook's reach, and that 
she will make it a store room ; don't have it 
below ground if you can help it, because it is 
difficult to supervise. 

§ 38. Attic bedrooms may be made very 
valuable in country houses. They generally 
command the best view. A high pitched roof 
with a flat on top, leaves but little of the ceil- 
ing exposed to the sun, and provides a good 
garret for storage. See Fig. 42. 

§ 39. Angles. Keep the house as free from 
angles as possible, each indentation or corner 
on the foundation plan, always occasions the 
builder to add appreciably to his estimate. 

Most of the hints that we find it practicable 
to give for the other rooms are elsewhere in 
this article, or in the articles on Decora- 



284 



HOUSE. 



TioN, Furnishing, Warming and Venti- 
lation. 




So much for the general interior arrangement. 
The details of interior finish, we leave till we 
come to speak of construction, and now pro- 
ceed to 

EXTERIOR ARRANGEMENT. 

§ 40. It has seemed best to give designs 
of exteriors in connection with their respective 
plans, but we can readily refer back to them. 
As the details of a house depend so much on 
each other, they, of course, cannot be very 
strictly classified. If it is to be among other 
houses, its proportions can be high without 
looking stilted. We have not attempted and 
shall not attempt to give many hints regarding 
the exterior of city houses, beyond suggesting 
the absence of all ornament made up of purely 
architectural objects that have no use, and ad- 
vising the application, so far as appropriate, of 
the principles given in the article on Decora- 
tion. Even where good architects have at- 
tempted wide departures from the stereotyped 
cityhouse, the result has often been question- 
able, and it is dangerous for novelty to be at- 
tempted by any but the most competent taste.* 

§ 41. Style. To persons about building a 
house, almost the first subject considered is ; 
" In what style shall I build ? " The question 
of the so-called styles is fostered largely by 
the books likely to be conned as an aid, and also 
by the press in its descriptions of building lately 
executed ; and this question of style and the en- 
deavor to embody the remains of abj'gone age, 
in which ail the necessary requirements of 
modern life and climate were wanting, often 
lead not alone to incongruity, but to bad plan- 
ning and a positive dislike to the house as an 
inconvenient home after it is supposed to be 
complete. For instance, a window the same in 
size and character as those lighting principal 
rooms is seen lighting and almost occupying 



* Accordingly as our treatment relates so largely to country 
houses many of the designs and ideas needed in this article 
have been found in " Villas and Cottages," by Calvert Vaux, 
(New York, Harper & Brothers) from which by the courtesy 
of the Author and Publishers, thjy have been taken. Figs- 
29, 34, 35, 36 and 51 to 60 inclusive are by Mr. Wisedell who 
is the author of most of the matter on Halls, Staircases, 
Fireplaces, Inglesides, Chimneys, Roofs, Windows, and tlie 
entire departrrient of Construction. His counsel, given at 
Mr. Vaux's suggestion, has been a greet source of " aid and 
comfort" in the preparation of this articla. Figs. 37 and 61 
are from English sources. The rest of the figures (except y to 
15 inclusive'l are by ^Ir- Vaux. 



a small closet; or because general features of 
houses made a century or two ago were good 
enough to be revived, some architects revive 
with them the tiny panes of glass which were 
never a matter of choice, but were merely the 
largest they could make at the time. Style (in 
the sense used above) never had an existence. 
All we see of the ancients speaks oi progress in 
civilization and adornment and why we of the 
nineteenth century should go backward to any 
epoch and forget utility, and that too in pro- 
gressive America, is a mystery. 

§ 42. The position a house has to occupy, be 
it city or village, hill side, valley or rock 
in the mountain, each requires a different and 
distinct character m their several designs ; 
blending them, as it were, into the scenery or 
locality "that they are to occupy and taking ad- 
vantage of their best outlooks as regards the 
scenery and, in cities, of the position for cli- 
matic influences. 

On a level piece of land near the sea a far 
better horizon view is obtained by elevating 
the living rooms 4 or 5 feet, whereas on the 
hillside among trees, the lower the house is kapt, 
(after attending to the ventilation of cellar) the 
more will it appear to grow into its surround- 
ings. 

We now consider alphabetically the princi- 
pal details of the exterior, in order that the 
reader contemplating building may be guarded 
against overlooking any that he may care for. 

§ 43. Arcade. — A recess on the outside of 
a building enclosed by arches and railings. 




Fig. 43. 

Where but a single arch is needed, it is called 
a recessed arch. Fig. 44. 

Arcades and recessed arches, if wisely in- 






HOUSE 



285 



troduced, always produce effective contrasts of 
light and shade. These arrangements are to 
be distinguished from porches and verandas, 
both of which project. 




Fig. 44. 

Being protected on three sides, they are 
preferable, in much exposed situations, to 
porches and verandas, except where breezes 
are more important in warm weather than 
protection in cold. Arcades provided with 
glass frames for winter, make well-protected 
conservatories. The sashes could be made 
portable. 

§ 44. Bay -windows are well illustrated in 
most of the exteriors already given. Fig. 45 
shows a good arrangement for a bay window 
with a balcony on top. 




Fig. 45- 

The balcony could be fitted with sashes 
to protect plants. 

§ 45. Balcony. — A projecting platform 
from a door or window above the ground 
floor, illustrated over the bay in Fig. 17, over 



the front door in Fig. 27, over verandas in 
Figs. 26 and 31, and over the porch, veranda 
and bays in Fig. 33. A balcony is frequently 
supported like the one over the door in Fig. 
27, on brackets from the wall instead of sup- 
ports from the ground. 

Carriage Porch. — See Porch. 

§ 46. Chimneys may be made effective. 
Those in Figs. 28, 29 and 35 are worth noticing. 




Fig. 4^' 

Those in Fig. 46, are arranged for respec- 
tively, six and five flues. 




Fig. .47. 

The one in Fig. 47, has ventilating flues 
on the sides. 

Chimneys should be carried well out from 
the ridge of roof.but seldom intermediate be- 
tween eaves and ridge. They admit of good 
treatment if placed in outer walls. All chimneys 
in such positions should have gables or ridges 
carried behind them so as to prevent the ac- 
cumulation of snow, (see back of chimney in 
fig. 29), and this should be well studied in 
designing all foofs. 

All chimneys that occur in outer walls should 
be built with an air chamber or space between 
flue and outer walls similarly to the hollow 
walls (see § 75 ). If this is done, the flue will 
not become chilled and no difficulty will be ex- 
perienced in causing it to draw, and the heat will 
be retained. All flues should be built square 
12 inches by 12 inches, so that a circular flue 
pipe of galvanized iron or baked clay may be 



286 



HOUSE 



used to carry off the products of combustion 
and the angles in the left flue maybe used as a 
ventilating flue from the several rooms contain- 
ing fire places. Openings for this purpose 
should be made into, the flue near the ceilingand 
covered with a wire guard. (The ordinary re- 
gister fronts are bad for the reason that they 
have too much iron in comparison with the open- 
ing and are consequently large and unsightly). 
A heated flue forms the best known and most 
reliable ventilator, still no two rooms should 
have openings into the same flue on account 
of probable difference of temperature in the 
two rooms and consequent drawing in from 
one of them of the deleterious gases that it is 
desirable to be rid of. 

Care should be taken to prevent any timbers 
from being built into flues and ordinary flues 
used for smoke should be pargetted and cored, 
i. e. plastered with a tenacious cement and the 
angles rounded off so as assist the exit of the 
smoke and prevent the accumulation of soot. 

§ 47. Cupola, or observatory as it is 
sometimes called, is illustrated in Fig. 31. 
Taste and convenience both urge placing one 
on a tower where practicable, rather than raising 
it from the inside of the house. 

On cupolas, exposed balconies in conneiction 
with a smoking room, tea room, or it may be 
a study, often add much to the exterior effect 
of a house, as well as being a convenience. 
This provided the house is sufficiently large to 
warrant it ; as if not, it may become all tower 
and no house. Many very charming treatments 
of these features may be accomplished by the 
proper use of tiles or shingles. 

§ 48. Dormers are windows projecting from 
the roof. See Figs. 26, 28 and 35. They arc 
always picturesque when properly introduced. 

§ 49. Finials are upright decorations in 
wood, iron or terra cotta surmounting the 
gables of either roofs, dormers, or porches. 
Sometimes their pattern is made continuous 
with that of the verge-board. They are illus- 
trated in their more recent treatment in figs. 
29 and 35. 

§ 50. Hoods over doors and windows are a 
great protection from the rays of the sun and 
from storms. With a hood, the top sash can 




Fig- 48. 



be lowered several inches without rain beating 
in. They also are very decorative if judiciously 
used. In Fig. 31, note the great hood over the 
balcony which surmounts the porch, also the 
one over the large window in Fig. 35. In a 
plain house, a hood over the door, with sidings 
running to the steps, is effective. See Fig. 48. 

§ 51. Ombras or upper logias opening off 
one or at most two of the principal bedrooms 
are very convenient as they give effective 
shadows for exterior effects. See Fig. 35. 
under right-hand gable. They should always 
be covered by the main roof. A similar effect 
may sometimes be accomplished by an open 
balcony over a bay window or under the pro- 
jecting gable of a house. All these effects 
require very careful design or they may prove 
inconvenient and unsightly. 

§ 52. Porch is often confused with arcade, 
balcony, ombra and veranda. 1 1 properly desig- 
nates a covered approach to a door. For il- 
lustrations see Figs. 17, 26, 28 and 33. The 
latter has a carriage-porch — such a convenience 
at night and in wet weather that it is surprising 
not to find in more general use. 

§ 53. Roofs, it need hardly be explained, 
are very important features, both in effect and 
convenience. There is great latitude for pic- 
turesque effects which are often marred by the 
attempt to create too many features or breaks, 
which tend to give a straggling and weak effect, 
as though they were simply a collection of roofs 
instead of a roof. Harmony of detail and as 
far as possible continuity of eaves-line, except 
it is broken by large gables or a tower, will pre- 
vent this. For the better shedding of driving 
storms, roofs should be always steeper than an 
angle of 45 degrees (see Figs. 29 and 35 and 
study the roofs and gables in the other de- 
signs.) Note, too, the fact that in Figs. 26 and 
28, the principal difference between two houses 
of essentially the same ground-plan is in the 
roofs. This feature is more seen (certainly in 
approaching) than any other outside of a house. 

A roof with the gable cut off (see Fig. 6) 
is called " hipped." See verge-board below. 

Shutters. {See under ^ 107.) 

\ 54. Ventilators are always desirable and 
may often be introduced with great effect. 





HOUSE 



287 



For a dwelling, they look better rather 
nearer the gable-end of a roof than at the cen- 
tre. In a stable, they are better where the 
ridgepoles join toward the centre of the build- 
ing. The designs we have given or similar 
ones can be adapted to the plan in the article 
on Ventilation, which see. 

§ 55. Veranda is often confused with 
Arcade, Balcony, Ombra and Porch. It is a 
covered balcony on the first floor, and is il- 
lustrated at the front in Fig. 6 & 35, at the 
side in Fig. 33, and in the rear in most of the 
other exterior views. 

It should never be forgotten that the roof 
of a veranda inevitably excludes some light 
from windows. It is therefore undesirable, 
ordinarily, to have a veranda extend entirely 
around a room, and, much more, around a 
house. Sometimes this difficulty has been re- 
medied by persons wishing the veranda to sur- 
round a house, by having the veranda and, 
consequently, its roof, made narrow. This 
remedy is, if anything, worse than the main 
difficulty. If a veranda is worth having at 
all, it is worth having so wide that a group 
sitting need not be disturbed by a group walk- 
ing, and that a hammock need not take up the 
•whole of it. Sometimes the difficulty is re- 
medied as to the lower rooms, by having the 
veranda roof start from a floor higher than 
the second. In crowded buildings like sum- 
mer hotels, where much veranda room is 
needed, this seems the best plan, on the whole, 
especially as during the summer season, what 
light (and heat) this arrangement would exclude 
from sleeping rooms, can well be spared. 

The veranda of a private house should not 
be less than ten feet wide, and in many cases 
had better be thirteen — the usual length of 
floor-planking. 

§ 56. Verge-board. — A decorated board 
under the end of a gable. See Figs. 17, 28 & 35. 

§ 57. Windows seldom receive the at- 
tention in design that thev deserve, and are 
generally designed as though it was necessary 
to keep them all alike, both in size and detail. 
This is a most fatal error, not alone for pictu- 
resque considerations, but for convenience and 
economy of space. Windows should always 
be adapted to the size and position of rooms, 
and ingenuity and circumstances will suggest 
many special arrangements. Windows in most 
living rooms, unless carried to the floor, should 
have sills of the right height to hold a book or 
work-basket, and should go up to within at least 
eight inches of the ceiling, so that the upper 
sash may serve as a ventilator, and an expan- 
sive airiness may be given to the room ; but 
from the general clearness of the air and 
brightness of the sun, it is frequently objec- 
tionable to have them filled entirely with plate 
or other clear glass. Hence the prevalent 
custom of closing blinds. 

§ 58. A much better method is to have 
clear large glass in lower sashes up to 7 feet 
from the floor, and the upper portion of glass 
slightly tinted, cut and formed with lead bands 



into designs and emblazoned with crests, or 
figure subjects. Too much color should always 
be avoided or they will appear tawdry. The de- 
sign may be carried also down the sides of plate 
glass, but not at the top and bottom, on ac- 
count of its weight needing the sash frame 
for security. These points are illustrated in 
Fig. 51, which is a suggestion for an ordinary 




Fig. 51. 

window with a mullion. (Of course this un- 
symmetrical design is not intended for an 
actual window, but merely to illustrate the 
points under consideration.) The upper sashes, 
protected by the hood, are intended to be hung 
on centres ; the lower sashes (one shown with 
lead ornament at sides, the other without) are 
arranged with weights and sash cords, all on 
one side, so as to keep the mullions thin. 
Other forms of v/indows will be found in the 
accompanying perspectives of houses, adjusted 
to suit varying conditions. (See especially 




Fig. 52. 
Plan for pulley boxes, sill, &c. 

Figs. 6, 17, 29, 35 and the bay in 61.) It will 
be noted that very few of these windows are 
of the same size or design. 

§ 59. Double glass may be used in a single 
sash, if it is rabetted on both sides (Fig. 53); 
this forms an air-space, valuable for deadening 
street noises ; also preventing loss of heat. 

§ 60. When windows open on to lawns 
or balconies and are used for egress, good 
head room should always be allowed by using 



288 



HOUSE 



a travelling head in the sash frame ; but in 
• positions where this is not practicable, French 
casement windows should be used, their sashes 
being hung similarly to doors ; and if the pre- 
cautions are taken in the make of frame and 
sash that are taken in France and Canada, the 
ill name they have would speedily vanish. In 
Montreal and (2uebec, where the seasons are 
far more severe than here, they are generally 
used, but always have a small groove in the 
frame and centre of sash going all round ; 



;ILL 



ggaBi 



EL 



wy -n I 



FALSE vJ 
FRAME. 



u 



DOU 



'^y^^ 



BLE 



STU.DSv 



WW 



PLASTE R 



^mAj ^ 




Fig. 53- 
Plan of Frer.cli Vv'iiidovv. 

thus, if water should drive 

in, it will find a channel 

prepared to carry it away, 

— this is also well to do 

in the bottoms of sashes 

that are hung, and in the 

sills. If this is done, no 

more complaints will be 

heard of wet driving in. 

Fig. 54. Outer sills, too, should be 

Section of French Win- grooved, to prevent the 

dow. mass of water falling on 

windows running down and streaking the 

paint. 

§ 61. Another form of window, executed 
in the Brooklyn Park, is one with large 
sashes, from 6 to 10 feet long horizontally, 
filled with glass, leaded in or stained or with 
figure subjects, arranged with wheels and 
balanced so as to travel easily in the frame. 
The blind is arranged in a similar manner ; 
these slide either down below the sill or up 
into the head. The space occupied by such 
a long window should be divided by turned 
columns, with cap-band and base ; thus an 
appearance of freedom is given to a room, 
and such a window is very desirable in loca- 
tions where good scenery is to be had. 

§ 62. If extensive views are to be had in 
positions where it is not desirable to have 
windows, from proximity to the necessary 
offices, or for lack of furniture space, a window 
or panel formed of one clear sheet of glass, 
and arranged with a frame similar to a picture 
gives a pleasant effect. By its means an ever- 
changing landscape may be obtained. This 
should never be attempted except the scene 
be free from active life. 

§ 63. Sas/ies can be arranged on centers, to 
swing horizontally or verticallv. The horizontal 
is a good method when applied to the small upper 
sashes of mullioned windows. (Fig. 51.) They 
serve as ventilators, and should be arranged so 
as to open with the bottom out, to prevent the 



rain driving in. The vertical method can be 
used occasionally in sheltered positions, as 
almost the whole of the window may be thrown 
open, but this is fatal to any arrangement of 
blinds except when the walls are very thick. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

/. Stone and Brick houses. 

§ 64. Getting a dry foundation. — After 
tne site of a house has been chosen and the 
p.an determined on, before a foundation stone 
is laid the whole area and one foot outside the 
extreme limits of the walls should be excavated 
(whether there is to be there a cellar or not) to a 
depth of 12 inches below the bottom of the 
intended foundation and the whole area cover- 
ed with a good concrete formed of 2 parts of 
sand, 4 of broken stone in about i \ inch cub2.i, 
and I of good cement, with sufficient water ad- 
ded to make it a fluid mass. This is to be 
evenly spread over the whole area and trowel- 
led off with good cement. Where cellars are 
desired, this will form a good floor. 

§ 65. Sub-Drain. Should the subsoil show 
any signs of saturation, or be filled in, it is 
well to lay a course of agricultural tile of 2 
inch diameter under the concrete before it is 
spread. (If the house is over 30 feet wide 2 
lines should be laid.) These should be laid to 
a fall and connected with the drainage system. 
Where the houses have a sandy or gravelly 
subsoil these should be invariably laid. This, 
if properly done, will prevent dampness and 
the deleterious effects of surface water or 
drainage from being sucked under the house 
as is often the case when it is heated. It has 
been the cause of houses being unhealthy, 
especially in cities where noxious exhalations 
from gas and sewer pipes are continually being 
drawn in. 

§ 66. Foundation -walls. — After laying the 
concrete under the whole area, the foundation 
course of good size, and spreading at least 6 
inches on either side of wall, is to be laid of 
large stones well bedded. On this the wall below 
ground level is to be built of fairly squared stone 
well primed up with small pieces of stone and 
well grouted with liquid mortar so as to make a 
solid wall. The outer face of the wall against 
which the earth will be filled in should be trow- 
elled with good hard cement ^4^ inch thick and 
it should be allowed to set hard before the 
earth is filled in. By these means, and reason- 
able ventilation, a perfectly dry cellar will be 
obtained. 

I 67. Damp-course. — At the level of the 
ground or just under floor joists, either a course 
of slate laid as if on a roof, breaking joint and 
bedded in cement, or a layer of asphalt or 
some one of the several vitrified damp-proof 
courses should be used. This will prevent the 
moisture rising up into the walls by capillary 
attraction, rotting the floor joists, etc., and en- 
gendering the growth of wet rot. (See Fig. 58.) 

§68. Cellar under Hall. In extremely cold 



HOUSE 



289 



places it is well not to have a cellar under the 
main hall of the house, but an arrangement of 
flues conveying the smoke and lost heat from 
the furnace under the floor, and in brick or 
stone houses 3 feet up the side walls, of the 
hall. The floor being of tile will become 
gently heated. If a cellar is desirable under 
the hall, the flues may be formed of concrete 
or Tiel lime patent blocks, carried on rolled 
iron beams. This method of heating has been 
found in the northern countries of Europe 
in all the remains of villas where the Romans 
founded settlements after the conquest. If 
the hall is warmed, from its generally central 
position most of the house will be benefitted. 

§ 69. Laying stone. — In cities the use of 
stones for face work, base course, sills, jambs, 
window and door heads, and ornamentation, 
is very desirable, providing the stones are laid 
on their quarry beds (/. e., with the grain run- 
ning horizontally), and are of good size in the 
wall. The pernicious effect of standing thin 
4 inch stones on end is already seen in many 
brown stone fronts in New York and in cities 
where it has been done, and in a few years will 
be still more apparent from the frost entering 
the stone and throwing off the laminated sur- 
face and from the erosions of the elements ; 
for if water will carve its way through masses 
of stone laid as nature formed them, how much 
sooner must we expect to see its effects from 
a defiance of natural laws. 

§ 70. In the country, it is generally found 
possible, either from boulders or from local 
quarries, to obtain a good enduring stone for 
walls. The rougher uneven colored parts of 
this may be used for the foundation and wall- 
ing up to ground level, and the picked stone of 
even color and texture can be reserved for the 
portions above the ground or up to the second 
floor which may be wood or shingled similarly 
to that shown at fig. 29 the lower part of which 
is supposed to be built of brick. 

§ 71. Base-course. About 12 or 18 inches 
above the first floor joists, it is generally better 



be dark grey, red bricks may be used as a trim- 




Fig. 55- 
Random Rubble Ashlar with brick quoins. 

ming in a variety of ways, at all the openings 
and angles. Strings (z. e. horizontal lines) of 




Fig- 56. 
Coursed rough ashlar. 



to set the wall back 2 or 3 inches as a plinth or | brick either laid flat or vertically (See Fig. 55) 
base course. This may be formed with a row of 
bricks set on edge with the outer angle splayed 



or chamfered off or it may be of stone similarly 
worked and bedded with equal beds in long 
lengths. (See Fig. 58) 

§ 72. Walls are generally erected 20 
inches thick and they should be built of stone 
picked of an even color laid either with ran- 
dom joints or coursed rough ashlar or with 
angular beds. This last is the most expensive, 
although if stones of another color and of suffi- 
cient size be used for door, window, jambs, 
and at the corners in angular bedding, it has a 
very good effect, otherwise it will look weak 
and unstable. All stone used for face work 
should be left free from tool or drill marks 
which destroy the evenness of surface and 
color, and should not be too evenly trimmed 
on the surface, as the rougher the face, if free 
from tool marks, the greater the diversity of tints 
value from the shadow creating. If the stone 
19 



may connect windows, &c., and so bind the work 




Irregular Ashlar, 
bedding. 



Fig- 57- 
Coursed quoins. 



Comer in angulai 



290 



HOUSE 



together ; for if a different material without 
strings be used as a trimming, the effect of 
windows and doors is likely to be lonely and 
spotty. 

§ 73. On houses of this character, where the 
winter is not too severe, ivy may be introduced 
and is desirable. Its glossy foliage climbing 
over the roughened surface of the stone softens 
it, and makes a beautiful contrast with the grey 
and red of the stone and brick. 

§ 74. Brick walls. — A house can be built in 
cities generally of a good, local, sound and hard, 
well burnt brick picked for face work so as to 
obtain an even color; or if a finer face is de- 
sired, either Baltimore or Philadelphia pres- 
sed brick for red, or Milwaukee brick for yel- 
low, may be used ; and it is hoped that where 
they are used in houses built to remain, the 
pernicious use of half bricks as a fronting and 
the loss of bond (/. e. mutual support by inter- 
lacing) occasioned thereby will not be allowed. 
It should be abandoned, if not for honesty's 
sake, at least on account of the future. Brick 
walls for external use should never be less 
than 12 indies thick. 

§ 75. Hollow Walls should be 8 inches 
of outer wall, 3 inches space and lastly 4 inches 



MORTAR JOINT 




Fig. 58- 
Section showing proper arrangement of Hollow Wall etc. 

of brick, well tied together with purposely made 
tarred or galvanized iron ties higher in the 
centre so that the water may not be able to find 
its way from wall to wall over the ties ; for this 
reason slate ties or brick laid as ties are objec- 
tionable and should never be used. If from 
motives of economy it is undesirable to build a 
hollow wall all around the house it should be at 
least on the side most exposed to storms. 

§ 76. In building hollow walls, care should 
be taken to leave openings in the base of the 
walls so that the air chamber maybe cleared of 
the refuse mortar that is likely to fall in during 
the building of wall, or it may otherwise become 
a reservoir of dampness. After they have been 
throughly cleared, the openings should be built 
up to prevent the ingress of vermin. 



§ J7. Furring Walls. — Brick or stone 
walls of houses are better conductors of 
heat than wood, and are, if permanently oc- 
cupied, cooler in summer and warmer in winter. 
Outer stone walls with interior plaster, directly 
on, have, however, the disadvantage that they 
collect the humidity from the atmosphere 
which is condensed on the inner face of the 
wall, rendering the rooms unhealthy, and 
damaging the furniture and paper hang- 
ings. Hence the necessity of hollow walls 
and also for furring out or leaving a ventilating 
space between wall and plaster. This is 
generally done by nailing strips 2 in. by i on 
wooden bricks or plugs built in the wall, and 
laying the lathing for plastering on these. 




§ 78. Ornamental brick work. — Good 
effects in city buildings may be had by brick 
corbeling out and the use of moulded bricks in 
strings, lintels, jambs of doors and windows, cor- 
nices, chimneys, etc., and some good, evenly, well 
burnt bricks such as the Collamore brick may 
be carved and in panels and strings will have an 
exceedingly harmonious contrast if nothing 



HOUSE 



291 



but brick be used. This is now being done 
largely in England. The carving has to be 
well studied in low relief to adapt itself to the 
material, the brickwork being built up with 
ordinary jointing like the other work, and 
carved when the mortar has set. 

This carved brickwork may be seen on a 
house by Mr. Wheeler Smith in 57th St. 
between 5th and 6th Avenues, New York, 
and some other good use of brick on a Mis- 
sion building (also by him) on 35th between 
1st and 2d Avenues. There should be 
more of it. Its beauty is in its shades and 
color, which the woodcut cannot give. 

§ 79. Pointing up of all brickwork should 
be with a neat trowel-struck joint zuhile 
it is being built, because of the mortar going 
the whole depth of brick. (See Fig. 58 at 
right upper corner). It is the stronger and 
more weather-proof joint, for if the joints are 
raked out in the usual manner and pointed 
up after the walls are all built, and it is not 
very carefully done (which is almost an impos- 
sibility) the frost is likely to get in any cavity 
that may be left and throw or loosen the sham 
pointing. Moisture is then allowed to creep 
into the wall and slowly but surely ruins it, 
causing in some cases the disintegration of 
the face of brick. White tuck pointing and 
other fancy jointing which protrudes beyond 
the face of the brick should never be used as 
it will not stand the frosts prevalent in the 
Northern States. 

§ 80. Cement in pointing red brick is most 
desirable of a dark color, and may be readily 
formed either with black Munich cement or 
Indian red pigment mixed with ordinary mor- 
tar. Also the dark moulding sand obtained from 
iron founders, if mixed with a good cement, pro- 
duces a very pleasing, dark colored, durable 
mortar that harmonizes well with most of the 
red bricks used. 

§ 81 . Stone courses, jambs, etc. Good 
effects can be had from bands of colored stone 
in base courses, cornices, moulded strings, 
jambs, and window and door heads built in 
with the bricks, the several features being de- 
signed to accommodate themselves to the 
heights of certain courses of brickwork so 
that they may be discontinued, if thought de- 
sirable, without interfering with the bond of 
brickwork. In the use of brick and stone, 
glaring contrasts of color should be avoided, 
as they tend to divide the building into small 
layers, or panels as the case may be. Blue 
stone, brown stone, and often times local rough 
stones will blend in with the color of the 
bricks, and a modest and unpretending result 
will be attained In large pretentious build- 
ings, stone as light as Ohio may be blended 
with brick. With good judgment and proper 
massing it will be satisfactorv, but it should 
never be attempted in a small house. 

§ 82. Pipes, doors, etc., in avails. In a 
brick or stone house, provision should be made 
for all gas and water pipes by leaving a 
chase or channel in the wall, and if the house 



is at all large, they should be provided with a 
proper shaft so that they may be readily at- 
tended to, without tearing up wood work to 
hunt for a difficulty. In all cases where 
pipes are exposed to danger of freezing they 
should be either boxed up with sawdust or 
covered with incombustible felt. Sliding or 
boxing shutters and doors should also have 
their proper provision in the walls ; a want of 
thought in these small particulars not only 
creates considerable cost but mars the best 
rooms in the house. 

//. Wooden Houses. 

§ 83. The same general principles of ex' 
terior apply to all wooden houses, however 
great may be the apparent difference in out- 
ward design at their completion. A much 
greater freedom of grouping and massing of 
features may be attempted than in building 
with stone or bricks. 

§ 84. Foundation and base. After the 
e.xcavation and preparation of a concrete bed 
as before described in § 64, the foundation 
and cellar walls are built to the height above 
the proposed finished grade line that the posi- 
tion or site of the future house demands. A 
damp-course (§ 67) of slate or asphalt is laid 
under the ground floor joists and they are well 
pinned up level, and the spaces between built 
up with stone to the floor line, so as to prevent 
vibration of the whole frame, which is often 
occasioned from a want of this precaution. 

§ 85. Frame. On the joists go the chesnut 
or pine sills, carrying the pine corner posts. 
These are, the full width of sill and are ten- 
noned in and pinned with hard wood. These 
corner posts receive the plates or heavy beams 
carrying the upper floors and roof, with filling 
in studs for outer walls and partitions, which 
should be of pine, but may be of spruce, and 
are also framed or notched into the sill and 
plate. These are diagonally braced, and if the 
floors are high they are also strutted with short 
pieces put between studs horizontally. All the 
necessary openings for doors, windows, &c., 
are left with double studs where large timbers 
are not required. 

§ 86. Covering. The outside of the frame 
is first covered with inch boarding laid diag- 
onally, and on this is put felt, paper or other 
waterproof material. Sometimes cleats are 
nailed midway between the studs and inner 
laths, and plastered one good coat. This 
method is more expensive, but is very desirable 
on account of the two air spaces, which con- 
duce largely to the warmth of the house. Then 
comes the false frame forming the finished 
corners and defining windows and other fea- 
tures of the design. This should never be 
less than 5 inchesVide. The spaces left may 
be covered with tiles; cut and plain shingles 
of cvpress, cedar or pine soaked in oil slightly 
stained ; or with weather boarding not over 5 
inches wide, it being desirable to obtain as 



292 



HOUSE 




Fig. 
Framing and various styles of 

many horizontal lines as possible in a building 
without giving it a weak or wiry effect. 

There are other methods of covering the 
outsides of houses, such as the four following : 

^87. Concrete slabs with moulded orna- 
ments, which may be had in a variety of colors, 
and good combinations obtained. They are 
screwed directly on to the studs. In the gen- 
eral plan, the dimensions of the slabs must be 
considered. Examples of this work were on the 
New Jersey buildings at the Centennial Ex- 
hibition. 

^ 88. Brickwork filling, in patterns, may be 
employed between the timbers. In this 
case the timbers should be of hard wood 
and grooved to receive the bricks. This 
filling is not to be recommended in positions 
much exposed to moisture, as the bricks are 
apt to absorb it and rot the timbers. 

§89. Plaster filling can be spread on a 
background of reeds, or " wattles," which 
should have the bark on, so that the moisture 
from the plaster will not expand the wood 
and throw things out of shape. This filling 
is best in coves and other positions not much 
exposed. Intaglio decorations may be scraped 
in the plaster, as shown in the cut, and 



covering for wooden houses. 

afterwards colored. Very pretty effects can 
be had by sticking necks and bottoms of 
bottles into the da7np plaster so as to form 
patterns. These can be arranged either in arbi- 
trary patterns or to represent flowers or plants 
cut in the plaster. The play of light on many- 
colored glass so exposed is often very beautiful. 

1 90. Sgraffito is a modification of plaster-fill- 
ing, where layers of different colors are 
put on, and the scratching made deep enough 
to reach the various colors as desired, just 
as cameos are engraved. Specimens of this, 
centuries old and still in good condition, are 
to be seen in Italy. 

1 91. The two foregoing methods are almost 
untried in this country. But they are suc- 
cessfully used in England, and there is no 
reason why they should not be here. 

\ Gfz. Rough-cast — plaster with gravel thrown 
on it, is not unknown here, but it is generally 
used to cover the entire walls of inferior 
buildings. Tastefully introduced in panels, 
it could be advantageously used in good 
houses. It should not come near to the 
ground, as it would soak up moisture. 

^93. Roofs may be covered with flat tiles 
nailed or plugged on battens, and well plas- 



HOUSE 



293 



tered on the underside in lime and hair to keep 
out weather. Slates, if of good quality and 
color, such as Pennsylvania black, or Vermont 
green or red, are pleasing. They should be of 
small size and to be waterproof, laid with a lap 
of at least 3 inches of the first slate under the 
third, and secured by copper or composition 
nails. Slates of different colors in bands or 
diamonds, and all fancy slating should be care- 
fully and judiciously used, as they generally 
give an effect of the roof being in layers or 
parts and destroy unity which is the first neces- 
sity of a roof. For this reason, if any decoration 
be desired, slates of similar color cut to an 
agreable form will be found decoration enough. 
Slates should not be used on frame houses 
as they are apt to give them a stiff look and 
seem out of place ; a cedar or cypress shingled 
roof (painted if preferred) will last longer than 
poor slate and can be made more effective. 

^94. Painting of a wooden house is of 
great importance. Every country house 
should have at least three tints. This variety 
costs but little more than monotony. The 
trimmings of the roof and openings, and the 
verandas, etc., should be of a color or shade 
gently contrasting with the main walls. The 
solid parts of the shutters should be of a third 
tint not widely different from the first two, 
and the movable slats of a fourth, much darker 
than any of the others, as the effect of the 
openings they cover is always dark, at a little 
distance, and if it be covered by a lightly 
tinted shutter, the house will produce a feel- 
ing as if it were without windows. {See 
Painting and Pigments.) 

INTERIOR finish AND DETAILS. 

1 95. Floors. Floor joists should always 
be of the proper size to span the floor space, 
with larger turning joists at all openings, and 
double under all unsupported partitions. They 
should be strongly cross-braced with 2 inch 
by 2 inch stuff every five feet to make them 
rigid. After this has been done, cleats are 
nailed on the joists 3 inches below the floor line, 
rough boarding is laid, and on this, deafening 
formed of concrete or clay is laid. Hard 
wood floors should always be of narrow boards 
^ to I inch thick and arranged with -a square 
border accentuated in design at prominent 
points around the room ; and the spaces oc- 
cupied by doors, windows etc., should have 
separate designs and the border should not be 
run into a bajp. The centre space may be filled 
in with flooring laid diagonal and square in dif- 
ferent compartments, the whole making a 
design. (See Fig. 36.) It should always be 
considered as being covered with a rug on ac- 
count of the difficulties of keeping floors in 
good order, clean and bright. Great difficulty 
will be found if proper provision is not made 
in laying the floor for expansion and contrac- 
tion, as during the summer the joints will be 
crowded up and irregular on the surface, 
while during the winter from furnace heat 
they will be wide open. 



1 96. Ceilings should always be cross- 
furred before lathing, largely preventmg the 
cracking and displacement of plaster ; and 
side walls are usually furred off for lath and 
plaster. 

In the country and in small or cheap houses 
avoid high ceiHngs and instead of the bare and 
cold plaster expose the floor beams which 
should be more carefully finished, allowing the 
cleats and boarding supporting deafening to 
be seen. In such cases use a large beam to carry 
the general floor beams, instead of cross brac- 
ing. 

1 97. Plastering a house always .requires 
the most careful supervision both in the pre- 
paration and quality of the materials used and 
in the lathing which is generally not sufficiently 
supported or nailed and is often the cause of 
cracks. The less hard finish on walls, the 
better, and especially for surface decoration 
the walls should be sand finished, which gives 
texture to the work just as rough paper does 
to a water color drawing. 

^98. Doors at the entrance should be of 
liberal width, and are generally better if formed 
of two leaves or doors. If it is possible, have 
inner or vestibule doors, so that the outer door 
may form a storm door, and fold back into a 
panel arranged to receive it. The outer door 
should always have small glass lunettes, to 
light the vestibule, of a decorative form, pro- 
tected by bronze or other screens. The door 
of the vestibule should be treated as a screen, 
and be almost all glass. Sometimes they are 
protected with bronze or iron guards ; though 
not usually. 

1 99. Generally, doors leading to the principal 
rooms are made too small. They should, if 
hinged, never be less than 4 feet wide, in two 
leaves, so as to admit two persons comfortably 
on festive occasions ; if sliding doors, never 
less than 6 feet wide. Bed-room doors should 
always be large enough to allow furniture to be 
easily received into the rooms. 

1 100. In tht designs for doors there is great 
room for improvement, by the introduction of 
more panelling and surface carving in the solid 
wood, and less of the objectionable, cheap, ap- 
plied ornament stuck on to simple forms. Large 
panels formed of thin veneer, arranged so as 
to similate expensive woods, with poor mould- 
ings and carving stuck on, are disagreeable 
not alone as shams, but from their tendency to 
destroy proportion. If reed mouldings or other 
small ones are worked the entire length of the 
style in the wood itself, and arranged with 
butt joints (not mitred), a pleasing effect may 
be gained. These are not any more expensive 
than the mouldings generally in use, as the 
mouldings may be machine-run. Panels, if in 
one piece, should never be secured by nails in 
door-frames, but allowed to have freedom for 
expansion and contraction of fibre. In the so- 
called hard wood doors, it is better with most 
woods to make them of two thicknesses over 
a pine core ; this prevents the buckling and 
twisting: of the door-frame. 



294 



HOUSE 



I loi . Cabinets or book-cases may sometimes 
be placed on wheels between rooms, and serve 
as folding doors. In a crowded library, for in- 
stance, such an arrangement can be of great 
service. The rolling book-cases would project 
their own depth beyond those at each side, 
and in folding back against them make an even 
surface. 

§ I02. Sliding doors should be used where 
doors are too wide to fold without using valuable 
space in the room. They should have the best 
fixtures that can be obtained, and be hung from 
above on friction rollers, to relieve the rolling- 
ways in the floor. This method of fixing may 
be more expensive at first, but is reliable, and 
will be found in the end the cheapest. 

1 103. In the matter of ironmongery of doors, 
good effects can be had, and strength added 
to the doors, if strap hinges of wrought iron 
be used, as they admit of much good decora- 
tive treatment. (See Fig. 36.) Locks, bolts and 
escutcheons are all necessities, and this being 
the case, why should they be hidden instead of 
being made valuable constructional ornaments? 
Some improvement has been made in the 
bronze-work of late, but from the want of plain 
surface it appears cheap, suffering from the at- 
tempt to obtain more ornament from a small 
object than it is capable of properly giving. 

§ 104. Cornices should be always formed 
of small mouldings and be free from applied 
stucco ornaments. Ribs on the ceiling, if 
introduced, should be kept very flat and be 
continuous with the cornices, so as to appear 
to belong to it, and where centre ornaments are 
used let them be small, shallow and circular, or 
square, plain and free from leaf ornament so 
as to form the nucleus of color decoration if 
any is to be used. See Fig. 36. 

1 105. Blinds and shutters may be comforts 
but are frequently made a discomfort. Their 
arrangement and material should be studied to 
meet varied requirements. Outside window- 
blinds are usually made light, and fall back on 
the wall. For this reason they are very weak 
if not tied at the angles with strap hinges or 
angle-pieces. They should always be provided 
for in the exterior designs, and this can be 
readily done (see fig. 51) with little extra 
expense, preventing their slamming and des- 
truction. In the figure, the blind (thrown 
open ) lies in an extension of the false window- 
frame, and flush with it, so that the wind can- 
not get between it and the house, to slam it 
to, and the weight rests on the sill. 

g 106. They are often arranged inside, hinged 
in two heights and folding into boxes arranged 
to receive them. It is generally well to have the 
portion exposed to the room when shut, panelled 
so as to form part of the design of the window- 
frame, unless the whole blind is needed to be 
slatted. Blinds or shutters may also be arranged 
as on plan. Fig. 52, in which they are shown 
hung with cords and weights, like sashes, and 
going down below the sill in two or three 
heights; after they are down, they are covered 
by a flap, and a small panel, the height of the 



window, swings around and covers up the sash, 
cords. Sec. They may be similarly arranged 
to slide up into the head ; they may also slide 
sidewise into pockets formed in the furring 
off, or thickness of the walls, in a like manner 
to sliding doors. In large houses, they may be 
arranged to form a design, or have large 
mirrors, and all the shutters in a room may 
be arranged so as to close or open simultan- 
eously. In large rooms used for ceremony or 
public halls, this is sometimes desirable. 

^107. A movable shutter, either outside or 
inside, may be formed of steel, iron or wood 
slats, arranged to coil up over the head of the 
sash-frame. This is sometimes advantageous, 
as they may be formed into hoods by the use 
of a stay-bar. 

g 108. The iron-work of sashes and blinds 
should be the best the market affords, as this 
first expense will often prevent a great deal of 
annoyance and ultimately greater expense. 

1 109. Awnings of striped canvas are desira- 
ble in some positions, and often add much to the 
cozy look of a house. They should always be 
provided for in the design by pockets in the 
head of the window, or they will have a dis- 
agreeable look when not in use, and soon be 
destroyed for want of protection. 

1 1 10. Screens. Japanese bamboo or wire- 
gauze screens, both of which can be seen 
through from the room but not from the oulside, 
unless the light inside should be greater, are 
sometimes desirable. The sash-frame should 
also be arranged for them. A pleasant screen, 
and one that admits of good treatment, may be 
formed of alternate turned and square strips 
of wood, with turned filling-in pieces between 
forming a series of small square openings. 
These can be inserted during the summer 
months, and are used in most of the cities of 
eastern Europe instead of sashes. They give 
air, and, if formed of hard wood, partial pro- 
tection to the room. The wood being thick, 
they cannot be seen through unless the ob- 
server is directly opposite and on the same 
level. 

§111. Wood finish. In the interior of a 
country house, it will generally be found 
cheaper to trim the rooms with the white and 
red pine, well seasoned and free from sap 
(i. e. dark bluish stains)not on account of actual 
cost of hard wood but of the fancy price that 
is generally associated with it in the minds of 
builders. These are the most reliable woods 
we have in the market ; standing changes of 
moisture and temperature better than any of 
the others. They however should seldom be 
painted and never white; painting destroys 
the beauty of the grain, which can be well 
brought out with shellac and copal varnish, or 
it may be slighty stained and varnished. If 
not varnished, it soils very easily and it is dif- 
ficult to clean. External work should be 
painted and never be varnished, as varnish 
will not stand a season exposed. 

i;ii2. In the general design of mouldings, 
care should always be taken to adapt them to 



HOUSE 



29^ 




Fig. 6i. 
An English Dining-Room. 



the nature of the wood so as to bring out its 
color and beauties of grain and this will usually 
be accomplished by keeping them small and flat, 
and grouping them so as to allow a plain surface 
for better display of the wood. All mouldings 
should have continuity and either lie against 
or be received on wood. In general, avoid 
shewing the end sections of mouldings as it will 
appear cheap if not carefully done. Do not 
make the trimming thin, as it is apt to look weak 
and wiry. Veneers of precious woods should 
be used sparingly and as a background for the 
general trim, in the same manner that you find 
gold back grounds used in the paintings by the 
old masters. Never use them as a ground for 
carving in relief or it will appear stuck on 
and lonely. 

? 1 13. Most of the hard wood in the market, 
owing to rapid growth and consequent open 
grain, is very apt to twist and be difficult to 
keep in place ; hence, all mouldings should be 
formed of small separate members, of even 
grain, with a softer wood introduced to relieve 
it. If this is not properly attended to, the 
finish of rooms is apt to be a source of trouble 
and annoyance from the shrinking, swelling, 
splitting or chipping of the wood, no matter 
how much care has been taken in the seasoning 
and drying. 

^114. The best seasoning that timber which 
is to be used for joining can have, is to be well 
water-soaked and then sun-dried, the timber 
standing with its grain vertical ; and it is well not 
to rely on kUn-dried timber, in which the sap is 
only dried up, and will surely swell and cause a 
great deal of trouble as soon as the work is 
affected bv the change of climate. 



1 1 15. Inlays are always appropriate and can 
be readily done mechanically by any country 
carpenter with a fret saw. The design should 
be well massed and on thin paper which can be 
pasted on a seriesof veneers of alternate color- 
ed wood each with paper pasted on to stiffen 
it. The design is sawn out and the pieces 
counter changed and applied to panels or 
where it is desired. 

1 1 16. In hard wood there is a great diversity 
of colors, quality of grain and strength, and it is 
advisable at the outset to form some plan by 
which a variety may be introduced into the 
living rooms without creating too sudden a 
contrast. The following has been found desira- 
ble. The vestibule and entrance doors of oak 
relieved with wall panels of majolica tiles and 
tiled floor. The hall staircase and gentleman's 
room of black walnut carried to ceiling forming, 
plaster panels for decoration, with floor of 
cherry and black walnut. The library of oak and 
black walnut in equal proportions, with floor of 
maple and black walnut. The drawing room 
of oak and root of ash, with black walnut 
sparingly used and ebony columns, narrow 
pine floor for carpet. The dining room and its 
floor of oak with stone fireplace for wood fire. 

§ 117. Fixed furniture. It is very desirable 
to cover as much as possible of the wall space 
and introduce in the general design of room 
as much of the fixed furniture as possible, so as 
to leave little for the decorator and upholsterer 
to mar by incongruous details. The following 
particulars may sometimes be left to the archi- 
tect with more confidence than to the average 
furniture maker. In the vestibule, a seat, and 
provision for the doors etc.. can be arranged 



296 



HOUSE 



HUNG 



N WINE 



and the ceiling should be of wood, the frost 
having great effect on hard finished plaster. 
In the hall, provision should be made for wrap 
chest, hats and coats, umbrellas and seats, not 
forgetting the fireplace and a place for the 
big clock. (See Figs. 36and 37). In the gentle- 
man's room, the necessary provision for 
adjusting the toilet. The butler's pantry should 
be provided with a hot plate, " a register or 
steam coil under a slate or marble slab," and in 
large houses should have the butler's bedroom 
with plate safe near at hand. The dining- 
room may properly have a high wainscot with 
■ buffet arranged for plate and wine coolers 
designed to form a part of it, the upper 
portion of wall panelled with a frieze of 
wood designed to receive tapestry or hanging. 
A large open fireplace may also form a striking 
feature in this room as well as in the hall. 
Proper provision should be made in the 
woodwork of all rooms for gas brackets, etc. 
In the library, bookcases with provision for 
handling every daybooks, books of reference, 
desk, print drawers and pamphlet closets. The 
space over and out of reach may be for objets 
d'art, and any convenient wall space for maps, 
which may be on spring rollers. Let there 
be an open fireplace. The drawing room 
has generally to be given to the decorator and 
upholsterer, although by the proper introduc- 
tion of such features as wood mantels and 
chimney glass, arches at bay window and the 
general arrangement of trimming around win- 
dows and doors, the conventional decorator may 
find some general leading lines defined, should 
the architect not be employed in this very 
essential particular. 

gli8. Houses upon which thought has 
been bestowed in their several details, have 
been too often marred by the fashions of 
the moment introduced in the decoration and 
furnituije, by panderers to the prevailing taste. 
One of the outgrowths of this is the mis- 
named " hard wood finish " in houses built to 
sell, where the necessary and unavoidable trim- 
mings of doors and windows, together with 
often one side of a door and the exposed sides 
of shutters have been executed in a wood 
costing a few cents a foot more than pine (pine 
costs 6 cents : black walnut 8 or 9 cents but 
the latter is a little harder to work,) and in 
mouldings and applied ornament that do not 
properly bring out the beauties of the wood. 

ADVICE TO PERSONS ABOUT TAKING A HOUSE. 

^119. Before taking a house, it is always well 
to get the best professional advice obtainable 
regarding its condition and value. Especially 
is this the case where the house is a new one, 
as such are so often built only to sell, and the 
bad construction and materials are hidden 
under a mask of fresh paint and meretricious 
ornament, the newness of which soon wears off, 
exposing its shams and entailing frequent ex- 
pense and disturbance. 

§ 120. Houses that have been occupied 



for a season, if built with poor unseasoned 
material and bad workmanship, tell their own 
story from the shrinking of floor boards, im- 
proper closing of doors, windows, etc., separa- 
tion of door and window-frames from plaster, 
saggingor sinking of floors and separation of 
surbase, cracked plaster on walls and ceilings, 
and general bad ironmongery, together with 
the offensive odors escaping from the bad 
plumbing. 

^121. All these points are readily seen by 
an ordinary observer, but the hidden difficulties, 
such as insufficient depth and number of 
floor beams, the want of constructional tim- 
ber, and faults in the general method of build- 
ing require a practiced eye to detect them, 
and for this reason a written report from an 
architect thoroughly describing the condition 
of the house may cause a reduction in the price, 
should the would-be purchaser, for especial 
reasons, still entertain the thought of buying. 

Unhealthiness of Nevr Houses. — 1 he 
coincidence of moving into a new house and 
soon having a doctor's bill to pay has frequently 
been a subject of remark ; the cause often is 
that the house is moved into before the walls are 
dried. It has been estimated that 30,000 gallons 
of water are consumed in raising a medium-sized 
three-story brick-house ; and this can only be 
gotten ricl of by slow evaporation. A house 
should never be occupied in less than three 
months after the plaster is on and after fires 
have been going steadily for a week, with ample 
ventilation by doors and windows. No water 
for drinking or cooking should be used from 
new lead pipes, for at least one month after 
the water has been otherwise used daily. 
Even when pipes have been long in use water 
that has been standing had better be run off be- 
fore any is used for drinking or cooking. See 
Brick; Chimney; Drain; Earth-Closet; 
Fire-Place; Flue; Gutter; Lightning- 
RoD; Sewer; Ventilation; and Warming. 

HUCKABACK — A coarse linen fabric orna- 
mented with raised figures, and much used for 
towels, etc. It has little beauty, but answers 
very well for common household wear. 

HUCKLEBERRY.— The best variety is 
called the swainp liiicklebeny 07- bhicberry ; it 
is large, purplish-black, subacid, rich and juicy. 
The coiinitoii or /lioJi-bnsJi huckleberry is also 
fine. The common low-bush huckleberries are 
called " cracker-berries " by Jersey pickers be- 
cause when eaten they crack in the mouth, on 
account of their tough skin. They are smooth, 
quite black, full of "seeds, and acid. A better 
variety of the low-busJt is the siigai'-berty ; it is 
sweet, bluish and has very small seeds. 

HUNGARIAN WINE.— Hungary's rela- 
tive facilities for wine-growing far exceed those 
of any country in Europe. On an area of 
125,000 square miles, Hungary annually pro- 
duces (on an average) 500 millions of gallons, 
whereas France, on an area of 204,000, reaches 
about 700 millions of gallons. 

These wines are grown under so many vastly 
different conditions of soil, latitude, altitude 



HUNGARIAN WINE 



HYAGINTHE 



297 



and attendance that the result is a variety of 
brands, unattainable by either France, Spain, 
Italy or Greece. A distinct feature of the 
wines of Hungary is their positiveness, their 
body, bouquet and aftertaste, impossible to pro- 
duce artificially. Of the several hundred dis- 
tinct brands, we give a general classification 
and a short description of those commercially 
most important. 

Hungarians rarely mix their wine with water, 
but rather drink wine and water alternately 
from two glasses. 

I. Red wine : 

1. Baltazeker. — A healthy table wine of 
medium strength, (for a Hungarian wine) fine 
taste and bouquet. 

2. Budai, — (grown round Biida). The 
Adelsberger or Budai-cream is warming (as 
most Hungarian wines are) vigorous, slightly 
astringent, with a deep, aromatic, extremely 
grateful after-taste. Indisputably a tonic. 

3. Egri. — (German Eriauer) a fiery, gene- 
rous very astringent wine, often recommended 
in gastric disorders ; the highest quality is so 
vigorous, that its effect reaches the pores in 
less than two hours ; also a tonic. Of this 
wine, there is also an " aszu," for explanation 
of which term, see under Tokay below. 

4. Karlovai. — (Carlowitzer) grown in that 
portion of Slavonia, between the Save and 
Drave rivers, which the Romans called Syrmium 
on hills that were first planted with vines by 
the soldiers of Aurelius Probus. Rich, gene- 
rous, warming and aromatic to a degree. The 
finest grapes are selected and left on the vines 
or when culled, exposed to the sun until they 
wrinkle, then hung over tubs until the juice 
bursts the skin of the grape and this juice, ob- 
tained thus without pressing, is collected and 
boiled with wormwood [absinthe) and is sold as 
" Carlowitzer Tropfwermutho" — a nectar that 
Bulwer praises in one of his novels. 

5. Matrai. — A heavy, rich wine, grown in 
Northern Hungary round the Matra hills, very 
much like good Port or Cyprus wine. 

6. Szegszardi, grown in the triangle formed 
by the confluence of the rivers Danube and 
Drave, on land abounding in iron ore. It has a 
slightly mineral taste, and is recommended as 
a tonic all over the country, agreeable in flavor 
and of moderate strength. 

7. Tetenyi (Tettinger) grown near Buda, 
partaking of the qualities of Budai, (which see.) 

8. Villanyi, not as hot as some other red 
wines of Hungary, of a most refined, insi- 
dious taste, quite apt to ensnare the unwary. 

9. Visontai, just astringent enough to make 
it a piquant^ delightful beverage, strong and 
warming, and a first class tonic. A white wine is 
raised in the same locality, which is made of 
Muscat-grapes ; this brand is very high-flavored 
and seems to be liquid fragrance : It is sold 
under the name of " Visontai Muscatel." 

II. White wine : 
I. Magyarati, avery healthy and agreeable 
brand, much like St. Gyorgy. 



2. Menesi. — A brand of amber-color, neither 
red, nor white, grown near the boundary of 
Transylvania, on a stratum of aluminium, which 
imparts to it a delicious tartness ; the Menesi 
Aszu is a delicious sweet wine with just enough 
tartness to make it piquant. It is very heady. 

3. Neszmelyi.— (Germ. Nessmiiller) is a 
lighter brand than any mentioned here, of 
remarkably fine bouquet and taste. It is grown 
just South of the Danube between Gran and 
Comorn. 

4. Ruszti, grown about seven English miles 
north of Soprony ; (Oedenburg) dry Ruszti is 
one of the noblest brands of white wine. Some 
think it superior to the finest Burgundy, red 
or white. These grapes are also made into 
Aszu, of a dark amber-color. 

5. St. Gyorgy (St. George) grown near 
the boundary of Austria, about 13 English 
miles from the battle-field of Wagram, is a 
beautiful white table-wine of moderate strength; 
there is also Aszu made of this wine. 

6. Somlai (Schomlauer) is a superior white 
wine, full of fire, bouquet and body, 

7. Sopronyi (Germ : Oedenburger) grown 
near the boundary of Austria, 40 English miles 
S. E. of Vienna near the left shore of the lake 
of Neusiedel ; a delicate dry wine, hot, rich and 
with an aftertaste, such as grapes, or pears 
will leave on the palate, and so intense, that it 
lasts until some other drink or food dispels it. 
From select grapes of the Muscat vine planted 
in this vicinity, the Sopronyi Muscatel Aszu 
(see Tokay) is made, which is quite sweet, with 
just the least touch of fruity acidity and a 
delightful bouquet. 

8. Szamarodner. — In nearly every feature a 
relative to the Tokay ; valued as a dessert-wine. 

9. Tokay. — Of all dry wines the richest and 
noblest. Grown near the Tibisc river on the 
left bank, rather North. The finest grapes are 
left to become wrinkled, and a bucket or rnore 
are then pressed with the common grapes, thus 
making the " aszu," which is of surpassingly 
pleasant taste, rather sweet, generous, very 
strong and soporific, an excellent tonic for 
those convalescing from typhoid fever and 
kindred diseases. As an indication of the 
body of this " king of wines^'' it may be 
stated that the first dose is a teaspoonftd. 
According to the number of buckets of select 
grapes used, the "Aszu "is called einbuttig, 
zweibuttig, dreibtittig or vierbuttig, the last 
kind being the highest. When tliese grapes 
are hung over tubs, until the juice bursts the skin 
(as m Karlovai 2ihoYt) the result is the celebra- 
ted " Essenz Tokay " or essence of Tokay. 

HUNGARY-WATER.— To one pint of 
proof spirits of wine put one ounce of oil of 
rosemary, and two drachms of essence of 
ambergris ; shake the bottle well several times, 
then let the cork remain out twenty-four hours, 
after which stop it up tight. After a month, 
during which time it should be shaken daily, 
put the water into small bottles. 

HYACINTHE.— This is the most popular 
of all the garden-bulbs, and richly repays culti- 



298 



HYACINTHE 



HYDROPATHY 



vation either in or out of doors. All new 
varieties are raised from seed, but much care 
and patience are required, and often not more 
than six fine flowers will be found in a thousand 
seedlings ; so it is best to raise them from the 
bulbs, which can be obtained in countless vari- 
eties at the florist's. In the selection of bulbs, 
choose those that are hard, and solid, and sound 
at the base. Size is no criterion, some of the 
finest kinds being always large, and others al- 
ways small, nor can any rule be given as to 
the shape, some being quite conical at all times, 
and others always spherical or flat. As a gen- 
eral rule, choose medium-sized, hard, heavy 
bulbs ; and avoid those which have the appear- 
ance of throwing out many offsets. All hya- 
cinths multiply rapidly by offsets ; and these 
offsets should be planted by themselves in a 
dry, sunny location. If they attempt to flower 
the first spring, pick off the buds, for the root 
needs all its strength ; but the next spring they 
will flower well, and after that they can be 
treated like grown-up bulbs. 

In planting hyacinths, select a warm, sunny 
spot in the garden, where the drainage is good ; 
trench this about eighteen inches deep, digging 
in a liberal quantity of well-rotted cow manure, 
and enough pure sand to make the soil rather 
loose. This being done, about the first of Oc- 
tober plant the bulbs in lines or circles, as may 
suit the fancy. The usual mistake in planting 
bulbs is not setting them deep enough ; they 
are often thrown out by the frost. Hyacinths 
should be planted at least four inches deep. 
A good covering of coarse manure and straw 
should be laid over the bed about the first of 
Decembe^, or just before the ground freezes 
up. In the spring, about the first of April, 
rake off the straw. The bulbs will be found 
already up ; the blanched stalks will soon turn 
green, and an abundance of bloom will follow. 
After the leaves have died down, if you have 
fine varieties, it is best to take them up and 
keep them in a dry place until the season for 
planting comes again. The general practice, 
however, is to allow the bulbs to remain in the 
ground, where, if undisturbed, they will bloom 
year after year. 

In growing the hyacinthe for winter bloom 
in the house, a succession may be maintained 
by planting a few bulbs every week from No- 
vember until Christmas. Those first planted 
will bloom soon after New Year's, and a con- 
tinuous bloom may be had until the flowers 
bloom in April in the open air. They should 
be planted in deep pots filled with a compost 
made of one half coarse sand, one fourth rich 
yellow loam, and one fourth well-rotted cow- 
manure. Set the bulbs in this, leaving the 
crown about half an inch above the surface of 
the soil ; press the earth around the bulb, and 
settle all by a good watering. Then set the 
pots away in a warm, dark place, keeping the 
soil moderately damp until the pot is filled with 
roots, which may be ascertained by carefully 
turning out the contents. Then bring them to 
the light. The shoot will probably be an inch 



high and pure white, but in a few days it will 
become green, and grow with great rapidity, 
the full bloom appearing in a few weeks. 
Water liberally after the bulbs are brought to 
the light. If a few drops of hartshorn are 
added to the water it will assist a full develop- 
ment of foliage and flowers ; bone shavings or 
horn scrapings will have the same effect, and 
small bits of powdered charcoal mixed with 'the 
earth will impart great depth and brilliancy of 
color to the flowers and a rich green to the 
foliage. Hyacinths may also be grown in pure 
silver sand, in moss, or even in clear rain-water. 
Of the numberless varieties of the hyacinthe 
the following are among the best : Double Blue: 
Argus, Bonaparte, Envoye, Grand Vedette, La 
Majesteuse, Laurens Koster, Lord Wellington, 
and Orondatus. Single Blue: Amicus, Argus, 
Baron Von Tuyll, EmiHus, L'amie du Coeur, 
Prince Albert, Orondatus, and Robert Peel. 
Double Red : Acteur, Bouquet Tendre, Groot- 
verst, Hecla, Josephine, Panorama, Rex Rub- 
rorum, and Sans Souci. Single Red : Amy, 
Charles Dickens, Mrs. Beecher Stowe, and 
Porcelain Sceptre. Double White : A Ik Mode, 
Anna Maria, Gloria Florum, Grand Monarque, 
Miss Kitty, Sultan Achmet, Triomphe Blandina, 
and Violette Superbe. Single While: Anna 
Paulovna, Blandine, Elfrida, General Cavaig- 
nac, Mont Blanc, Paix de I'Europe, Victoria 
Regina, and Voltaire. Double Yellow : Bou- 
quet d'Orange, Croesus, Due de Berry d'Or, 
Goethe, Heroine, Louis d'Or, and Ophir. Sin- 
gle Yellow : Alida, Jacoba, Aurora, Fleur 
d'Or, Heroine, Lion d'Or, Prince of Orange, 
Soliel d'Or, and Victor Hugo. 

HYDRANGEA. — A genus of shrubby plant, 
so called from their predilection for water and 
from the calyx of some sj^ecies resembling a 
cup. One variety of the hydrangea grows wild 
throughout Georgia and the Carolinas, and 
others from Pennsylvania to Virginia; but the 
H. Hortensius (with pink flowers) is the vari- 
ety usually cultivated. This is not hardy, and 
consequently must be grown in tubs and win- 
tered in the cellar. The soil should consist of 
one part loam, one part manure, and one part 
peat. One requisite for its successful culture 
is shade ; if grown in the sun, the leaves become 
burned and the plant does jDoorly. While grow- 
ing, the plants must have a liberal supply of 
water, and will wither at once if it is withheld. 
The flowers are produced on the shoots of the 
previous year. To flower profusely, it requires 
to be well grown, and the leaves on 3-oung plants 
are larger than those on plants three or four 
years old. Cuttings of the wood or of the grow- 
ing stems will root without difficulty : those of 
the latter make roots soonest, and if they are 
then petted in rich soil they will grow very rap- 
idly. Besides the Hortensius^ the H. Japonica, 
with blue and white flowers, is desirable. 

HYDROPATHY.— A system of treatment 
of disease mainly or exclusively by the applica- 
tion of water. Many of the advantages claimed 
for the system by its advocates are purely im- 
aginary, but there can be no doubt that it is of 



HYDROPHOBIA 



HYDROPHOBIA 



299 



the greatest benefit in a large number of cases. 
It gives a healthy stimulus to the nerves, brac- 
ing them, and acting like a tonic and soother to 
the whole system. It is likewise invaluable in 
cases where the circulation of the blood is im- 
paired ; and it is nearly always beneficial in 
cases of indigestion, nervousness, an impaired 
constitution, a too full habit, or where the pa- 
tient has been living too freely without taking 
much exercise. Having, under the head of 
Bath, already noticed at length the different 
forms of baths, and the great importance of 
bathing, it only remains here to mention briefly 
some of the forms in which it is employed as 
a remedial agent. These are various. Besides 
the ordinary bath and the shower bath, one of 
the most common is the douche bath, in which 
a single jet of water, varying in size from that 
of a quill pen to the thickness of a man's arm, 
is projected with great force, either from 
above, below, or on one side, upon a particular 
part of the body. The sitz bath is taken sit- 
ting. Besides these there are the foot bath, 
hand bath, etc. Sometimes when the patient 
is sitting in a warm or tepid bath, cold water 
is poured over the head and upper part of the 
person. Pieces of coarse linen, saturated with 
cold water, are also applied to the skin, and 
covered over with dry cloths, and usually re- 
moistened several times a day. The wei- 
sheet packing is one of the characteristic fea- 
tures of the system ; it consists in enveloping 
the patient in a sheet wrung out in cold water, 
and then covering him over with dry blankets. 
The system of dietary and exercise that are 
kept up at the water-cure establishments is 
probably even more conducive to health than 
the baths themselves. 

HYDROPHOBIA. — This appalling disease 
is caused by the bite of some rabid animal, 
usually a dog oi a wolf, though instances of its 
communication by a cat or a horse have occurred. 
It would be useless to dwell on the symptoms 
of the disease, because when once it is devel- 
oped there is no known cure ; by the use of 
chloroform and narcotics we may mitigate the 
agony of the patient, but that is all. The great 
thing is to remove the poison before it has 
extended itself into the system. This is best 
done by excision of the wounded part, care 
being taken that every portion of it is removed. 
When it is impossible to use the knife effec- 
tually, a powerful caustic (nitric acid, or strong 
hquid ammonia) should be appHed freely over 
the whole surface of the wound, so as to destroy 
the effects of the poison. As the poison is not 
very active, these means are usually effective 
even when employed some time after the receipt 
of the wound ; but of course all due haste 
should be made, and it is well to keep washing 
the wound with tepid water until medical aid 
arrives. 

It is now conceded by all medical authorities 
that many cases of so-called hydrophobia are 
purely hysterical, being caused by the operation 
of dread on a sensitive organization ; so it is im- 
portant to know that not more than one case in 



thirty of bites by mad dogs results in hydror 
phobia, even when the dog was unmistakably 
rabid. 

Hydrophobia in the Dog. — The symptoms 
are usually as follows : — The first, according to 
Youatt, is a marked change of temper; the 
naturally cheerful dog becoming waspish and 
morose, and the bold fondling pet retreating 
from his master's hand as if it were that of a 
stranger. On the other hand, the shy dog 
becomes bold ; but in almost every case there 
is a total change of manner for several days 
before the absolute outbreak of the attack, 
which is indicated by a kind of delirious watch- 
ing of imaginary objects, the dog snapping at 
the wall, or, if anything comes in his way, 
tearing it to pieces with savage fury. With 
this there is constant watchfulness, and some- 
times a peculiarly hollow howl, while at others 
no sound whatever is given, the case being 
then described as " dumb madness." Fever is 
always present, but it is difficult to ascertain 
its extent, on account of the danger of approach- 
ing the patient ; and with this (in contradic- 
tion to the name hydrophobia) there is invaria- 
bly an urgent thirst, which the dog is in such 
a hurry to gratify that he generally upsets the 
vessel containing the water. There is also an 
increased secretion of saliva, which becomes 
thick, viscid, adhesive, and glutinous, and 
clings to the corners of the mouth, whence the 
dog makes furious attempts to detach it. This 
is an early symptom in the dog, and can scarcely 
be mistaken ; as soon as it appears he should 
be shot, before the rabid stage is reached. It 
is now a thoroughly established fact that 
hydrophobia has no relation to the weather ; 
that, in fact, more cases occur in winter than 
in summer. 

Dr. John C. Dalton, of the New York Board 
of Health, furnishes the following practical 
rules which should be carefully attended to : — 

1. A dog that is sick from any cause should 
be watched and treated carefully until his re- 
covery. 

2. A dog that is sick and restless is an ob- 
ject of suspicion. This is the earliest peculiar 
symptom of hydrophobia. 

3. A dog that is sick and restless and has a 
depraved appetite, gnawing and swallowing 
bits of cloth, wood, coal, brick, mortar, or his 
own dung, is a dangerous animal. He should 
be at once chained up and kept in confinement 
until his condition be clearly ascertained. 

4. If, in addition to any or all of the fore- 
going symptoms, the dog has delusion of the 
senses, appearing to see or hear imaginary 
sights or sounds, trying to pass through a 
closed door, catching at "flies in the air where 
there are none, or searching for something 
which does not exist, there is great probability 
that he is, or is becoming, hydrophobic. He 
should be secured and confined without de- 
lay. 

5. In case any one is bitten by a dog whose 
condition is suspicious, the most effective and 
beneficial treatment is to cauterize the wound 



300 



HYPOCHONDRIA 



HYSTERICAL FITS 



at once with a stick of silver nitrate, commonly 
called " lunar caustic." The stick of caustic 
should be sharpened to a pencil point, intro- 
duced quite to the bottom of the wound, and 
held in contact with every part of the wounded 
surface until it is thoroughly cauterized and 
insensible. This destroys the virus by which 
the disease would be communicated. 

HYGIENE. {See Health.) 

HYPOCHONDRIA. — A disease character- 
ized by extreme sensibility of the nervous sys- 
tem, and bordering very closely on insanity, to 
which it sometimes leads. The patient's ideas 
are often of the most extravagant character, 
and he generally believes himself to be suffer- 
ing from some terrible and imaginary disease, 
or to be much worse than he really is. He 
may fancy that he is immensely tall or inordi- 
nately small ; that he is heavy as lead or light 
as a feather ; that he is composed of glass or a 
lump of butter. Hypochondriacs are all ex- 
tremely timid, and their fears are exercised 
upon'trifles, or are altogether groundless. They 
dwell constantly upon their own sufferings, 
and are usually morose, peevish, suspicious, 
and frequently believe their dearest friends 
to have designs upon their life. If not arrest- 
ed, the disease becomes organic, and in many 
cases developes into acute insanity with suicidal 
mania. The causes of hypochondria are va- 
rious, arising usually from an impaired condi- 
tion of the nervous system, and especially from 
derangement of the digestive functions. Men 
of letters, overtasked students, and men of 
business, and those whose naturally delicate 
constitutions and ardent imaginative minds 
have been abnormally stimulated, are the most 
frequent subjects of hypochondria ; but it may 
arise in the strongest persons, after profound 
grief or other moral emotion, debilitating ex- 
cesses of any kind, or the sudden suppression 
of any habitual discharge. Those, too, who, 
from want of occupation and a due amount of 
exercise, acquire a luxurious habit, often fall a 
prey to it. 

Treatment. — The treatment must of course 
vary somewhat according to the origin and na- 
ture of the disease. In general, the important 
thing is to withdraw the patient's mind as much 
as possible from himself ; and for this purpose 
change of scene and cheerful society should be 
sought. The system should also be strengthen- 
ed by tonics, and exercise in the open air. If 
the disease arise from idleness and luxury, 
then plenty of active exercise and a spare diet 
are the proper mode of treatment. In all cases 
the state of the digestive organs should be at- 
tended to, and the bowels kept in a strictly 
normal condition. 

HYSTERICAL FITS.— An hysterical fit, 
though generally a very innocent thing in its 
effects, is yet sufficiently alarming when seen 
for the first time. Though most common in 
women of an excitable and ill-regulated mind, 
it may occur in the most sensible and calm- 
judging persons under sudden shocks, fright, 
great mental emotions, grief, joy, or anger. | 



The fit is often preceded by a feeling of faint- 
ness and of choking, as if a ball were rising in 
the throat, interfering with swallowing, and 
even with speech. Then comes on a violent 
fit of screaming and sobbing, mingled with 
bursts of laughter ; the eyes are closed, the 
breath is drawn with difficulty, the face becomes 
red, and the limbs, perhaj^s, convulsed ; the 
throat is grasped violently, or the hair is torn, 
or the hands or feet are beaten violently against 
the ground. In fifteen or twenty minutes the 
fit goes off, and the patient comes to herself, 
having been more or less unconscious while it 
lasted. When a paroxysm threatens, loosen 
each article of dress, lay the patient on the 
floor without a carpet, and dash large quantities 
of cold water into the face, to the extent of two 
or three pailfuls if need be. A little water 
merely sprinkled into the face only increases 
the disorder, while large quantities, strongly 
dashed, cut it short. No harm results, how- 
ever, if no treatment is employed. A dose of 
valerian is a popular and excellent remedy. 

Hysteria, of which the fits are merely a 
transient paroxysm, is, as its name implies, 
very frequently symptomatic of some irregular- 
ity in the function peculiar to the womb, the 
periodical secretion from that organ being 
either deficient or in excess, irregular in its 
recurrence, attended with difficulty and pain, 
or, as in many cases, morbid in its quality. 
To some of these conditions the severe, pro- 
tracted or repeated attacks of hysteria are 
generally to be ascribed ; but it may also be 
caused by nervous irritability, vivid moral emo- 
tions, anything which excites the imagination, 
especially disappointed love, jealousy, and vari- 
ous excesses of body and mind. In very many 
cases it is partly a desire of the mind, brought 
on by improper self-abandonment to the power 
of the emotions, and especially to feelings of a 
painful character or of sexual tendency. 

Treatment. — -The principles of treating hys- 
teria are threefold : I, to improve the nutrition 
of the nervous system by bringing the blood 
up to its healthy standard, by a strengthening 
diet, hygienic means, and the judicious employ- 
ment oftonics ; 2, to remove all irregularities 
in the menstrual or other functions, when they 
are evident exciting causes ; 3, to act upon the 
mind, by leading the patient to repress the first 
emotional excitement by the force of will, and 
to direct the attention to a different class of 
objects, substituting a pleasant for a disagreea- 
ble train of thought. After a paroxysm, tran- 
quility of mind and habits of self-control are 
the best means of preventing a return ; any 
disappointment, whether in love, business, or 
other affairs of life, should, if possible, be re- 
moved by the realization of the hopes. If mar- 
riage be unattainable, the tendency to hysterical 
attacks will often be removed by the change of 
air and scene and habits resulting from a dis- 
tant journey ; and a similar course is useful to 
distract the attention from other consuming 
cares and persons which may act as predis- 
posing causes. 



ICE 



ICE-CREAM 



301 



ICE. — Ice is usually kept for immediate 
family use, in refrigerators, which it is cheapest 
to buy good. They should be seldom open- 
ed. Two thicknesses of newspaper wrapped 
around the ice before it is put into the recep- 
tacle will make it last nearly twice as long. 
Where a refrigerator is not at hand, ice should 
be wrapped in a thick blanket and kept in a 
cool place. (^See Coolers.) 

ICE BAG. — A rubber bag, closed with a 
metal clamp, to be obtained from druggists and 
rubber stores. It is of the greatest convenience 
where bruises, or any other ill, call for the 
application of ice to the surface of the body. 

ICE-HOUSES.— Whether dug out of the 
side of a hill or in level ground, require protec- 
tion from heat transmitted or conducted through 
the atmosphere or through the soil. To protect 
them from the heat of the sun they should al- 
ways be dug in places well sheltered by trees ; to 
protect them from heated winds the opening 
into them should be towards the north. In all 
cases their entrances should be closed hermet- 
ically, and at all times when the temperature is 
above freezing-point. An ice-house should 
never be dug in wet soil, or near a spring ; and 
to prevent the transmission of heat through the 
earth, the sides, bottom, and top should be 
lined with masonry and cement, thick and close 
enough to prevent the entrance of water. A 
small-sized ice-house, cheap and simple, may 
be made as follows : Dig a hole in the north 
side of a hill, about six and a half feet in diam- 
eter and in depth. At the bottom run a small 
trench through to the outside, for carrying off 
the water produced by the melting of the ice, 
the bottom and sides must be made of laths or 
thin planks attached to girders and uprights ; 
over this planking must be placed straw, press- 
ed close, and forming a layer of non-conducting 
material about half an inch thick. The top of 
the pit should be covered with a ceiling of wood, 
and over this earth should be heaped to a 
height of over three feet. At the north side of 
the pit is the entrance, a square-head forming 
an inclosure, which should be filled with straw. 
A few steps conduct down to the door of the 
ice-house, which must be closely covered with 
bundles of straw, and is itself made of wood 
with straw attached to its inner side. An ice- 
house of this size will hold between three and 
four tons of ice ; enough, allowing for all pro- 
bable waste by melting, to last the largest 
household through the season. It should be 
entered only once a day; and the straw which 
covers the entrance should not be removed for 
a longer time, or more, than is necessary. 

It is necessary to /rap the drain by which the 
water that melts from the ice is carried away. 
If this be not done, and with a trap of such a 



nature as to be certain to remain full of water, 
the drain will act as an inlet of warm air, and 
will effectually counteract all the best precau- 
tions of other sorts. 

ICE-CREAM. — If ice-cream is to be made 
at home, it is best (and most economical) to buy 
a patent "freezer" and have it always ready. 
There are a great number of these to be had, 
nearly all of which are good ; select one which 




Ice-pail and Freezer. 

is simple in construction, and which has a 
space of about five inches between the outer 
surface of the " form " and the inner surface 
of the " tub." This, if properly managed, will 
freeze cream in half an hour. In preparing for 
use, break the ice up in small pieces and put a 
layer in the tub about three inches deep; then 
put in a layer of salt (rock salt is best), and 
then more ice, etc., using about one-fourth as 
much salt as ice and having a layer of ice on 
top. This mixture must come at least as high 
up on the outside of the freezer as the cream 
does on the inside, and it is better to have 
it reach the whole height of the freezer. A 
hole in the tub to let off the water as the 
ice melts is a great advantage. In taking 
out for use, first wipe off every particle of 
the ice and salt from the freezer, then with 
a knife loosen the sides, then invert the free- 
zer upon the dish in which the ice is to be 
served, and apply two towels wrung out in hot 
water to the bottom part ; the whole will soon 
slide out in the shape of a cylinder. If it is 
desired to serve the cream in moulds, pour it 
into them when it is frozen sufficiently, and 
then cover the moulds with snow and salt till 
they are wanted. Dip the moulds in warm 
water to make the ice slip out easily. 

Almond Ice-cream. — Sweet almonds, 3 oz ; 
bitter almonds, i oz ; cream, 3 pts ; sugar, 2 
teacupfuls ; arrow-root, i tablespoonful wet up 
with cold milk ; rose-water, 2 tablespoonfuls. 

Pound the almonds to a paste, and add to 
them the rose-water ; heat one pint of the cream 
almost to boiling ; stir in the sugar, and when 
this is melted, the almonds ; simmer ten min- 
utes, stirring often ; then remove from the fire 
and let it stand ten minutes longer in a cover- 



302 



ICE-CREAM 



ICES 



ed vessel. Strain the cream pressing the bag 
hard ; then return it to the sauce-pan and stir 
in the arrowroot until the cream thickens — say 
five minutes. When quite cold, beat very 
light with an egg-whip, adding gradually the 
rest of the cream ; it should be light in half an 
hour. Then freeze. 

Chocolate Ice-cream. — Za,^^ /-Chocolate, 3 
dessert-spoonfuls; cream, i pt; milk, y^ pt; 
sugar, I teacupful ; egg, i. 

Beat the egg very light and mix it with the 
sugar ; heat the milk almost to boiling and add 
it to the egg and sugar ; rub the chocolate smooth 
in a little milk, and stir it in. A little vanilla 
may be added if the flavor is liked. Put on the 
fire and heat until it thickens well, stirring all 
the time ; then set aside to cool. When it is 
cold, beat in the cream, and freeze. 

Coffee Ice-cream. — T^/Cv /—Coffee, i cupful, 
strong and clear ; cream, 3 pts ; sugar, 3 cup- 
fuls ; arrowroot, 2 table-spoonfuls. 

Take half the cream, heat it nearly to boiling 
and stir in the sugar ; when this is melted, add 
the coffee ; wet up the arrowroot with a little 
cold milk, and stir that in. Boil for five min- 
utes, stirring constantly, and set aside to cool. 
When cold, beat in the rest of the cream by 
degrees ; then freeze. 

Fruit Ice-cream. — Make rich boiled custard, 
and mash into it the soft ripe fruit, or the 
grated or cooked hard fruit, or grated pineap- 
ple ; rub all through a sieve, sweeten it very 
sweet, and freeze it. Apples, pears, jDeaches, 
quinces, raspberries, and strawberries, are all 
good for this purpose. 

Lemon Ice-cream. — 7(7^^ .-—Lemons, i doz; 
cream, 3 qts ; sugar. 

Squeeze all the juice from the lemons, and 
stir into it enough of sugar to make it thick ; 
then add gradually the cream, flavored with 
some of the grated rind, and freeze. 

Orange Ice-Cream. — Made same as lemon 
ice-cream. Orange requires less sugar. 

Orgeat Ice-Cream. — 7>z,f^ .--Sweet almonds, 
I oz ; bitter almonds, \ oz ; cream, i pt ; 
eggs, yolks of 8 ; sifted sugar, 4 oz. 

Blanch and pound the almonds with a little 
orange-flower water (or rose-water) ; beat the 
yolks of the eggs, add the sugar, and stir all 
gently into the cream ; put the whole on the 
fire and stir continually till it begins to thicken. 
Take it off, stir till cold, and then put it into 
the freezer. 

Philadelphia Ice-cream. — Take .'-^XQ.-a.m. or 
milk, 2 qts ; sugar, powdered, i lb ; arrowroot, 
3 table-spoonfuls ; eggs, whites of 8. 

Boil the milk or cream (the latter is best) ; 
thicken it with the arrowroot ; add the sugar ; 
and pour the whole upon the whites of the eggs, 
which should previously have been well beaten 
up. If a flavor of vanilla is desired, split half 
a bean, and boil it in the milk. When all the 
ingredients are stirred together thoroughly, 
freeze. 

Pineapple Ice-cream. — Take .--Pineapple, i 
large one ; cream, l qt ; powdered sugar, i lb. 

Pare the pineapple, slice it thin, and spread 



the sugar between the slices ; cover it, and let 
it stand three hours ; then chop it up fine, and 
strain the syrup through a sieve ; beat this into 
the cream, and freeze at once. A few slices of 
the pineapple may be cut into bits, unsugared, 
and stirred into the cream when it is half 
frozen. 

Peach Ice-cream. — Make same as pineapn 
ple ice-cream. 

Strawberry or raspberry Ice-cream. — 
Take /-Strawberries or raspberries, i pt ; cream, 
I pt ; sugar ; juice of half a lemon. 

Mash the berries and strain off the juice ; to 
this add sugar enough to make very sweet, and 
stir in the cream ; strain in the juice of half a 
lemon ; press the whole through a sieve, and 
freeze. Currants may be worked up in the same 
way. 

- If raspberries or strawberries are not in 
season, take a pound of the juice of either and 
add the juice of one or two lemons, half a pint 
of cream, and half a pint of fresh milk ; color 
with a few drojDS of tincture of cochineal, and 
freeze. 

Vanilla Ice-cream. — Make same as Phila- 
delphia ice-cream, first boiling a vanilla bean in 
the milk till the flavor is strong enough. Or, 
boil a vanilla bean, well scraped, in a quart of 
milk, until flavored ; beat up the yolks of eight 
eggs and stir them in ; sweeten well ; and add 
the whites of the eggs, whipped to a stiff 
froth. Boil till it begins to thicken, stir till 
cold, and then freeze. 

ICES (WATER). — Omit the cream, and mix 
water with the juices of the fruit. When fro- 
zen they should be perfectly smooth, and soft 
enough to yield easily to the spoon. If brittle 
or solid, it is an indication that too much water 
has been used. 

Cherry-water Ice. — Take .--Cherries, i qt ; 
lemons, 2 ; sugar, I pt ; water, i pt ; brandy, i 
wineglassful. 

Bruise the cherries and half the stones in a 
mortar ; squeeze them through a bag over the 
sugar ; add the water and the brandy ; then 
freeze. 

Currant-water Ice. — 77z/^^ .--Ripe, red cur- 
rants, and granulated sugar; eggs, whites of 2. 

Squeeze the currants through a linen bag, 
and for each pint of the juice allow a pound of 
granulated sugar and a pint of water; and 
when the sugar is thoroughly melted," put into 
the freezer ; when half frozen, add the whites 
of two eggs, whipped to a stiff froth. 

Gooseberry-water Ice. — Stew the goose- 
berries until they are soft, and then squeeze 
out the juice through a linen bag ; to every pint 
allow a pound of granulated sugar and a pint 
of water ; mix well, and freeze ; eggs as above. 

Lemon-water Ice. — To one pint of lemon 
juice, add one quart of granulated sugar and 
one quart of water, in which the grated rind of 
three lemons has been soaked, until highly 
flavored ; when partly frozen, add the whites of 
four eggs, beaten to a stiff froth. 

Orange-vraterlce. — Take .--Oranges, 6; lem- 
ons, 2 ; sugar, i pt ; water, i pt ; eggs, whites of 2. 



ICING 



INFANT 



303 



Prepare and freeze as directed for Lemon- 
water ice. 

Pineapple--water Ice. — Take .--Pineapples, 
2, large and ripe ; water i pt ; t.gg, white of i ; 
sugar. 

Pare the pineapples, remove the eyes, grate, 
add the water and sufficient sugar to make it 
very sweet ; pass it through the colander and 
mix it little by little with the white of the egg, 
beaten to a stiff froth ; then freeze. 

Raspberry -water Ice. — Make as directed for 
strawberries. 

Strawberry-water Ice. — Crush two quarts 
of fresh strawberries with two pounds of granu- 
lated sugar ; let them stand an hour or more ; 
squeeze them in a straining cloth, pressing out 
all the juice ; add to it an equal measure of 
water, and when half frozen beat in the whites 
of three eggs, whisked to a stiff froth. 

ICING (FOR OAKE).— I. Beat the whites 
of three eggs to a froth only (not until they 
are white) ; add gradually i lb of powdered 
sugar while you continue beating; this may be 
done in five minutes. Flavor with lemon or 
vanilla. Beating the t.gg stiff before the sugar 
is added makes the icing slow in drying. Ice 
the cake as soon as taken from the oven. 

II. Place one pound of sugar {double re- 
fined) in a bowl with a level teaspoonful of 
cream tartar.andthe whites of three eggs; beat 
with a wooden spoon 20 minutes.when it should 
be very white and light, and on letting it run 
from the spoon, preserve its thread-like appear- 
ance 3 or 4 minutes. Invert the cake on a 
mould that is smaller than the cake. Ice the 
sides with a broad-bladed knife; when dry.turn 
the cake and cover the top by slowly pouring 
the icing on the center of the cake. 

III. (Almond.) — Blanch fifteen ounces of Jor- 
dan, and I oz of bitter almonds; pound to a 
smooth fine pable, with two tablespoonfuls of 
orange-flower water; then add i| lb sifted 
sugar, and 4 whites of eggs. Mix and pound 
well for eight or ten minutes ; take it up in a 
bowl. Pass a long band of paper, 7.\ inches 
wide, around the sides of the cake, leaving it 
I inch above the top; then make a layer of the 
icing, place it in a slow oven 35 minutes with- 
out acquiring any color. It may be served as 
it is, or be iced as above over it. 

IMPERIAL Scald a jug, and put into it 

i to ^ oz cream of tartar; add i qt of boiling 
water, flavor with lemon peel or essence of 
lemon, sweeten to taste. A refreshing and 
mildly stimulating summer beverage. 

INDIA-RUBBER. — A cement can be 
bought which will mend articles of flexible 
rubber. The fact that some soft-rubber arti- 
cles can be stuck together when heated should 
not lead anybody to heat hard rubber in hopes 
of repairing it. 

The elasticity of soft rubber articles is of 
rather uncertain duration, manufacturers do not 
like to guarantee it for more than three months, 
though it generally lasts much longer. In its 
pure state caoutchouc is nearly colorless, and 
the dark blue wMch most of it has in the 



crude state is produced by the smoke to which 
it is subjected in the East Indies in the process 
of drying. 
INDIA SHAWL. (See Shawls.) 
INDIGESTION. {See Dyspepsia.) 
INFANT. — The period of infancy, according 
to the division usually adopted by medical 
writers, extends to the time of changing from 
fluid to solid food, or say the end of the second 
year ; and it is this period only which will be 
treated of in detail here. For suggestions con- 
cerning a later stage of childhood, see article 
on Children.* 

As the infant's life is for the most part passed 
in the same room with its mother, it is not ne- 
cessary to dwell upon the arrangement and care 
of the nursery. The essential point is that what- 
ever room they pass the time in should be 
sufficiently ventilated, and should (especially 
during the first month or two) be kept at a 
moderate and uniform temperature, say from 
65° to 70°. If artificial heat be needed, an 
open fire is by all means to be preferred to any 
other method. The best bed for an infant is 
the ordinary hair mattress; if the infant be 
delicate, or while it is very young, a folded quilt 
may be laid on this to make it softer. As a 
general thing no pillow at all will be needed, 
but if any is used, it should be a very thin one, 
made of hair. Blankets of a soft and fleecy 
texture, and not too heavy, should form the 
only covering, especially at first. Sheets, when 
they are used at all, are better of cotton than 
of linen. 

Birth. — Usually a birth takes place in the 
presence of a physician, and in such cases, the 
management of all the details is left to him. 
Sometimes, however, in spite of all precautions, 
the child is born in his absence, and then the 
life of both mother and infant depend to some 
extent upon prompt and intelligent action. 
The child should be allowed to remain upon 
the bed, protected from the cold, but with free 
access of the air to the mouth in order that it 
may be able to breathe. The attendant should 
pinch the cord which goes from the child's na- 
vel tightly between her thumb and fingers, so 
as to stop the beating in the arteries of the cord 
beyond her fingers ; she may take hold of the 
cord for this purpose about six inches from the 
child's body. If the physician is expected to 
arrive soon, she should continue thus to hold 
the cord till he comes. If he cannot be pres- 
ent for some time, she may tie the cord, pro- 
ceeding in this way : take a strong string (a 
piece of stout saddler's silk is best) twelve or 
fifteen inches long, and put it round the cord 
two inches front the child's body, tying it in the 
usual way of a single knot. Then it should be 
drawn tight, so as entirely to stop all beating 
beyond "it, care being taken not to let either 



*The writer has endeavored to make the suggestions embod- 
ied in these two articles full enough for all the practical purposes 
of an intelligent mother or nurse ; but those desiring more de- 
tailed information on these and other points should procure the 
excellent work from which a considerable part of our own ma- 
terial was drawn : " The Handbook for Mothers, by Edward E. 
Parker, M. D., New York: Kurd & Houghton." 



304: 



INFANT 



hand slip, for fear the umbilical cord should be 
torn away from the body of the child, which is 
a very grave accident. Secure the knot by 
another tie — that is, make it a hard knot ; 
but the ends must not be cut off yet. Another 
similar knot must be tied round the cord about 
two inches farther from the child than the first 
one ; then, with a sharp pair of scissors, the 
cord may be cut in two. All this should be 
done in a good light, and especial care taken 
that nothing is in the way of the scissors so as 
to be injured by them. After the cord is di- 
vided, the cut end next the child should be 
wiped clear of blood and carefully examined to 
be sure there is no bleeding from it. If it does 
bleed, the cord must be again tied a little near- 
er the child's body than the first string, and 
with the same precautions as before. The cord 
however is not to be cut again. When it is as- 
certained that there is no bleeding from the 
cord, the ends of the string should be cut off 
within an inch of the knot, and the child care- 
fully wrapped in a warm and soft blanket or 
sheet, and kept from all exposure to cold, air 
to breathe being allowed it. If the child does 
not breathe when it is first born, its naked chest 
should be blown upon, with short but vigorous 
and repeated puffs from the mouth ; its chest 
may be rubbed smartly with the hand or a tow- 
el — with alcohol if practicable — or it may be 
sprinkled smartly with cold water ; or a little 
cold water or alcohol may be taken in the 
mouth and spurted upon the chest so as to strike 
it with some force. If these fail, the nurse 
should put her mouth over the mouth and nose 
of the child with a view of blowing up its lungs, 
at the same time that the other means continue 
to be used. When breathing is fairly establish- 
ed, the child should be allowed to remain with- 
out separation of the cord till all the purple 
color has passed off from the face, and then 
proceed as before directed. 

The care of the child immediately after the 
birth is a matter of some delicacy. For a time 
after the cord has been cut, it should be laid 
in a warm place, carefully protected from cur- 
rents of air and covered with light clothing to 
take a little rest. When nothing is more im- 
perative, the infant should then be washed, 
and for this purpose use a hand-basin of good 
size, or a very small tub half filled with warm 
water. To use cold water as is sometimes 
done is unjustifiable ; for although a very robust 
infant may not suffer from it, the chances are, 
at the best, that it will take a violent cold. 
Too hot water is also to be avoided ; the prop- 
er temperature is a little below blood-heat. 
The infant may be washed with a soft sponge 
as it lies on the lap, or it may be placed in the 
tub : the former is preferable. The difficulty 
in the first washing is to remove the cheesy 
matter on the surface. Oil, lard, or egg are 
frequently applied before the washing under 
the impression that they remove this cheesy 
matter more effectually ; but for this purpose 
soap, which should be delicate, not coarse, is 
sufficient. All of this matter must be carefully 



removed, especial pains being taken with any 
creases that may be found, and with the hair. 
If, in washing the child, any real or supposed 
deformity is found, it is best to consult the 
physician at once. If it is not real, it will be a 
relief to the parents to know it ; if it needs atten- 
tion, it may be important that it receive it at 
once. After the washing is completed, if the 
child is cold, It had better be wrapped up snug- 
ly in a warm and very soft blanket, and allowed 
to get warm before the dressing is proceeded 
with. In dressing, the first thing to be done 
is to dress the cord of the navel. For this 
purpose, take a strip of old and soft linen, half 
an inch wide and six inches long, and wind it 
round the cord till it is entirely covered ; then 
lay the cord up against the belly, and apply the 
belly-band over it. This belly-band should be 
of fine and soft, but strong flannel, about four 
inches wide and eighteen inches long, and cut 
straight-ways of the cloth. The middle of the 
band should be put over the navel, one end 
lapped over the other, drawn pretty firmly, and 
fastened so as not to slip; there will be less 
danger of its slipping if the lower edge is 
drawn a little tighter than the ujDper. The 
rest of the clothing should be warm and very 
light, and should be put on so as to fit loosely. 

After the child is dressed, it should be laid 
on a soft pillow and allowed to sleep. The 
fatigue of being born, and then washed and 
dressed, is such that it will often sleep a long 
time ; which it should be allowed to do without 
disturbance. If it cries and will not be paci- 
fied, it should then be allowed to nurse, or at 
any rate to take the first lesson in sucking. If 
the child succeeds in drawing the breast, it 
will be satisfied, though it gets but very little, 
and it should then be allowed to go to sleep. 
In two hours, if it is awake, and cries as if for 
food, it may be allowed to try the other breast 
in the same way. It is very desirable that the 
child should thus get the fluid in the breasts ; 
not only is it natural for it to do this, but this 
first milk differs from that subsequently pro- 
duced, in that it has a somewhat catha?-tic ef- 
fect, and moves from the bowels the secretions 
deposited in them before birth. It is very im- 
portant to remember this, for most nurses are 
bewitched to give the child a teaspoonful of 
molasses and water, or some other nauseous 
dose, in order, as they say, to move the bowels. 
No 7nedici7ie of any kind should be permitted 
to efiter the infarifs lips. Even when the 
mother's breast yields no fluid for several days, 
no medicine will be needed. Sweetened water, 
lukewarm, will be all that is required for the 
first twenty-four hours ; afterwards, the addition 
of one part of boiled and skimmed milk to 'four 
or five parts of sugar water is to be given. 

The habit of putting the child to the breast 
every time it cries, should be shunned for the 
sake of the mother and for the sake of the 
child itself. Once in two hours is often enough 
for the new-born child to nurse during the day, 
and once in three hours during the night. 
With the increase in the age of the child, the 



I 



INFANT 



305 



intervals between meals may be lengthened so 
that when the child is six months old, it should 
be about three hours. From birth too, the 
infant should be accustomed to go to sleep 
without rocking, walking, or trotting it on the 
knee ; it is astonishing how easily good or bad 
habits can be developed at this time. Every 
morning the child should be put into a warm 
bath (blood-heat is the right temperature), 
followed by a good rubbing with the soft hand ; 
it should then be dressed and allowed to nurse. 
After the first month, it is well, if the weather 
be mild, to accustom the infant to be carried 
out of doors by its nurse every day. The 
dress, of course, must be warm, the head and 
chest being covered and, the feet being pro- 
tected from the cold. The eyes also must be 
protected from the light ; but the utmost care 
must be exercised in arranging the veil or 
handkerchief over the face, for it is the easiest 
thing imaginable to suffocate a very young 
child. 

Clothing of Infants. — As regards the ma- 
terial of infants' clothing, the same rule applies 
as to the clothing of adults (see Clothing). 
Soft flannel or woollen garments should be 
worn next to the skin for the greater part 
of the year, and when a change is made to 
lighter material, it should be done with great 
caution. Dress the infant so that it will be 
always warm, but not so as to cause perspira- 
tion. Be sure and keep its feet always warm ; 
and to ensure this, warm them at the fire, if 
they seem cold, and use long dresses. Keep 
the neck and arms covered ; for this purpose 
wrappers, open in front, and made high in the 
neck, with long sleeves, to put on over the 
dress are excellent. It must not be forgotten 
that the tender frame of the infant yields 
readily to pressure, and its clothing must be 
large and loose, so that no part of its form 
shall be prevented from moving and expanding 
with all the freedom of nature. Not only will 
tight dressing at this period cause permanent 
distortion, and thus destroy grace and beauty, 
but it will so interfere with the regular course 
of the blood and action of the various organs 
as to produce functional derangement, and 
probably fatal disease. The use of heavy 
diapers may have a tendency to deform the 
lower limbs of an infant. If not entirely dis- 
pensed with, their use need not be prolonged 
beyond a very few months of infancy, during 
which the natural instincts of the child should 
be made, as they can be at a very early period, 
to assume the form of regular habits. The 
diaper, moreover, when used, should be very 
loosely fitted to the child, so as not to bind the 
thigh and prevent the free action of its muscles. 
The substitution of short dresses for long ones 
may take place when the child is about four 
months old, if the weather be favorable, and 
should seldom be deferred beyond the sixth 
month. As this is quite a serious change in 
the child's way of life, it should be carefully 
watched for a time and protected against cold ; 
and, whatever the season, had best wear light 
20 



woollen socks at first. Tight shoes as well as 
tight dressing, are a domestic torture against 
which the infant should be protected. But it 
is not so much small shoes as ill-made shoes 
that produce injury to young feet. Shoes that 
do not fit well are worn down at the heel as 
soon as the child begins to walk; the ankle 
seems to give way also, and to bend towards 
the defective part of the shoe ; and the child's 
step becomes thus both unsafe and awkward. 
Caps should never be put on an infant's head, 
except when it is sent into the open air. 

Diet of Infants. The mother's milk is the 
most appropriate food for an infant in all stages 
of its development ; but it happens sometimes, 
that the mother cannot nurse her infant or that 
her milk is insufficient, and in such cases it is 
necessary to find a substitute. This providing 
of artificial food is the most delicate and im- 
portant point in the raising of infants ; and in 
the suggestions which we shall offer on the 
subject we shall follow very closely the rules 
laid down by Dr. Jacobi in his address to the 
Public Health Association of New York — pre- 
senting his conclusions as far as possible, but 
omitting the arguments and illustrations by 
which he explains and enforces them. 

Since asses' milk cannot be procured in this 
country the choice practically lies between the 
milk of cows and that of goats. In goats' milk 
the percentage of solid constituents is exces- 
sive, and its odor is frequently so disagreeable 
that infants will refuse to take it. Cow's milk, 
therefore, is to be preferred to any other. But 
cow's milk when compared with human milk, is 
deficient both in sugar and salt; and the 
former has to be made up by the addition of a 
little loaf sugar (which is as good as milk-sugar), 
and the latter by adding an alkaline salt (the 
carbonate or bicarbonate of potassa or soda). 
Whichever of these may be selected may not 
make a great deal of difference under otherwise 
normal circumstances ; but they should be ad- 
ded at once when the milk is put aside for the 
infant's use. Common salt is also a very ne- 
cessary addition to cow's milk, especially when 
the milk is mixed with any vegetable substance. 
" I add," says Dr. Jacobi, "one to two grains 
of either of the salts to every meal of the new- 
born, besides a small quantity of common salt, 
— and a larger dose in proportion to age." But 
there is still another difficulty to be overcome 
before cow's milk can be made a perfectly satis- 
factory substitute for the mother's milk ; and 
that is the greater coagulability of its caseine 
which renders it comparatively indigestible. 
The remedy of this is as follows : Mix quite 
thin and transparent mucilage (made of gum- 
arabic) with boiled and skimmed milk, and add 
the desirable quantity of sugar and salt, or soda. 
This acts mechanically only, is very soothing to 
the bowels, and effectually prevents the too rapid 
coagulation of the milk in the infant's stomach. 
An indifferent substance of this sort will gen- 
erally be all that is desired for very young 
infants ; when they advance in weeks and 
months, they require a substance which, while 



306 



INFANT 



subserving the purposes indicated above, will 
act as a nutriment at the same time. Barley 
and oatmeal are the best substances for this 
purpose, — better than wheat, rye, rice, arrow- 
root, or any other of the cereals. The indica- 
tions for the use of one or the other lie in the 
condition of the infant ; where there is a de- 
cided tendency to constipation, oatmeal should 
be used ; where there is no such tendency, or 
the bowels are inclined to be loose, barley 
should be employed. The "prepared barley" 
is a good preparation ; but it is safer to buy the 
grain and grind it in a common coffee-grinder ; 
then there can be no adulteration. A teaspoon- 
ful of either should be boiled in from three to 
six ounces of water, with some salt, for twelve 
minutes, — the decoction to be quite thin for 
very young infants,— thicker for later months — 
and then strained through a linen cloth. In- 
fants of four or six months are to have equal 
parts of this decoction (which ought to be 
made fresh for every meal), and boiled and 
skimmed milk ; and sugar is to be added. At 
an early age the thin decoction, at a later the 
milk, ought to prevail in the mixture ; until in- 
fants are eight or ten months old, it should be 
thin enough to be taken through a nursing-bot- 
tle. It should be given just milk-warm; and 
when it is, a few grains of bicarbonate or car- 
bonate of potassa or soda ought to be added. 

To keep cow's milk as long as possible with- 
out turning sour, it should be boiled at once, 
and set in a cool place, if not in the ice-box. 
Where there is neither a cool place nor an ice- 
box, the following plan is a good one : Pour the 
whole amount of boiled or skimmed milk the 
infant is to have during the day into a number 
of two or four-ounce bottles ; fill them to the 
neck, and then cork well. Wrap a wet linen or 
cotton rag around the bottles, and set them on 
a plate half filled with water; keep the plate 
standing in the airiest place to be found, say 
between door and window. The evaporation 
taking place from the moist rag, with its cool- 
ing effect, will prevent early decomposition. 

The common anxiety to procure the milk of 
■one special cow for infants is based on a mis- 
take. The child that has become accustomed 
to one, will suffer from the abrupt translation 
to the milk of another animal — a transition 
which is often inevitable ; and, besides this, the 
milk of a special cow may, by accidental changes 
in the food, undergo frequent and unexpected 
changes. The plan of giving the average milk 
of a farm is, on the whole, the safest that can 
be pursued. 

Condensed milk also is to be recommended, 
the addition of loaf sugar that is made in the 
manufactories being rather an advantage than 
otherwise. When used, it must be diluted ac- 
cording to the degree of condensation, which 
is generally {rom four or Jive to one. 

In summing up the address above referred 
to. Dr. Jacobi says : " If I were called upon to 
write out a few brief and intelligible rules on 
the feeding of infants in general, they would 
read as follows : 



"I. About Nursing Babies: — Overfeeding 
does more harm than anything else. Nurse a 
baby of a month or two every two or three 
hours. Nurse a baby of six months and over, 
five times in twenty-four hours, and no more. 
When a baby gets thirsty in the mean time, 
give it a drink of water or barley water. JVo 
sugar. In hot weather — but in the hottest 
days only — mix a few drops of brandy or whis- 
key with either water or food, the whiskey 
not to exceed a teaspoonful in twenty-four 
hours. 

"II. About Feeding Babies: — Boil a tea- 
spoonful of powdered barley (grind it in a 
coffee-grinder), and a gill of water, with a 
little salt, for fifteen minutes ; strain it and 
mix it with half as much boiled milk and a 
lump of white sugar. Give it lukewarm, through 
a nursing-bottle. Keep bottle and mouthpiece 
in a bowl of water when not in use. Babies 
of five or six months, half barley water and 
half boiled milk, with salt and white sugar. 
Older babies, more milk in proportion. When 
babies are very costive, use oatmeal instead 
of barley ; cook and strain. When your breast- 
milk is half enough, change off between breast- 
milk and food." 

Diseases of Infants. — ^Most of the diseases 
to which infants are liable, such as chicken- 
pox, croup, cholera infantum, diarrhoea, mea- 
sles, scarlet fever, thrush, whooping-cough, 
etc., are treated of under their several heads. 
The suggestions given in the article on Chil- 
dren concerning the "Signs of Disease " ap- 
ply equally to infants, and should be studied 
carefully by all who have infants in charge. 
Fortunately, if proper attention be given to 
the rules of health, children at this early stage 
are seldom afflicted with any diseases beyond 
the difficulties which will be mentioned fur- 
ther along under " Teething," and that com- 
plaint which makes summer a terror to most 
mothers. 

" Summer complaint " comes generally from 
over-feeding, and hot and foul air^never from 
teething. In treating it, keep the doors and 
windows open, so as to ensure abundance of 
fresh air. Wash the child with cold water at 
least twice a day, and oftener in the very hot 
season. When there is vomiting and purging, 
give no milk nor anything to eat or drink for 
four or six hours, but all the fresh air possible ; 
after that time give a few drops of whiskey in 
a teaspoonful of ice water every ten minutes, 
but not more, until the doctor comes. If the 
symptoms continue, and medical aid is not at 
hand, try one of the remedies recommended in 
article on cholera infantum. Give no lauda- 
num, or paregoric, or soothing syrup, or teas. 

Sleep of Infants.— It is a rule which should 
be established at birth, and persisted in con- 
stantly, that the infant should not sleep with 
its mother. It is better for both mother and 
child that they sleep away from each other ; and 
if the habit is never formed, no difficulty or in- 
convenience will accrue from it. Another rule 
which ought to be acted on is to accustom the 



INFANT 



307 



child to going to sleep at the proper time with- 
out rocking, fondling, walking about, or trotting 
on the nurse's knees. It should be laid on the 
bed or in its crib wide-awake, and left. In 
most cases, if it has not previously been spoilt, 
it will go quietly to sleep, if sleepy, and if it is 
not sleepy, it had better remain awake. It is 
astonishing how early this habit may be form- 
ed, and we need not point out how much 
trouble and annoyance it will save during the 
first three or four years of the child's life. 

The sleep required by a very young infant is 
indefinitely large, and its instinctive disposi- 
tion to indulge in it should never be interfered 
with, but, on the contrary, should be greatly 
encouraged. Healthy infants will and should 
sleep at all times, and a daily slumber in 
addition to the nightly one is required by 
every child until it is at least two years old. 
Sleeplessness is always an indication of de- 
rangement of function, or of organic disease. 
For the first three or four months of in- 
fancy any strict regulation as to habits of 
sleeping can scarcely be carried out ; but by 
the time they attain their third some steps 
may be taken in this direction. For instance, 
young infants often begin their lives by sleep- 
ing more by day than by night — a very troub- 
lesome and inconvenient habit, but one diffi- 
cult to alter ; yet, as soon as the infant be- 
gins to take notice, his nurse should endeavor 
to keep him awake as the evening draws 
on, by arousing his attention to everything 
around, and by fondling him actively in her 
arms. Thus, by slight fatigue and longer 
wakefulness, she will be preparing him to settle 
down quietly later in the evening. As soon as 
possible, suckling or feeding a child at night 
ought to be discontinued ; after the first month 
sleep at night will be more salutary to the child 
than food. From its birth to the age of six 
months an infant should have two sleeps a 
day, one in the morning, the other in the after- 
noon, each of an hour's length. After the sixth 
month one sleep at about mid-day will be 
sufficient ; and this habit should be continued 
until the end of the third year of the child's 
life, and even to a later period if the child be 
weakly. 

In rousing young children from sleep the 
gentlest means should be employed, not vio- 
lent shaking or loud speaking. It is extremely 
hazardous to startle or shock children when 
they are awake ; but to rouse them from 
the unconsciousness of sleep into a state of 
terror is not only cruel, but may cause serious 
injury. A boisterous, rude, or harsh nurse may 
in this way make an impression of horror on a 
child's mind that no subsequent gentleness or 
kindness can efface. It is best under all cir- 
cumstances to let the sleej) come to its natural 
close. 

Teething. — The first set of teeth (or milk 
teeth) usually appear in the following order : — 
Two front, in each jaw (incisors), appear about 
the seventh month — lower teeth first; one tooth 
next to each of the preceding, two in each jaw 



(lateral incisors), from the seventh to the tenth 
month — lower teeth first ; first grinding teeth 
(anterior molars), about the close of the twelfth 
month — irregular in their order ; stomach and 
eye teeth (canines), from the fourteenth to the 
twentieth month — irregular in their order; 
back teeth (posterior molars), from the eigh- 
teenth to the thirty-sixth month — irregular in 
their order. 

A healthy child that is nursing does not 
usually give much indication of disturbance at 
the time of teething, except by an excessive 
flow of saliva, or, as it is commonly called, 
"drooling." Perhaps it will have more than 
the customary number of discharges fi-om the 
bowels in the twenty-four hours, and it may 
occasionally be a little feverish or restless. If 
the gums are examined at this time, it will be 
found that the ridge, which has previously been 
visible along the edge of the jaw, has entirely 
disappeared, and the gum is full and rounded. 
After a few days, the point of a tooth makes 
its way through the membrane which has 
covered it, and the remainder of its crown 
soon appears. The slight disturbance which 
has previously existed then disappears, and 
returns only when another tooth is about to 
come through. 

This is the healthy and natural jjrocess of 
teething, which is but rarely interrupted by 
accidents or mishaps ; for, indeed, the disturb- 
ances incident to the period are too frequently 
exaggerated. When the child keeps perfectly 
well, there will seldom be pain produced by 
the pressure of the tooth on the gum, which 
not only keeps the child from sleeping, but 
from obtaining a moment's rest. This pain 
is rarely constant and severe. When the 
child's mouth is examined, there is nothing 
found in most cases but more or less swelling 
of the gums. When the tooth is near cutting 
through, a slight depression is found on top. 
This depression results from gradual decay of 
the tissue under which the tooth is gently 
pressing upwards. The Avhole process is 
gradual and mild, like every change in the or- 
ganism, as long as circumstances are favorable 
and the general health good. Only when the 
gums are unusually hard or inflamed there is 
some danger that, by the exhaustion and irri- 
tation which are thus produced, the nervous 
system of the child will become deranged, and 
convulsions follow. To avoid this danger, the 
gum should be divided with a lancet so as to 
let the tooth through. When the gum is in 
the condition above described, no harm can 
possibly result from its division, provided it is 
properly done. A cross cut (like this, X) 
should be made directly on the top of the tooth 
and down to it. No blood-vessel can be 
touched in this way, so there can be no danger 
of excessive bleeding, and the common belief 
that it is injurious to the child can have no 
foundation. It may, perhaps, be best to add 
that z/" there is much bleeding it can usually 
be stopped by taking a clean and soft linen 
towel and pressing it with the finger firmly 



308 



INFANT 



against the gum. If this fails to stop it, a 
little powdered alum may be put on the finger 
and pressed against it, or what is better,if a drug- 
shop is near, a little tannin may be gotten 
and used in the same way. In the country, 
when neither of these is at hand, a strong tea 
may be made with white oak or hemlock bark, 
and a soft piece of linen saturated with it 
pressed firmly against the gum. As a rule, 
gentle pressure with two fingers is amply 
sufficient. During the time in which teeth are 
pressing, care should be taken that the child's 
bowels be kept open— that is, that there should 
be at least one good movement from them 
every day. Two, even, may be allowed to 
occur ; but when there are habitually more 
than this, and more especially when these 
are very loose, watery and offensive, they 
should be checked without delay. 

In some cases the effects of the growth of 
the teeth are manifested not on the bowels 
alone, but (either with or without diarrhoea) on 
the nervous system, and we have restlessness, 
involuntary twitchings of the mouth, starting 
during sleep, and sometimes even a crying out, 
as if from fear." When these symptoms occur 
there is more or less danger of convulsions, 
and it is best, therefore, to consult a physician 
concerning them. In this case, the cause of the 
general derangement will be found in some dis- 
ease which has nothing to do with teething. It 
requires the knowledge of an educated physi- 
cian to find it out. A physician who is always 
ready to explain every disease or disturbance 
in a child by teething ought not to be trusted. 
A warm bath may be given to the child just 
before it is put to bed. 

"Weaning. — The change from milk to solid 
food is called weaning, and is a very grave 
matter. The best time and method of weaning 
a child depend upon circumstances. Of these, 
the season of the year is one of the most im- 
portant. A child that may properly be put 
on solid diet in October could not be so in 
June without running the greatest risk of being 
dangerously sick in July and August. If the 
child is thriving, gaining rapidly in strength, 
and contented with the breast-milk, it will be 
well to allow him to continue to nurse a month 
or two after the usual time. It is a great mis- 
take to believe that a child will thrive better 
on breast-milk than artificial food after a cer- 
tain time. When two or four teeth are through, 
the time for gradual weaning has arrived. 
This will usually be when the baby is eight or 
ten months old. When the child has no tooth 
at that time, there is something wrong. Usu- 
ally the milk of the mother is not sufficient 
for the full and healthy development of the 
child. In such cases the weaning of the child 
is frequently the best cure. A physician ought 
to be called in to decide the question. To 
defer weaning the child beyond the time when 
six or eight teeth are through is simply crimi- 
nal. Many diseases, such as rickets and life- 
long debility, and lingering, result very fre- 
quently from nursing which is continued too 



long. A selection of the proper articles of 
food for children may be made from those ar- 
ticles of food which will be mentioned as 
fitted for weaned children. When the mother 
furnishes an insufficient supply of milk for the 
child— which may be known by its constant 
hunger and the inability of the mother to sup- 
ply it — he may, if two or four are through, be 
either entirely or partly weaned, even though 
Summer is approaching. If no teeth are 
through, he should be partly weaned — that is, 
he should be fed in part and nursed in part. 
Thus he may be allowed to nurse two or three 
times in the twenty-four hours, his other meals 
being of more or less solid food and milk. 
When the mother's milk disagrees with the 
child, as it sometimes will, there of course re- 
mains no choice, except between weaning and 
providing a wet nurse. 

Whatever may be the season, it is better to 
make the change from nursing to feeding a 
gradual rather than a sudden one. The infant 
should be accustomed to nurse at longer in- 
tervals, and, the number of times being re- 
duced to one, it may be entirely discontinued. 
If there i3 any trouble in making the child 
give up nursing, a little finely-powdered Peru- 
vian bark or myrrh, dusted on the nipple be- 
fore it is put into his mouth, will give him a 
disgust for it that will not permit him to take 
it again. 

The articles of diet to which the child may 
be gradually accustomed at weaning are (be- 
sides milk) bread, butter, which must be en- 
tirely sweet and not very salt; for older chil- 
dren only, soft-boiled eggs, simple broths, and 
plain roasted or boiled meats. Oysters are 
nearly as easily digested as meats, but not all 
children like them, and it must be remembered 
that they have a tendency to open the bowels. 
Boiled meats are not so good as roasted, 
the former containing much less of the nutri- 
ent materials than the latter, in a less desira- 
ble condition. Broiled meats are also good, 
but fried are to be avoided. Fish is to be 
shunned, as are all salted meats. Barley, oat- 
meal, and farina are the best possible food for 
a child, well cooked and mixed with milk, or 
sometimes beef soup or beef tea. Baked po- 
tatoes are much better for children than 
boiled, and sweet potatoes are more readily di- 
gested than the common white potato. Which- 
ever is used, it should be thoroughly baked 
or roasted, the skin taken off, and a little milk 
or cream or butter put on it after it is mashed. 
Still, potatoes are better food for older chil- 
dren, and should not be given soon after 
weaning. Meats should be thoroughly cooked, 
but not done very hard; a beefsteak that is 
still red in the inside when cut, has far more 
nourishment in it than one that is brown 
throughout. 

A little milk may temporarily soothe thirst, 
but is not the proper thing for it. Tea and 
coffee are injurious. Cool water is the only 
thing to satisfy thirst. A thirsty adult does 
not drink beef tea, or milk, or chocolate, 



INFLAMMATION 



INSANITY 



309 



but water. Milk is food to quench hunger, but 
not the common beverage. In summer time 
give a child, where there is danger of diarrhoea, 
toast water, rice water, or barley water. Sugar 
ought not to be mixed with a child's beverage. 
It makes him drink more greedily at unneces- 
sary times, and sours his stomach. 

INFLAMMATION. — External inflamma- 
tion is characterized by four symptoms, either 
of which occurs by itself in other forms of dis- 
ease, but not grouped together. These are : 
1st, swelling J 2d, pain j 3d, redness ; 4th, 
heat. Whenever, therefore, these four symp- 
toms exist, there is said to be inflammation 
present ; when they are severe in degree, there 
is always fever accompanying them. Internal 
inflammation is recognized only by the occur- 
rence of pain and disturbance of function, 
generally accompanied with acceleration of the 
pulse and with fever of a kind called inflam- 
matory. In either case, inflammation is rather 
a symptom of other diseases than a disease in 
itself, and cannot be treated independently of 
its cause. When it appears on the surface it 
may generally be reduced by soothing and 
cooling applications, especially of cold water. 

INFLUENZA. — The symptoms of influenza 
are very similar to those of a severe cold. The 
eyes become water}^, and there is a persistent 
tendency to sneeze ; discharge from the nose, 
cough, fever, and oppression at the chest soon 
ensue. But the distinctive characteristics of 
influenza are a dull pain in the forehead, which 
is very oppressive, and extraordinary prostra- 
tion of strength, with mental depression, lan- 
gour, and utter want of appetite. The skin 
is generally moist, and the perspirations which 
occur are not critical, as they seem to be in cer- 
tain cases of fever. As the disease advances, 
the discharge from the nose irritates the upper 
lip, so as to make it red and tumid. 

Treatment. — Any one attacked with influ- 
enza should give up at once, and after taking 
a warm bath, go to bed and remain there for 
two or three days, encouraging perspiration 
by every means in his power. If it can be 
had, ten grains of Dover's Powder with a 
little sugar should be taken, and repeated if 
needful. What is known as wine-whey is also 
very useful (to make it, see Wine-Whey.) A 
wineglassful of this may be taken quite fre- 
quently. Rest, and a liberal but not stimula- 
ting diet, will soon bring about a cure. Take 
ten grains of quinine at bed-time ; or two, re- 
peated, four times a day. 

INFUSION. — Infusions are made by pour- 
ing water, either boiling, merely Avarm, or even 
cold, upon some vegetable substance and let- 
ting it stand for some time without further 
boiling. It is evident that the water here can 
only extract such matters as are soluble in 
that fluid, and infusions are seldom very strong. 
The beverage called tea is an infusion of tea- 
leaves. 

INGRAFTING. {See Grafting.) 

INGROWING NAIL. {See Toe-Nail.) 

INJECTIONS. — Injections are given some- 



times to move the bowels, and at other times to 
check them. In the former case the quantity 
of fluid is the chief thing, and an injection of 
tepid water simply, or water with a little soap 
in it, to prevent its rapid absorption by the 
bowels, is generally the most effective and 
always the most harmless way of bringing 
about a discharge from the bowels. In all 
cases of constipation, in young children espe- 
cially, the effect of an injection should be tried 
before any medicine is given. It makes little 
difference what kind of syringe is used, but it 
should be large enough to hold the entire quan- 
tity to be given at one time. Injections for 
checking the bowels always contain an active 
drug, and should never be given except under 
a physician's advice. The syringe for these 
should be smaller than for the other kind of 
injection. 

INK, (Black). — A good black ink can be 
made as follows : — Take a gallon of rain or soft 
water, and three-quarters of a pound of blue- 
galls, bruised ; infuse them three weeks, stir- 
ring daily. Then add four ounces each of 
green copperas and logwood chips, six ounces 
of gum arabic, and a wineglassful of brandy. 

Marking Ink. To make a good marking ink 
take of lunar caustic, two drachms ; gum ara- 
bic, half a drachm; distilled water, two drachms. 
To be well mixed, and kept in a small stopper- 
bottle, and in a dark place, as the lunar caustic 
loses its virtue by being exposed to the light. 
The linen to be marked upon must be pre- 
viously prepared with the following mixture : — 
Sub-carbonate of soda, half an ounce ; gum 
arabic, one scruple ; dissolved in one ounce of 
rain water. With this mixture wet as much of 
the linen as is to be written on. Let it become 
perfectly dry. Then write upon it, and dry the 
writing in the sunshine as rapidly as possible. 

INK STAINS.— Use salts of lemon, which 
is a mixture of oxalic and citric acid, or oxalic 
acid maybe used alone. Old stains maybe re- 
moved by a solution containing 3 oz. muriatic 
acid with 3 oz. of tin-salt, — protochloride of 
tin. To remove ink stains from delicate col- 
ors, which would be injured by the above 
agents, a solution of pyrophosphate of soda, 
prepared by calcining ordinary phosphate of 
soda for half an hour, will after a time remove 
the stain. 

Indelible Ink Stains, or those caused by 
nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), may be re- 
moved by applying a solution of bleaching pow- 
der, or Javelle water, and afterwards washing 
with ammonia. Cyanide of potassium may 
also be used, but is so poisonous that it is ad- 
visable to avoid its use if possible. 

Ink spots on floors can be removed by scour- 
ing them with sand wet in a mixture of water 
and oil of vitrol. Rinse them, when the ink is 
extracted, with strong pearl-ash water. 

INSANITY.— The causes which may lead 
to insanity, particularly in those whose mental 
condition is weak, are very numerous. One of 
the most fertile causes in this country is drunk- 
enness. Excessive study, strong mental ex- 



310 



INSANITY 



IRON-WARE 



citement, grief, jealousy, love, disappointment, 
also lead to it, and religious excitement is a 
not unfrequent cause. In many cases it is 
hereditary, and this is one of the most terrible 
features of the dreadful disease. It is usual to 
distinguish insanity under different kinds:— 
I. Af oral i'nsaHi/f, in which there is a morbid 
perversion of the feelings, affections, and ac- 
tive powers, without any corresponding defect 
in the understanding. 2. hitellectualinsaiiity, 
affecting the reasoning powers; this may be 
either general or partial — the latter is called 
monomania. 3. Mania, or raving madness, in 
which the mental faculties are wholly impaired, 
and the patient gives way to all sorts of extrav- 
agances, frequently doing mischief to himself 
and others. 4. Dementia, or imbecility, when 
the mental powers become gradually impaired, 
the sensibilities diminish, and at length the 
patient becomes callous or dead to all that is 
going on around him. Usually, however, two 
or more of these kinds occur together. Moral 
insanity frequently manifests itself in a desire 
to steal. In monomania, the patient reasons 
correctly on all matters except one, which forms 
the subject of his insanity. Imbecility usually 
commences with the loss of memory and the 
power of concentrating the attention, for any 
length of time, on one subject ; then all control 
is lost over the thoughts, and the mind wan- 
ders meaninglessly from one subject to another ; 
at length there is a heedlessness of all that is 
going on around, and life becomes a mere ex- 
istence, the mental faculties being entirely 
lost. 

Sometimes insanity comes on quite suddenly, 
without any warning whatever ; at other times 
there is a previous derangement of the bodily 
functions, loss of appetite, restlessness, and in- 
ability to sleep. The chance of recovery de- 
pends largely on the complication or otherwise 
of insanity with other diseases, especially 
epilepsy or paralysis, with either of which it is 
nearly hopeless. It is also influenced by the 
form of the disease, the period of its duration, 
the age, sex, and constitution of the patient. 
The mean duration of cases terminating favor- 
ably is from live to ten months ; after the latter 
period, recovery is very doubtful. In advanced 
life, insanity is generally permanent and imbe- 
cility is very rarely curable. 

Upon the question of hojne treatment in cases 
of insanity, there must always be a struggle be- 
tween prudence and affection, judgment and 
feeling; but the almost universal opinion of 
the medical profession is in favor of hospital 
treatment for all recent cases. It must be rec- 
ollected that insane asylums are very different 
in our day from those of fifty years since ; and 
that, though still fulfilling the function of asy- 
iums for the chronic insane, and affording pro- 
tection to the community from insane violence, 
their crowning glory is the humane and efficient 
treatment they afford. It is well-nigh impos- 
sible that home treatment should be as effect- 
ive as that given by experts who have made 
insanity a special study, and in dealing with it 



have the incalculable advantage of experience ; 
and in point of fact statistics show that the 
chances of recovery in a hospital are about five 
times as great as at home. If this is not con- 
clusive as to the question of home treatment, 
we may add that the presence of friends and 
relatives seldom fails to excite and exasperate 
the patient ; they have rarely the moral qual- 
ities necessary for the care of an insane person, 
nor have they the assistance and appliances at 
hand to enforce control, without recourse to a 
degree of violence which must prove injurious to 
the sufferer. There is a varying period at the 
outset of mental diseases, during which the ex- 
periment of home treatment may be tried under 
competent medical advice ; but this period must 
not be improperly prolonged. It may be availed 
of to satisfy both the patient and his friends 
that hospital treatment is demanded ; and when 
this is seen, neglect to adopt it is not only mis- 
taken but criminal. In cases manifestly incur- 
able from the first, home treatment may be 
pursued as long as safety will permit, or the 
patient's means allow ; and there are certain 
forms of insanity, — such as general paralysis, 
epileptic mania, hysterical mania, climacteric 
insanity, etc., — in which it may be best. But 
in all cases, and at the earliest symptoms, the 
advice of a physician should be sought. 

INSECTS. — See Ants, Bed-bugs, Cock- 
roaches, Fleas, Flies, Mosquitoes, Moth, 
and Floriculture. 

INSPISSATION.— The process of thicken- 
ing any liquid solution by evaporating part 
of the water over a fire. This process, with most 
animal and vegetable substances, is best per- 
formed in a water-bath, to prevent burning. It is 
often adopted for the purpose of rendering a 
solution or an infusion stronger. 

INTERMITTENT FEVER. {See Ague.) 

IRIS. — One of the prettiest of the early 
Spring flowering bulbs. Its culture is exactly 
the same as that of the hyacinth, except that 
in planting out of doors the bulbs should be 
set three inches deep instead of four. Choice 
varieties are : /. Crisiela, light blue, in May ; 
/. Florentina, yihhe , in June; /. Germatiica, 
blue, in June; /. Pumila, purple, in May. 

IRISH STEW. {See under Mutton.) 

IRON (Polishing). — Similar to a flat-iron. 
The edge and point are rounded, and the 
whole so highly polished as to leave a much 
smoother surface than the ordinary iron. 

IRONING. {See Washing.) 

IRON-WARE. — Iron rust or oxide of iron, 
so far from being hurtful, is frequently pre- 
scribed as a tonic ; and the only inconve- 
nience arising from employing the metal 
in its pure state is its liabiHty to rust, thus 
wearing into holes ; and, in this case, it is also 
apt to tinge the color of food prepared in it. 
On this account, sauce-pans, tea-kettles, and 
other utensils made of iron, should be tinned 
over to prevent rusting. Cast-iron is much less 
apt to rust than hammered or rolled. Iron 
kettles, lined with porcelain, are best for pre- 
serves ; the German are superior to many 



1 



ISINGLASS 



IVORY 



3H 



others. Too hot a fire will crack them ; but, 
with care in this respect, they will last for many 
years. There is one method by which, even 
without tinning, the disagreeable effect pro- 
duced on food by cast-iron when it rusts may 
be almost entirely prevented. If, instead of 
scouring the inside of boilers, stew-pans, etc., 
with sand, they be simply washed and rinsed 
out with warm water, and wiped with a soft 
cloth, the surface of the metal will soon become 
covered with a thin crust or coating of a dark 
brown color, resembling enamel ; this enamel, 
if it be suffered to remain and consolidate, will 
at last become so hard as to take a very good 
polish, and will serve very efficaciously to de- 
fend the surface of the metal from corrosion, 
and, consequently, to prevent the food from 
acquiring that color and taste which iron alone 
is apt to impart to it. 

Polished iron may be preserved from rust 
by going slightly over it with copal varnish, 
mixed with nearly an equal quantity of spirits 
of turpentine and as much sweet oil as will give 
the mixture a little greasiness. Lay on this 
mixture with a bristle brush, and see that no 
dust or ashes gets to it while drying. 

Iron exposed to the weather may be pre- 
served as follows : — Boil eight pounds of hog's 
fat, cut very small, in a glazed pot or pipkin, 
with three or four spoonfuls of water ; when 
melted, strain it through coarse linen ; then set 
it on a slow fire, with four ounces of camphor 
broken small, allowing it to boil gently. Take 
it off, and, while hot, mix it with as much black- 
lead as will give it color and consistence, and 
lay it on hot. This will not only protect the 
iron in the atmosphere from rust, but also 
whatever portion may be in the ground. 

ISINGLASS. — A very fine kind of gelatine, 
procured from the swimming-bladder of the 
sturgeon. There are inferior kinds, which are 
taken from the intestines of the cod and other 
fish. It is imported from Russia, Brazil, and 
the West Indies. The first of these is by far 
the best in quality, while that from Brazil is 
very impure, and scarcely fitted for culinary 
purposes. When dry, isinglass is semi-trans- 
parent ; but on contact with the water it soon 
becomes opaque and swells, and dissolves 
slowly, leaving a very slight residuum of cellu- 
lar membrane, so thin as not to be perceptible 
without a very careful examination. If there 
is much sediment when it is dissolved, the 
isinglass is not pure. Russian isinglass makes 
a transparent jelly when cold, but that from 
Brazil has a somewhat milky hue. Isinglass is 
adulterated by substituting the inferior quali- 
ties for the superior, but chiefly by selling com- 
mon gelatine as isinglass. To distinguish the 
one from the other, see directions given under 
Gelatine. 

To melt a quarter of a pound of isinglass, 
take a little more than a pint of water, into 
which throw the twelfth part of the white of an 
egg ; beat the water well till it becomes white ; 
then put the isinglass into it, and set it over a 
very slow fire. If it is kept covered it will 



melt more easily. Take care that it does not 
brown, as in that case it can never be made 
clear, and will have an unpleasant taste. For 
a larger quantity, use more water, but not more 
white of egg. If the isinglass is required to 
be particularly clear, squeeze into it the juice of 
a lemon. 

ITCH. — This very disagreeable cutaneous 
disease seldom attacks any but those of dirty 
habits or trade, and common cleanliness will 
generally prevent it ; but, as it is infectious 
under certain conditions, it sometimes gets into 
respectable circles. The disease is known by 
the appearance of little pimples or vesicles, 
filled with a watery liquid, which, by scratch- 
ing, acquire little black heads. These pimples 
usually exist between the fingers and on the 
wrists and inner surfaces of the elbows when 
other parts of the body are affected ; they never 
appear on the face. The itching is most excru- 
ciating, and is generally augmented at night by 
the warmth of the bed. 

Treatment. — Sulphur is the grand specific 
for itch. It does little good taken internally, 
but the ointment (made by mixing sulphur and 
lard together in about equal proportions) should 
be well rubbed over the entire surface of the 
body night and morning, until the eruption dis- 
appears. The sulphur, of course, has a very 
disagreeable smell, but this may be disguised 
in various ways. Another remedy is a strong 
solution of the iodide of potassium,which should 
be put on all the affected parts every night and 
left to dry on. This has the advantage of having 
no smell, but is of questionable efficacy. The 
bedding used by a person having the itch must 
be thoroughly aired and fumigated, and the 
clothing boiled with plenty of strong soft soap. 

IVORY — Is obtained from the tusk of the 
elephant, and the teeth of the hippopotamus 
and walrus. Until seasoned by use, it cracks 
very easily, and should never be exposed to 
sudden changes of temperature. BiUiard 
balls, for instance, if taken from one room to 
another of very different temperature, should 
not be used till they have had time to gradu- 
ally change their temperature. Ivory, when 
wet, should always be promptly wiped. New 
ivory, when not in use, may be advantageously 
kept smeared over with olive-oil, the absorp- 
tion of which closes small cracks. 

Carvings in ivory, when not kept under glass, 
are apt to become covered in time with a mul- 
titude of minute cracks, which get filled with 
dust, and deface them. To remove these, the 
ivory should be washed in warm water with soap 
and a brush until the cracks disappear ; after 
which it should be placed under glass for pres- 
ervation. Glass not only protects ivory, but 
affords the means of bleaching or whitening 
that which has been discolored. This effect is 
produced by exposing it, still under glass, to 
the sun's rays, turning each side in succession 
to the sun. 

Ivory may be silvered \n tne following man- 
ner: — Immerse it in a weak solution of nitrate 
of silver, and let it remain till it has acquired a 



312 



IVY 



JAM 



deep yellow color ; then take it out, wash it in 
clean water, and expose it to the sun's rays, 
which will turn it black in about three hours. 
Upon being rubbed briskly with a cloth, the 
ivory will acquire a silvery lustre. 

IVY. — This is the most popular of the orna- 
mental evergreen vines, and is equally adapted 
for garden or indoor culture. In the garden 
it requires a shady spot, where the soil is 
moderately rich, and especially where the winter 
sun will not strike upon it. In our climate it is 
killed far more often by this latter cause than 
by the actual cold of winter. It requires a 
great deal of moisture in order to flourish, and 
in fact too much water can hardly be given it 
during the hot weather of summer. It should 
be planted near some wall, or fence, or house, 
so as to get support as it grows. 

The ease of its culture, its beautiful foliage, 
its rapid growth, and its evergreen character, 
all combine to render it a popular ornament for 
the parlor. The soil for its growth indoors 
should be a very rich loam ; and here also a 
plentiful supply of water is required, though it 
should never be allowed to stand at the roots. 
Slips root easily, taken off at any leaf joint, and 
placed either in earth or water ; in the latter 
they will soon throw out roots, and may then 
be transferred to pots. The only precaution to 
be taken in growing ivy is to keep it from frost 
while in growth ; and if it be frozen, to keep 
the sun away from it, thawing it out with cold 
water. 

There are many species of ivy, of which the 
most common is the English ivy (Hedcra 
Helix), of which there are many'varieties. The 
distinctions between these lie chiefly in the 
leaves, which vary greatly in shape. There are 
two very beautiful kinds, the silver and the 
golden, the foliage being beautifully variegated 
with white and gold. The Tree Ivy is merely 
a form of the common ivy, as is shown by its 
returning to its primary form, not infrequently. 
The leaves are entire, and the plant often re- 
tains its arborescent form for years. In the 
Irish or Giant Ivy [H. Catinariensis), the leaves 
are five lobed, and larger than those of the 
common ivy. H. Rocqiicriana is a variety with 
large heart-shaped leaves. H. digilata, the 
hand-shaped ivy, is a pretty variety, of rapid 
growth, the leaves are small, dark, and veined. 
The Golden Ivy is a splendid plant ; when the 



young leaves come out it resembles a mass of 
yellow flowers. The plant commonly called 
German Ivy is not an ivy, but it is deservedly 
popular from its rapid growth and its freedom 
from insects. Five-leaved Ivy is the well- 
known Virginia Creeper or Woodbine. 

IXIA. — A variety of the Cape Bulbs, re- 
markable for the brilliancy of its flowers. It 
is of easy growth, but in our climate it can 
be raised only in the greenhouse or in the 
parlor, as the least frost kills it. Plant about 
the latter part of November in a compost made 
of one part sandy loam and one part peaty 
earth, with a little well-decomposed dung, in 
new clean pots ; fill the pots about an inch 
deep with small crocks to secure good drain- 
age, as without this the plants will not thrive. 
Place the pots in a cool place till the plants 
begin to grow, then place them in a strong 
light on a she*lf close to the window ; the closer 
to the glass the better for the plants. The 
temperature for Ixias is about forty degrees at 
night to sixty by day. Five or six bulbs in a ten- 
inch pot are quite sufficient, but never mix the 
varieties. By the latter part of January the 
flower stalks will begin to appear, as they are 
very slender they should be secured to neat 
stakes. Soon after blooming, the leaves begin 
to turn yellow, and the plant indicates a desire 
to rest. Unless it is desirable to ripen seed, 
the plants should be allowed to dry off grad- 
ually, and the pots then placed in a dry place 
till next autumn. 

Seedlings may be easily raised. Sow the 
seeds thinly, about the first of October, in the 
same soil used for bulbs ; let the seedlings 
remain in the pot one year ; then transplant 
and treat as old bulbs ; they will bloom the 
third year if well cared for. The most usual 
mode of propagation, however, is by offsets ; 
separate these before potting, and they will 
soon make flowering plants. 

Among the choice varieties of the Ixia are : 
/. Alba Oculata, white shading to yellow, with 
dark chocolate eye, very fine ; /. Capitata, white 
and black; /. Conica, orange; /. Conchijlora, 
buff colored ; /. Crispa, blue ; /. Crocata, 
orange-yellow, very fine ; /. Cratenoides, dark 
yellow; /. Ereeta, white or flesh-color; /. 
Ker7nisiana, vermilion ; /. Squalida, rosy lilac ; 
/. Viridiflora, variegated, finest of all. 

IVY (Poison). See PoisoN Plants. 



J. 



JACKET. {See Sacque.) 

JACONET. — A light, open and soft cotton 
fabric, stouter than mushn, used for dresses, 
neckties, etc., and quite durable. It comes 
in pieces a yard wide, and should be shrunk 
thoroughly before using. 

JAM. — Jams and marmalades are made in 
the same way, and differ little from each other. 



except that the latter are made of the firmer 
fruits, as pineapples, peaches, apricots, etc.5 
while jams are made of the more juicy berries, 
such as blackberries, currants, raspberries, 
strawberries, etc. They both require great 
care and attention in boiling, as the slighest 
degree of burning communicates a highly dis- 
agreeable taste. They must be boiled sufii' 



JAM 



JAUNDICE 



313 



ciently and must have plenty of sugar or they ' 
will not keep. 

Blackberry Jam. — Put the fruit on alone, 
and boil for half an hour, mashing and stirring 
well; then add three-quarters of a pound of 
sugar for every pound of the berries, and cook 
twenty minutes longer. Keep in small jars, 
with brandied tissue paper over the top, in a 
cool closet. Blackberry jam is very wholesome 
for children. 

Carrot Jam. — Boil some carrots till quite 
tender, mash them well, and rub them through 
a sieve. To each pound of the pulp, add three- 
quarters of a pound of sugar ; boil it to a jam, 
and when nearly cold add the juice and grated 
rind of two lemons, and half a teaspoonful of 
essence of cloves or nutmeg. This jam is not 
very good as compared to some others, but it 
is better than nothing, and is very wholesome. 

Currant Jam. I. With Black Currants.— 
To every pound of black currants add a pound 
and a quarter of sugar; boil the currants 
three-quarters of an hour gently by the side 
of the fire ; then add the sugar and boil an 
hour and a quarter longer, taking care that 
it does not burn. This is one of the best 
jams, and in a cool, dry closet will keep from 
eighteen months to two years. It is much im- 
proved by adding one pound each of red and 
white currants to four pounds of black cur- 
rants. 

n. With Green Currants. — Weigh a 
pound of sugar to every pound of unripe red 
currants ; set the currants over the fire, broken 
up with the hands; boil carefully half an hour, 
then add the sugar ; boil one hour, carefully 
skimming it the while. 

III. With Red or White Currants. — Let 
the fruit be very ripe ; break it up ; to every 
pound weigh fourteen ounces of sugar ; boil 
the fruit half an hour, then add the sugar, 
and boil it about an hour and a half, stirring 
it constantly. 

Gooseberry Jam. — Use fruit that is nearly 
ripe ; pull off the stems and withered flowers, 
wash in cold water ; heat slowly and boil until 
perfectly soft ; add a pound of sugar to every 
pound of fruit and boil until thick and clear. 

Greengage Jam. — Take off the stems and 
wash the fruit ; heat slowly and boil in its own 
juice until perfectly soft; add a pound of sugar 
to every pound of fruit, and boil until clear 
and thick. Put it up in large tumblers ; cover 
with two papers, the smaller one dipped in 
alcohol and placed on the fruit; the other 
pasted over the top of the tumbler. 

Raspberry Jam. — This is very nice made in 
the same way as blackberry jam. It is greatly 
improved, however, by adding a pint of currant- 
juice to every four pounds of raspberries. 

Rhubarb Jam. — The rhubarb should be 
wiped not washed, and it should be fresh and 
young ; peel the stalks, and cut them up into 
half-inch pieces ; put into a preserving-pan equal 
weights of rhubarb and loaf sugar, and the 
juice of two lemons to every five pounds of 
rhubarb and sugar ; or the stalk may be first 



boiled with half the quantity of sugar, and the 
other half added ; boil slowly, constantly stir- 
ring ; and then boil three-quarters of an hour,* 
skimming as long as scum rises, or till it be- 
comes a smooth pulp, and a thick jam, which 
leaves the bottom of the pan when stirred. 
The grated rind of one lemon may be added to 
each pound of rhubarb and sugar. A less ex- 
pensive jam may be made with less sugar than 
the above. 

Strawberry Jam. — This also may be made 
like blackberry jam; but the flavor is much 
finer if a pint of currant juice be added to 
every four pounds of strawberries. Boil the 
strawberries in the currant juice for half an 
hour, stirring continually ; then add the sugar 
(three-quarters of a pound to each pound of 
fruit), and boil rapidly for twenty minutes, 
skimming carefully. 

JAPONICA. — This is the scarlet-flowered 
Japan Quince, a well-known shrub which should 
be found in every garden. It produces quan- 
tities of the richest scarlet flowers close to its 
branches, and is very easy to cultivate. Cul- 
ture same as for Lilac. 

JASMINE or JESSAMINE.— A favorite 
family of climbing shrubs, which grows wild 
in the southern portions of the United States, 
and further north is very desirable for window 
culture. The foliage is neat, and the flowers 
white or yellow, and produced from February 
to June ; they are extremely fragrant. The 
soil should be equal parts of loam and peat 
with a slight admixture of sand. Water should 
be given rather freely. The plant should be 
trained on neat trellises, and the branches al- 
lowed to droop. The only insect attacking 
them is a scale, which a little care in washing 
will soon remove. 

The most desirable varieties are : J. Azori- 
cum, white flowers in summer ; y. Multijlo- 
ruin, white flowers in spring ; J. Nudijlorum, 
yellow flowers in spring ; J. Odoratissimum, yel- 
low flowers in spring. 

JAUNDICE. — A disease characterized by 
yellowness of the skin, and eyes, and urine, the 
discharges from the bowels being of a whitish 
or clay color. It is caused by the excretion of 
bile being prevented and retained in the blood, 
or reabsorbed and diffused through the system. 
It depends upon various and different internal 
causes. Pregnant women frequently suffer 
from it. Anykind of pressure upon the excre- 
tory ducts, such as by tumours, etc., or the ducts 
being filled up with mucus, inspissated bile, or 
biliary calculus will occasion it. It may also 
occur as a symptom of chronic or acute inflam- 
mation of the liver. Fits of anger, fear, or 
alarm, have sometimes been directly followed 
by an attack of jaundice. And, lastly, certain 
forms of it are produced occasionally by long- 
continued hot weather. An attack of the jaun- 
dice is usually preceded by symptoms of a 
disordered state of the liver and digestive or- 
gans, loss of appetite, irregular or constipated 
bowels, colic, nausea, headache, languor, etc. 
Sooner or later the yellow color begins to ap' 



3U 



JAUNE MANGE 



JELLY 



pear, usually first in the eye, then in the face, 
then on the chest, and finally covering the 
whole body. Sometimes the yellowness is the 
first symptom ; and again, as soon as the yel- 
low stage is reached many of the preliminary 
symptoms diminish. The shades of yellowness 
are various, from a light yellow to a deep orange 
hue, and in some cases of a greenish, or even 
a blackish color — in the latter cases it is known 
as " black jaundice." The greenish or darkish 
varieties are considered most dangerous. 

Treatment. — Some kinds of jaundice are ab- 
solutely irremediable, while others will pass off 
without any treatment. If the patient be young, 
and the disease complicated with no other mal- 
ady, it is seldom dangerous ; but in old people, 
where it continues long, returns frequently or 
is complicated with dropsy or other diseases, 
the condition upon which it depends general!^ 
leads to a fatal result. In general, the obvious 
treatment is to promote secretion of the bile 
and to favor its removal. In ordinary cases, a 
strong infusion of rhubarb root taken freely, 
so as to keep up a laxative action, without active 
purging or vomiting ; a cool, light, and laxative 
diet (such as ripe fruits, mild vegetables, chick- 
en and veal broth, new eggs, stewed prunes, 
and buttermilk) ; free ventilation, and hot fo- 
mentations, twice a day for half an hour, over 
the liver in case of torpor and obstruction ; 
or cold cloths in case of excessive production 
of bile, will usually effect a cure. As much ex- 
ercise should be taken as the patient can stand ; 
and if there be any spasmodic pain in the right 
side, the patient should sit frequently in a 
warm bath up to his shoulders. Any attack of 
jaundice may turn out seriously, and therefore 
as soon as the symptoms develope themselves a 
physician should be sent for. Persons subject 
to jaundice ought to take as much active exer- 
cise as possible, and should avoid all exhaust- 
ing food and stimulating drinks. 

JAUNE MANGE.— I. Take .--Isinglass, yi 
oz; eggs, 6; sherry wine, >^ pt ; boiling water, 
^2 pt ; sugar ; lemon, i . 

Soak the isinglass in cold water, then dis- 
solve it in boiling water ; beat the yolks of the 
eggs, and mix them with the wine and the juice 
of the lemon ; sugar to taste (some of the 
lumps of sugar should be rubbed with the 
lemon peel so as to extract the oil.) Stir 
over boiling water until thickened. Strain ; 
when nearly cold put into a mould that has been 
first dipped in cold water. 

n. Take .--Gelatine, ^ oz ; lemons, 2 ; brandy, 
I wineglassful ; raisin wine or sherry, }{ pt ; 
eggs, 7 ; sugar ; water, i pt. 

Put the gelatine into the water the night 
before it is to be made, adding a few bits of 
lemon peel ; next day, put into a pint cup the 
juice of the two lemons, together with the 
brandy and the wine ; pour this with the gela- 
tine solution into a sauce-pan, and add the 
yolks of the eggs well-beaten, with sufficient 
lump sugar to sweeten it. Set it over a slow 
fire, stirring it continually till it thickens. Then 
strain it, and stir it occasionally until nearly 



cold, when it should be put into the 
moulds. 

JEAN. — A twilled cotton cloth, of a rather 
firm texture, generally white but sometimes 
striped. It comes a yard wide, and should be 
shrunk before using. Satin J^an is woven 
with a smooth glossy surface, like satin, and 
is much superior to the common kind for cer- 
tain purposes. 

JELLY. — Jellies are made by boiling a 
chicken, knuckle of veal or calf's feet in 
water, slowly and for a long time. They 




Jelly Mould- 
were formerly supposed to be particu- 
larly nutritive and, therefore, an excel- 
lent diet for invalids ; but physicians now 
appear to be of opinion that they are less so 




Jelly Mould. 

and even less digestible, than the flesh or 
muscular parts of animals, poultry, etc. In 
making fruit jellies, care must be taken not to 
boil them too long, or they will soon spoil ; from 
fifteen to twenty minutes are generally sufficient 
after the sugar has been added. Jellies should 
be poured into the pots or jars as soon as they 
are taken from the fire, by which means a sort 
of skin forms upon the top in cooling, which, if 
unbroken, will keep out the air. They should 
be cooled quickly, and kept in a dry but cool 
place. Cover the jars with brandied tissue- 
paper, cut so as to fit quite close. Towards 
the end of summer, jelly made during the 
summer should be examined, and if there is 
any sign of fermentation, it must be re-boiled ; 
there is much more trouble on this head during 
some seasons (especially rainy ones) than 
others. 

Fancy dishes made of jelly of two or more 
colors are very ornamental and are easily 
made. The two accompanying engravings 
will indicate how it is done, but with care more 
elaborate combinations can be effected. 



JELLY 



315 



Apple Jelly. — Take the apples (pippins are 
the best), wipe them clean and take out the 
stem and eye. Cut them in thin slices, without 
paring or coring; put them in a preserving- 




decorate raised pies, and hams ; and for many 
other purposes of the table. 

Barberry Jelly. — Strip the fruit from the 
stems, wash it in clean water, drain, bruise 



Jelly of Two Colors. 

kettle^ add just enough water to cover them, 
and boil them without touching until perfectly 
soft ; put them away in the kettle if it is porce- 
lain-lined ; otherwise, slip them very carefully 
into a large eartiien bowl, and leave them in a 
cool place for three days. At the end of that 
time, drain them in a straining-clotk, without 
pressing ; add a pound of granulated sugar 
to every pint of juice, and boil for three-quar- 
ters of an hour ; pour it into a pitcher, fill the 
glasses, and cover with one paper pasted over 
the top. Do not move the glasses until the 
jelly has cooled, as it is apt to soil the pa- 
per. 

Arrowroot Jelly. — Mix a dessertspoonful of 
arrowroot with enough cold water to make it 
into a stiff paste ; then pour on it half a pint 
of boiling water, stirring it briskly, and boil 
five or six minutes ; when the jelly is formed 
add two tablespoonfuls of any white wine, a 
little lemon-peel, and sugar. If for young 
children, milk may be substituted for wine and 
water. 

Aspic, or Savory Jelly. — Boil a couple of 
calf's feet, with three or four pounds of knuckle 
of veal, three-quarters of a pound of lean ham, 
two large onions, three whole carrots, and a 
large bunch of herbs, in a gallon of water, till 
it is reduced more than half. Strain it off ; 
when perfectly cold, remove every particle of 
fat and sediment, and put the jelly into a very 
clean stew-pan, with four whites of eggs well 
beaten ; keep it stirred until it is nearly boiling ; 
then place it by the side of the fire to simmer 
for a quarter of an hour. Let it settle, and 
pour it through a jelly-bag until it is quite clear. 
Add, when it first begins to boil, three blades 
of mace, a teaspoonful of white peppercorns, 
and sufficient salt to flavor it properly, allowing 
for the ham, and the reduction. French cooks 
flavor this jelly with tarragon vinegar when it 
is clarified ; cold poultry, game, fish, plovers' 
eggs, truffles, and various dressed vegetables, 
with many other things often elaborately pre- 
pared, and highly ornamented, are moulded 
and served in it, especially at large dejeuners 
and similar repasts. It is also much used to 




White and Rose-colored Jelly. 

slightly, and put it into a stone jar, without 
any water. Place the jar in a pan of water, 
and steam the berries until quite tender ; this 
will require from half an hour to an hour. 
Pour off the clear juice, strain, weigh, and for 
every pound of the juice, add eighteen ounces 
of sugar ; boil quickly from five to seven min- 
utes. Unless the berries are quite ripe more 
sugar will be required. 

Blackberry Jelly. — Prepare the fruit as for 
barberry jelly, put it into a stone jar, and set 
it on the fire in a pan of tepid water ; cover it 
closely, and let it boil till the fruit is broken 
thoroughly to pieces ; then strain through a 
coarse bag, squeezing it hard so as to extract 
all the juice. To each pint of juice allow a 
pound of sugar. Put the juice on to boil by 
itself, and while it is warming divide the sugar 
into several parts and put it into the oven in 
shallow pans or dishes ; let itheat in these, and 
stir it occasionally to prevent scorching. Boil 
the juice just twenty minutes, and then add the 
heated sugar, stirring rapidly all the while ; 
withdraw the spoon as soon as the sugar is 
dissolved. Let the jelly just come to a boil, 
then remove at once from the fire, and pour 
into glasses that have been previously dipped 
in hot water. 

Calf's-foot Jelly. — Put four split calf's feet 
on to boil in a gallon of water, and continue 
boiHng gently for four hours, or until the water 
is reduced to half. Then strain the liquor 
through a sieve, and when cold and a firm jelly, 
scrape off the grease, wash the surface with a 
little scalding water, and dry it with a soft hot 
cloth. Then put the jelly into a stew-pan, with 
two pounds of white sugar, the juice of_ six 
lemons and the rinds of four (cut fine), a bruised 
stick of cinnamon, and twenty-four coriander 
seeds. Set this on the fire, and add the whites 
of six eggs well whipped, with half a pint of 
water, and continue beating the jelly on the fire 
until it boils ; then add half a pint of sherry or 
Madeira, and simmer gently for twenty min- 
utes. Pass it through a jelly-bag into a bowl, 
and if it is not clear, repeat the process. The 
color may be heightened by a few drops of 



316 



JELLY 



burnt sugar. In cold weather, it should be 
strained before the fire, else the mixture will 
jelly before it has run through. 

P'or invalids, this jelly is better made with 
brandy than with wine. Three wineglassfuls 
of brandy to two quarts of jelly will be the prop- 
er proportion, and the difference should be 
made up with water. Add the brandy, when 
the jelly has been once passed through the bag. 
Calf's-head Jelly. (See Calf's Head.) 
Cherry (Wild) and Currant Jelly. — Take 
two parts of wild cherries (stones and all) and 
one of red currants ; to a pint of juice allow a 
pound of sugar, and make as directed for black- 
berry jelly. 

Cider Jelly. — Made same as Wine Jelly, 
below. 

Crab-apple Jelly. — Put the apples into a 
kettle with just enough water to cover them, 
and let them boil until very soft ; drain them 
untouched in a straining cloth. Allow a 
pound of sugar to each pint of juice ; boil thirty 
minutes, and strain through a fine sieve. 

Currant (Black) Jelly, — Boil ripe black cur- 
rants with a little water till the fruit bursts, 
squeeze it through a jelly-bag, and set it again 
over the fire for twenty minutes ; then add 
half a pound of sugar for each pound of juice, 
and boil the whole ten minutes longer. 

Currant (Red) JeUy. — Make as directed for 
blackberry jelly. 

Four-Fruit Jelly. — Take equal quantities of 
ripe strawberries, raspberries, currants and red 
cherries ; all should be fully ripe, and the cher- 
ries must be stoned, taking care to preserve 
the juice that escapes in stoning and add it to 
the rest. Mix the fruit together, put it into a 
linen bag, and squeeze it thoroughly ; when it 
has ceased to drip, measure the juice, and to 
every pint allow a pound and two ounces of 
the best loaf sugar, in large lumps. Mix the 
juice and sugar together; put them in a por- 
celain-lined preserving-kettle ; and boil for half 
an hour, skimming frequently. Try the jelly 
by dipping out a spoonful, and holding it in the 
open air; if it congeals readily, it is sufficiently 
done. This jelly is very fi}ie. 

Gooseberry Jelly. — Take fine gooseberries, 
not too ripe ; wash and drain them, and add a 
pint and a half of cold water to every quart of 
gooseberries. Place them over the fire, and 
boil till the whole becomes a jam, then strain 
it well through a jelly-bag. Make a rich syrup 
by mixing a pound of loaf sugar with a pint of 
the hquor and a little water in which the re- 
mains of the strained fruit have been boiled. 
Boil the syrup five minutes, add it to the juice, 
and boil them together for a quarter of an hour ; 
then pour off. 

Grape Jelly. — Select the ripest grapes in 
bunches, and spread them on clean straw; 
after two or three days, pick them from the 
stalks, and warm them in a stew-pan ; then 
squeeze them thoroughly, and pass the juice 
through a sieve. Add a quarter of a pound of 
loaf sugar to each pound of juice, and boil half 
an hour ; set to cool, and in twenty-four hours 



it will be a fine jelly, excellent for inva- 
lids. 

Guava Jelly. {See Guava.) 
Lemon Jelly. — Dissolve an ounce of isinglass 
in a pint of water; add a pound of loaf sugar, 
and the juice and rinds of two lemons ; boil it 
ten minutes and strain it into the mould. 

Marbled Jelly. — This pretty dish consists of 
various fragments united by a cement of a 
different color. It may be made either with 
the remains left after a supper-party, or various 
kinds of jelly and blanc-mange, or firm creams 
may be made on purpose ; these may be colored 
yellow with saffron, turmeric, or egg-yolk, green 
with spinach-juice, and pink with cochineal or 
beet-root-juice. Blanc-mange has a very good 
effect for veining, but any other jelly will do. 
Arrange the colors in layers one above the other 
according to fancy. 

Orange Jelly. — Grate the rinds of four sweet 
oranges and two lemons. Take the juice of 
three of each ; add half a pound of sugar, and 
half a pint of water, and boil all together till it 
almost candies. Have ready a jelly made by 
boiling two ounces of isinglass in a pint and a 
half of water. Add this to the syrup, let it 
boil up once, and then strain it. Let it stand a 
while to settle before pouring it into the 
moulds. 

Peach Jelly. — Pare, stone, and slice some 
ripe peaches and put them into a stone jar: 
crack one-third of the kernels and put them 
into the jar with the peaches. Set in a pan of 
boiling water, and stir frequently until the 
fruit is well broken ; then strain, and to every 
pint of juice add the juice of a lemon and set 
on again to boil. Allow a pound of sugar to 
each pint of juice ; heat it as directed for 
blackberry jelly, and add it after the juice has 
boiled twenty minutes. Let it come to a boil, 
and then remove instantly from the fire. 

Quince Jelly. — Pare, core and slice the 
quinces, and for every five pounds of the fruit 
add half a pint of water ; put peelings, cores, 
and all into a stone jar, set into a pan of water, 
and boil until quite soft. Strain through a fine 
sieve, and for every pint of juice allow a pound 
of sugar ; boil almost twenty-five minutes, and 
then strain into the tumblers. 

Rhubarb Jelly. — Wash the stalks well, and 
cut them into pieces an inch or so long ; put 
them into a preserving-kettle with enough water 
to cover them and boil to a soft pulp ; strain 
through a jelly-bag. To each - pint of this 
juice add a pound of loaf sugar; boil again ; 
skimming often, and when it jellies on the 
skimmer remove it from the fire, and put it 
into the jars. 

Raspberry Jelly. — Make as directed for 
Blackberry jelly. 

Raspberry and Currant Jelly. — Take two 
parts of red raspberries and one of red cur- 
rants, and proceed as for other berry jellies. 
This is one of the nicest of jellies.' 

Rice Jelly. — Boil half a pound of rice and a 
small piece of cinnamon, in two quarts of water 
for an hour ; pass it through a sieve, and when 



I 



JOHNNY CAKES 

cold it will be a firm jelly, which, when warmed 
in milk and sweetened, will be very nutritious. 
Add one pint of milk to the rice left in the 
sieve, and boil it for a short time, stirring con- 
tinually ; strain it, and it will resemble thick 
cream if eaten warm. 

Sago Jelly. — Soak the sago about an hour in 
cold water, and wash it ; then put a tablespoon- 
ful of it in a quart of water, and simmer till the 
sago is entirely dissolved, and the liquid re- 
sembles a thin jelly. Then sweeten, and add 
nutmeg, cinnamon, or lemon-peel, and red or 
white wine to taste. 

Strawberry Jelly. — Make as directed for 
Blackberry jelly ; but a little lemon-juice should 
be added to that of the fruit — say a tablespoon- 
ful to a quart. 

Tapioca Jelly. — Wash the tapioca, soak it 
three hours in cold water, in which simmer it 
till dissolved, with a pinch of salt and a few 
bits of fresh lemon-peel ; then sweeten, add 
red or white wine, and take out the peel before 
using. 

Wine Jelly. — Soak one package of Coxe's 
gelatine in a pint of cold water for one hour ; 
add iX pounds of sugar, the juice of two lem- 
ons and the grated peel of one, and an inch of 
stick cinnamon ; pour over all three pints 
of boiling water, and stir until the gelatine is 
thoroughly dissolved. Add a pint of sherry or 
white wine ; and strain through a thick flannel 
bag, without squeezing. This is excellent for 
invalids. Cider Jelly may be made in the same 
way, by using cider instead of wine. 

JOHN DORY. {See DoRY.) 

JOHNNY CAKES.— I. Mix a quart of In- 
dian meal with enough boiling water to make 
a very thick batter. Stir in two or three tea- 
spoonfuls of salt, and mould the dough with 
the hands into small cakes ; in order to mould 
them up it will be necessary to rub a good deal 
of flour on the hands to prevent their sticking. 
Fry them in nearly enough fat to cover them ; 
when brown on the under side, they should be 
turned. It takes about twenty minutes to cook 
them. When cooked, split and butter them, 
and serve hot. 

II. Mix a quart of Indian meal as before, 
with enough boiling water to make a stiff bat- 
ter ; add a teaspoonful of saleratus and a tea- 
spoonful of salt dissolved in a little milk ; then 
stir in 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls of flour with 2 tea- 
spoonfuls of cream-tartar. Drop the batter by 
the large spoonful into a frying-pan containing 



KALE 



317 



just enough fat to prevent the cakes sticking to 
it, and fry as before. 

JONQUIL. — This favorite Spring flowering- 
bulb should be cultivated in the same way as 
already described for Hyacinths. The bulbs, 
however, should be planted only three inches 
deep instead of four. The double varieties of 
jonquils are very fine, but are seldom so fra- 
grant as the single. 

JULEP (Mint.) — There are many varieties 
of mint juleps, and they may be made of claret, 
madeira, gin, brandy, etc. ; brandy is generally 
considered best. In making, proceed as fol- 
lows : — Strip the tender leaves of mint into a 
tumbler, and add to them as much brandy or 
wine as you wish to take, and an equal quantity 
of white sugar. Put some pounded ice into 
another tumbler; pour this on the mint and 
brandy, and continue to pour the mixture from 
one tumbler to the other until the whole is suf- 
ficiently impregnated with the flavor of the mint. 
Then as the ice melts, drink either through a 
reed or from the tumbler. This is perhaps the 
most delicious of all summer drinks. For Gin 
julep, see Gin. 

JUMBLES.— T'^/^^. --Sugar, i lb; butter, Y^ 
lb ; eggs, 8 ; flour ; rose-water, or essence of 
lemon. 

Stir the sugar and butter together till they 
are of a light color ; then add the eggs, beaten 
to a froth, and flour enough to make the mix- 
ture stiff enough to roll out. Roll the dough 
out in powdered sugar, about half an inch thick, 
cut it into strips about half an inch wide 
and four inches long, join the ends together so 
as to form rings, lay them on flat tins that have 
been buttered, and bake in a quick oven. They 
should be a light brown, but perfectly crisp. 

Almond Jumbles. — Tizy^,? .-Almonds, ^ lb ; 
blanched and chopped fine ; sugar, i lb ; flour, 
I lb ; butter, ^ lb ; sour milk, i teacupful ; 
eggs, 5 ; rose-water, 2 tablespoonfuls ; soda, y-s, 
teaspoonful dissolved in a tablespoonful of boil- 
ing water. 

Stir the butter and sugar to a cream ; add the 
yolks of the eggs beaten to a froth, the flour, 
the milk, the almonds, the soda, and the rose- 
water ; lastly the whites of the eggs beaten to 
a stiff froth. Stir all together thoroughly, and 
drop by spoonfuls on buttered paper; bake in 
a quick oven. 

Cocoanut Jumbles. — Make as above, using 
grated cocoanut instead of almonds, and add- 
ing a little salt. 



K 



KALE. — Green curled kale or Borecole is 
a fine table vegetable of which there are several 
varieties. It must be well frost-bitten before it 
is fit for use ; after which the frost should be 
drawn out by placing it in a cool cellar or in 
cold water. The parts used are the tender tops 



or crown of the plant, with the side sprouts, 
which should be well-boiled, so as to be tendei 
before being dressed and eaten. Cook and 
serve the same as cabbage. Green kale is in 
season as soon as the frost appears, and con- 
tinues good nearly all winter. {See Sea-Kale.) 



318 



KALSOMINING 



KIDNEYS 



KALSOMINING.— The first requisite in 
kalsominingis to have the walls perfectly clean ; 
if there be grease or lime on any part, it must 
be scraped off and made smooth ; and all 
imperfections, such as cracks or nail holes, 
filled with a putty made with plaster of Paris 
or whiting, time being allowed for the putty to 
harden before laying on the kalsomine. Some- 
times it may be found expedient to coat the 
walls with a thin sizing of glue before applying 
the kalsomine, and some painters prefer a coat- 
ing of good oil paint to prevent dampness fi'om 
striking out and discoloring the walls. 

In preparing the kalsomine, mix ten pounds 
of zinc white, if for extra fine work, or the 
same quantity of common whiting if for ordinary 
work, to a thick cream with warm water ; then 
add half a pound of dissolved glue, and stir all 
well together. If for side walls, more glue 
(half a pound) will have to be added to insure 
it from rubbing off. A common whitewash 
brush will answer to lay it on with, and it should 
be applied while warm, adding hot water, to 
thin it if found too thick to spread easily. It 
was the practice of painters until lately to lay 
kalsomine evenly, one way only, as in oil paint- 
ing ; but the better method is to pass the larush 
indiscriminately in every direction, leaving it in 
that state which seems to give it the most solid 
appearance. 

As the charge for kalsomining, and in fact 
for all similar work, is out of all proportion to 
its actual cost, it may be useful to sum up here 
the expense in the way of material attending the 
kalsomining of a room twelve by fifteen feet : — 



*^ lb. glue at 25 cts per lb $0 12 

10 lbs whiting at 3 cts " o 30 

V2 lb glue, (extra for side walls), o 12 

Total 54 



A whitewash brush will cost one dollar addi- 
tional, but as the brush will be uninjured and 
can be used very frequently, it hardly enters 
into the actual cost of the work. Ten cents 
worth of blue, yellow, red, green, etc., in dry 
colors, will form any desired tint. 

KEROSENE.— Kerosene oil is a product of 
the distillation of bituminous coal, and is also 
made from crude petroleum. It has superseded 
nearly all other oils for purposes of illumination 
mainly on account of its cheapness, and when 
of good quality produces a bright and beautiful 
light, inferior only to gas. In selecting kero^ 
sene, attention should be paid to two points : 
its safety and its light-giving qualities. Good 
kerosene should be clear in color, and free 
from all matters which can gum up the wick 
and thus interfere with free circulation and 
combustion. It should also be purified from 
all that portion which boils or evaporates at a 
low temperature ; for it is the production of 
this vapor, and its mixture with atmospheric 
air, that gives rise to those terrible explosions 
that occur when a flame is brought near a can 
of poor oil. To test the oil in this respect, 



pour a small quantity into an iron spoon, and 
heat it over a lamp until it is moderately warm 
to the touch ; if the oil produces a vapor which 
can be set on fire by means of a flame held a 
short distance above the surface of the liquid, 
it is bad. Safe oil poured into a cup or on the 
floor does not easily take fire when a flame is 
brought in contact with it. Poor oil will in- 
stantly ignite under the same circumstances, 
and hence the breaking of a lamp filled with 
poor oil, or the use of poor oil in any way about 
the house, is fraught with terrible peril of con- 
flagration. Not only the safety but the light-giv- 
ing qualities of kerosene are greatly increased by 
the removal of these volatile and dangerous 
components of the oil ; and this is readily done 
by a process of refining which only slightly 
increases its cost. One of these " refined " 
oils should always be chosen, and the best of 
them is the Astral Oil. 

Kerosene should be kept in a cool, dark 
place, and carefully excluded from the air. It 
would be superfluous, probably, to caution 
against using it for lighting fires and the like, 
since those who do such things must be fully 
aware that in doing so they are subjecting 
themselves and their property to the deadhest 
peril. 

KERSEYMERE. (See Cassimere.) 

KETCHUP. (See Catsup.) 

KETTLE. — Kettles are usually made of cast- 
iron, though not infrequently of copper or tin. 
(See Copper-ware, Iron-ware, and Tin- 
ware.) In boiling a kettle care must be taken to 
put on the lid closely, so as not to leave the small- 
est crevice. If the lid is in the least broken or 
bent, it is best to get a new one ; otherwise the 
water is very likely to be smoked and will then 
communicate a disagreeable taste to whatever 
it is used in preparing. 

To remove fur from the inside of a kettle, 
fill it with water, and add to it a drachm of sal- 
ammoniac ; let it boil for an hour, and the fur 
or incrustation formed on the metal will be 
dissolved and can easily be removed. 

KID. — The meat of the kid is sometimes 
but not often found in our markets, but it is 
considered inferior to lamb, and can scarcely 
be numbered among the edible meats in this 
country. (See Goat's Flesh.) Kid is pre- 
pared, dressed, and served in the same way as 
Lamb. 

KIDNEYS. — These are obtained from cows, 
sheep, or pigs. The calves' kidneys are best of 
all, and are usually found in the loins of veal, but 
sometimes they are taken- out and sold sepa- 
rately. Lambs'' and shceps'' kidneys are very 
much alike, but the lambs' are considered 
most delicate. Pig^^ kidneys are also best 
when taken from the young pig or shoat. No 
kidneys should be used for cooking purposes 
which are not perfectly fresh. If pigs' kidneys 
have any disagreeable smell they should be 
thrown away. 

Broiled Kidneys. — Split the kidneys into 
four pieces, skewer them apart, cut away all 
the skinny or membranous portions, sprinkle 



KITCHEN 



KNIFE 



319 



with salt, and broil over a good fire. When 
brown on both sides, serve. 

Fried Kidneys. — I. Trim and cut the kid- 
ney into slices ; season them with salt and 
pepper, and dredge them well with flour ; fry 
them on both sides until they are nicely 
browned ; then lift them out, empty the pan, 
and make gravy for them with a teaspoonful 
of butter, a dessertspoonful of flour, pepper 
and salt, and a teacupful of boiling water ; 
shake them round, and give them a minute's 
simmering ; add a little mushroom catsup, 
lemon-juice, or any sauce that will give a good 
flavor. Minced herbs are, to many tastes, an 
improvement to this dish, to = which a small 
quantity of onion cut fine can be added, if it is 
liked. 

n. Strip off the skin and remove the fat, and 
then slice the kidney rather thin ; season it 
with salt, pepper, and grated nutmeg, and 
sprinkle over with plenty of minced parsley, or 
equal parts of parsley and eschalots, chopped 
very small. Fry the slices over a brisk fire, 
and, when nicely browned on both sides, stir 
amongst them a teaspoonful of flour, and pour 
in by degrees a teacupful of gravy and a wine- 
glassful of white wine ; bring the sauce to the 
point of boiling, add a morsel of butter and a 
tablespoonful of lemon-juice, and pour the 
whole into a hot dish, garnished with fried 
bread. This is a French receipt, and an excel- 
lent one. 

Stewed Kidneys. — Cut the kidney in half, 
lengthwise, and soak it in strong salt water for 
twelve hours ; parboil it till about half done ; 
set it aside till cold, and then cut away all the 
tender meat, leaving the tendons and mem- 
branes unused ; put these bits of meat into a 
stew-pan, with about two teacupfuls of boiling 
water, and boil till very tender ; then add a 
tablespoonful of butter, season to taste with 
pepper and salt, thicken with a little flour, and 
boil about five minutes longer. Have ready 
a few slices of crisp toast, pour the stew over 
them on a dish, and serve at once, garnished 
with parsley. 
KING-FISH. {See Whiting.) 
KITCHEN. — In city houses the kitchens 
are nearly always on the basement floor, while 
in the country they are as generally either sep- 
arate or an outlying portion of the main build- 
ing. In either case the same principles of 
construction should be observed. A kitchen 
should always, if possible, be entirely above 
ground ; and it should always be well-lighted 
and thoroughly ventilated. These points are 
of more importance than is generally supposed, 
since the contentment of the cook and the 
goodness of the cookery depend upon them in 
a very large measure. A whitewashed wall is 
best for a kitchen, as it is clean and neat, and 
can be so easily whitewashed afresh whenever 
it is soiled. The whitewash can be colored, if 
desired ; this makes a prettier wall, but has the 
disadvantage that, whenever any place becomes 
soiled, a whitewasher must be called in to re- 
pair the mischief, whereas, the ordinary white- 



wash can be prepared and applied by any one. 
Both ceiling and walls should be whitewashed 
at least twice a year. Painted wood-work is 
not desirable in a kitchen ; it soon looks dirty, 
unless washed very frequently with soap, and 
this soon wears the paint off in spots. The 
wood, left in its natural state, requires a great 
deal of hard scrubbing ; but, if oiled and var- 
nished, or simply oiled, will keep clean a long 
time, and can be easily and quickly wiped off 
with a little water. 

If the flooring is smooth and evenly laid, the 
cleanest and least troublesome method of treat- 
ing is to oil well two or three times a year. It 
does not soil easily then, and when soiled can 
be washed readily and without scrubbing. If 
it is not in proper condition for oihng, stain it 
with black walnut stain, made as follows ; To 
one gallon of turpentine add a quarter of a 
pound of asphaltum and half a pound of com- 
mon beeswax. If found too thin, add bees- 
wax ; if too light in color, add asphaltum, 
though this must be done with caution, as a 
very little will make a great difference in the 
shade, and the wood should not be black, but a 
rich, dark brown. This will probably have to 
be renewed every Spring and Fall, but it is not 
difficult to apply, and will cost less than fifty 
cents for each application. Carpets should 
never be used on a kitchen floor, except a rug 
here and there in Winter, and oil-cloth is both 
expensive and difficult to keep clean. If any 
carpet be used it should be ra^^, because it is 
thick and heavy. This should be tacked down 
only in front of doors and places where it is 
liable to trip any one up. Strips of zinc may 
be tacked around the hearth and in front of the 
sink, and are admirable arrangements to pre- 
vent dirt and wear. 

Every kitchen should have a large sink, with 
a drain running under ground. This sink 
should be scalded out every day, and occasion- 
ally with hot lye ; and care should be taken 
that no tea leaves or potato peels are thrown 
into it, as they soon obstruct the pipes. 

For the furniture and utensils required in 'a 
kitchen, see Furniture. 

KNIFE — Table-knives are the only ones 
which claim our attention here, and, for sug- 
gestions as to the different kinds and qualities, 
and the materials of which they are made, see 
Carving, and Fork. The best steel is the 
cheapest in the end, and will give most satis- 
faction. The finer kind-s of knives have the 
blades plated with silver, and are very orna- 
mental ; but it must be recollected that these 
cannot be sharpened when they become blunt 
by use, as they soon do. 

In washing knives the blades only should be 
dipped in hot water and wiped immediately, 
taking care that the handles are not wetted ; 
they should then be cleaned on the knife-board, 
or with the patent cleaner, if there is one at 
hand. To preserve knives not in common use, 
the blades should either be rubbed over with 
mutton suet or they should be kept in a wooden 
box containing sifted quicklime, care being 



320 



LABURNUM 



LACHENALIA 



taken that the blade only of the knives touch 
the lime. 

A very simple knife-cleaner may be made of 
two boards, twenty inches long, six inches 
broad, and one inch thick, joined together, but 
not quite close, by a hinge ; two pieces of buff 
or belt leather are stretched over the interior 
surfaces, and nailed on the exterior ones ; and 
a handle assists in holding the apparatus steady. 
In using it, lay powdered Bath brick, or any 
similar dust, on the lower leather; shut the 
boards together, lay the left arm on the upper 
board, holding the handle ; put the knife, well 
wiped from grease, between the leathers, and 
four or five rubs backwards, not sideways, will 
produce a beautiful polish on both sides. The 
shoulders and back may be pohshed on the 
leather turned over. 

Or, cover a smooth board, free from knots, 
with thick buff leather, on which spread, about 



the thickness of a penny, the following paste : 
Emery, one part ; crocus, three parts ; mixed 
with lard or sweet oil. This composition not 
only gives a superior poUsh to knives, but 
improves their edges. 

KOL-CANNON. — Mix, in about equal pro- 
portions, some smoothly mashed cold potatoes 
and some cabbage or greens of any kind, first 
boiled quite tender, pressed very dry, and 
chopped a little, if needful. Mash up the whole 
well together, add a seasoning of pepper and 
salt, a spoonful of butter, and a spoonful or 
two of cream or milk ; put a raw onion in the 
middle of the mass, and stir it over a clear fire 
till it is very hot and sufficiently dry to be 
moulded and dished like dry hash. Take out 
the onion before the Kol-cannon is served. 

In Ireland mashed parsnips and potatoes are 
mixed in the same way, and called parsntp- 
catmofi. 



LABURNUM. — The common laburnum, 
or golden chain, is a very ornamental shrub, 
common in gardens, and well worthy of culti- 
vation. It grows in any moderately rich soil, 
requires little attention when once planted, and 
is perfectly hardy. The English and Scotch 
laburnum are somewhat tender in the Northern 
States ; they will, however, flower splendidly 
in a slightly sheltered location, and their golden 
chain of flowers is very beautiful. 

The seeds of the laburnum, which it bears in 
profusion, are poisonous, and produce, when 
eaten, excessive vomiting, relaxation, and 
cramps. The treatment is to give an emetic of 
anything that may be at hand, while a dose of 
white vitriol is being sent for ; this will soon 
remove them from the stomach. Afterwards 
the body must be supported with brandy and 
cordials. 

LACE. (To clean.) — To clean white lace 
edging, cover a quart bottle with linen stitched 
smoothly to fit the shape ; begin at the bottom 
and wind the lace round it, basting it fast at 
both edges to the linen ; soap it well with fine 
soap, rinse by plunging up and down in a pail 
of clean water, — put it into a pot and boil it till 
white. Then set in the sun to dry ; and, when 
dry, clip the basting threads, and unwind the 
lace. If it has been carefully basted on, it re- 
quires no ironing, and will look nearly as good 
as new. 

To wash white lace, baste each piece on old 
muslin ; soap it well and soak in soft water 
over night ; work the soap out by squeezing it 
occasionally, dipping and squeezing it again.' 
Change the water two or three times, repeating 
the dipping and squeezing; put it (again fresh 
soaped) into a saucepan of cold water to simmer 
for a quarter of an hour or so ; boil it twice 
over if necessary, and if the color is still bad, 



bleach a little on the grass'before finishing. 
Rinse it in plenty of hard water, adding a little 
blue ; then dissolve twelve lumps of white sugar 
more or less according to the quality of the lace 
in a teacupful of hot-water, pour into a large 
basin and add a little blue ; dip each piece of 
lace in separately, squeeze ; shake out, and 
spread upon a clean cloth ; roll them up for an 
hour more, then put them in a fresh cloth, to lie 
rolled up till nearly dry. Use a cold iron. 

Fine lace covered with powdered French 
chalk or magnesia and so left for a week often 
comes out clean. 

To clean black lace, squeeze it three or four 
times through a liquid made by dissolving a 
teaspoonful of spirits of wine, and a teaspoon- 
ful of borax, in half a teacupful of very soft 
water ; then rinse in a cup of hot water in which 
a black kid glove has been boiled. Pull out the 
edges of the lace until nearly dry and press 
for two days in a heavy book. 

LACHENALIA.— One of the Cape bulbs, 
very easy of culture, and making extremely 
l^retty window plants. They should be grown 
as near the glass as possible. Plant in Octo- 
ber, in pots filled with a rough, peaty, and 
sandy soil ; they require very little water, but 
after starting into growth should never be al- 
lowed to become parched. The foliage of the 
lachenalia is prettily variegated with black; 
and the flowers, which are in bloom from 
January to February, are produced in up- 
right spikes, and are pendulous, high-colored 
tubes. L. pendiila, with red and yellow flow- 
ers, is the most common species. There are 
many species with pink, purple, red, yellow, 
and blue flowers ; among the choicest of which 
are : L. fragrans, with flowers white and red ; 
and L. quadricolor, with flowers yellow, red, 
and puiple. 



LACQUERING 



LAMB 



321 



LACQUERING. — A thin varnish given to 
brass-work, such as to handles of locks, door- 
plates, etc., to prevent their tarnishing. Brass- 
work may be re-lacquered in the following man- 
ner : Put an ounce of turmeric, two drachms 
of arnotto, and two drachms of saffron, into a 
pint of alcohol; shake it occasionllyforaweek, 
and then filter into a clean bottle ; add three 
ounces of clean seed shellac, and shake the 
bottle now and then for a fortnight. In apply- 
ing it, warm the metal first, and lay the lacquer 
over it evenly with a soft brush. 

A lacquer to give tin, or silver-plated articles 
the appearance of brass, may be made thus : 
Melt, in separate vessels, two ounces of shel- 
lac and eight ounces of amber ; mix them well 
together, and add half a pint of drying linseed 
oil. Dissolve in a pint bottle, two drachms of 
saffron in half a pint of oil of turpentine ; strain 
this, and add to it two drachms each of gum- 
tragacanth and arnotto finely powdered. Mix 
both these compounds together and shake them 
well; apply as before. It is by this varnish 
that leather is made to appear as if gilded, 
after it has been covered with silver leaf. 

LADY SLIPPER. {See Balsam.) 

LAGER BEER. — This term is properly ap- 
plied only to those beers which are fermented 
in cool cellars by a slow process in which the 
yeast settles to the bottom of the vessels. In 
this country it is applied indiscriminately to 
the light kinds of beer which are prepared by 
the slow process of fermentation. Much of 
this beverage, however, is not genuine lager- 
beer, for it has not lain a sufficient length of 
time in the cellar to acquire that title ; nor 
could it have been preserved in casks during 
the time required by lager-beer in ripening. It 
is more technically termed, and is known by 
the brewers as Scheftkbier, or draught-beer. 
It contains less alcohol than the genuine lager, 
and less than the various kinds of ripened ales, 
and corresponds to what is known in this 
country as " present use ale," or the new ale 
commonly kept in the ale-houses. Lager is a 
light and pleasant summer beverage ; but it 
has neither the nutritive nor the stimulating 
qualities that are generally claimed for it. One 
advantage is that it costs so little to manufac- 
ture that it is seldom adulterated. 

LAMB. — The young sheep is usually known 
among butchers as " lamb," until it arrives at 
the age of twelve months, when it is termed 
yearling, though still in many cases dressed 
and sold as lamb. The Spring lamb is a lux- 
ury prized chiefly for its unseasonableness ; its 
flesh, although delicate and tender, is quite in- 
sipid and much less nourishing than good mut- 
ton. Lamb is occasionally sold in our mar- 
kets as early as March ; after which it slowly 
increases in size and plentifulness, until in the 
months of June, July, and August, it is in full 
season and of fine quality. When it first ap- 
pears, lamb is not sold in less quantity than a 
quarter, its weight being seldom above five or 
six pounds. As it increases in size the Iamb 
rapidly increases in weight, and in June the 

21 



quarters generally weigh from eight to twelve 
pounds each. Later in the season the quarters 
will weigh as much as twenty-five pounds 
each, but the animal is then cut up like mut- 
ton, and the same joints can be procured. 

In butchering, the carcass of lamb is first 
split down the centre of the back and neck into 
two sides, which are quartered by leaving two 
or three ribs on the Jmid-quarter. When 
large enough, and it is desired by the pur- 
chaser to be cut or divided, the leg is first cut 
off and prepared for roasting or boiling, or is 
cut into chops. The fore-qjiarter of lamb is 
smaller than the same joint of mutton, and the 
bones are of a more reddish color. The fore- 
leg is broken off immediately above the joint 
of the foot, which connects with the white 
joint bone. This is generally considered the 
choicest part of the lamb on account of the 
delicacy of the ribs and breast when roasted. 
Removing the blade-bone greatly assists the 
carver. The loin of latnb is usually cut into 
chops, or cracked for roasting. Separated from 
the shoulders, the neck and breast broiled 
make a choice dish. 

In choosing lamb, it must be borne in mind 
that this meat will not keep long after the ani- 
mal is killed. When the fore-quarter is fresh 
the large vein in the neck is bluish in color ; 
when it is becoming stale it is green. In the 
hind-quarter, if not recently killed, the fat of 
the kidney will have a slight smell, and the 
knuckle will have lost its firmness. Another 
test is to examine the fat on the back and then 
that on the kidneys, both of which should be 
white, hard, and of the same color. 

Baked Lamb. — Either the fore-quarter or 
hind-quarter may be used for this. Put the 
joint in a baking-pan, the bottom of which is 
just covered with cold water ; spread a little 
butter on it, and season with salt and pepper ; 
cover it with a piece of buttered paper, and 
set the pan in a moderately quick oven ; baste 
often till done. If the paper burns, put on 
another piece. Allow about ten minutes to the 
pound, and in order to ascertain when properly 
done run a small knife or skewer into the 
meat ; it should enter easily. Serve with the 
gravy only, or with any sauce that may be pre- 
ferred. 

Boiled Lamb. — Lamb should never be 
boiled except in stews ; it becomes tasteless 
and sodden on account of its immaturity, and if 
very young is positively unwholesome. 

Chops (Lamb). — Prepare, cook, and serve 
as directed for mutton chops. They should 
be broiled, never fried, as they are already suf- 
ficiently oily. 

Roast Lamb. — Either the fore or hind- 
quarter will answer for this ; but the fore-quar- 
ter is generally esteemed choicest. The fire 
for roasting should be clear and brisk ; put the 
meat on with a little water in the dripping-pan, 
and it must be carefully and plentifully basted 
from the time it becomes warm until it is ready 
to serve — first with salt and water, and after- 
wards with the gravy. Though it requires 



322 



LAMPREY 



LAMPS 



quick roasting, it must never be placed suffi- 
ciently near the fire to endanger the fat, which 
is very liable to scorch or burn. Allow about 
ten minutes to the pound for a fore-quarter ; 
eight minutes for a leg ; and six for a shoulder. 
Lamb should always be well done. Serve with 
the sauce given below; or, skim the gravy 
well, thicken with brown flour, and serve with 
that. 

Sauce for Lamb. — The mint for this sauce 
should be ft'esh and young. Strip the leaves 
from the stem, wash them carefully, and drain 
them on a sieve or dry them in a cloth ; chop 
them very fine, put them into a sauce-tureen, 
and to three tablespoonfuls of the mint add 
two of pounded sugar; let them remain a short 
time well-mixed together, and then pour to 
them gradually six tablespoonfuls of vinegar. 
Stewed Lamb. — L — Take: Three or four 
pounds of lamb, cut it up into pieces an inch or 
two in length, crack the bones and remove all 
the fat ; put the meat in a pot with enough cold 
water to cover it, and set where it will heat 
gradually. Cover it closely, and stew half an 
hour ; then add four ounces of salt pork cut 
into strips, a chopped onion, and some pepper; 
cover again and stew an hour longer, or until 
the meat is very tender. Mix a little dough 
as for biscuits, cut into squares, an J drop into 
the stew; boil ten minutes and season further 
by the addition of a little parsley and thyme ; 
thicken with two tablespoonfuls of flour stirred 
in a teacup of cold milk. Boil up once and 
serve in a deep covered dish. 

II. Choose a small plump leg ot lamb, not 
much exceeding five pounds in weight ; put it 
into a vessel nearly of its size, with a few trim- 
mings or a bone or two of raw veal, if at hand ; 
cover it with warm water, bring it slowly to a 
boil, clean off the scum with great care when 
it is first thrown to the surface, and when it has 
all been skimmed off, add a bunch of thyme 
and parsley, and two carrots of moderate size. 
Let the lamb simmer slowly, but without ceas- 
ing, for an hour and a quarter ; serve it covered 
with rich white sauce, and send some of the 
sauce to table with it in a tureen. 
LAMBREQUIN. {See Curtains.) 
LAMPREY — usually called lamprey-eels — 
are taken in large numbers in the months of 
March, April, May and June. The fiesh is 
dark, rather dry, and somewhat insipid in taste ; 
and, though a favorite dish in England, is not 
much esteemed here. They are considered 
best in the months of May and June. Prepare 
as directed for Eels. 

LAMPS. — The lamps in use not too simple 
to justify description, are treated under sepa- 
rate articles, except two brought to our notice 
since the articles were prepared about the oth- 
ers named in the cross-references below. The 
main purpose of this article is to explain some 
matters common to lamps in general. 

The distance from the burning part of the 
wick to the surface of the oil should remain 
unchanged, so that equal quantities of oil 
may be drawn up at all times, and the reservoir 



should be so shaped and placed that its shadow 
will occasion the least inconvenience. If the 
wick is supplied from a reservoir below, it is 
obvious that just in proportion as that is ex- 
hausted, the distance from its surface to the 
flame is increased ; the wick elevates less oil, 
and the light grows faint and dim. To remedy 
this, the reservoir is often made so as to have 
a large surface of oil that will fall but a little 
distance although a considerable amount be 
withdra\Tn. To avoid the objectionable shade 
thrown by such a large cistern close to the wick, 
the astral lamp had its reservoir constructed 
in the form of a narrow circular ring, wl.ich 
throws but a small shadow. The sinunibra 
lamp had this ring so shaped as to produce still 
less shade. A more modern device is a foun- 
tain of oil placed on one side higher than the 
wick, with a self-acting arrangement by which 
the reservoir is fed from it, and its height con- 
stantly maintained at the same point, as in the 
German student lamp, {which see). The astral 
and simunbra lamps are now virtually out of use. 
The wick of a lamp serves only to raise up 
the oil ; the combustion of its own substance 
is so small as scarcely to deserve notice. The 
size of the wick, however, is important. To se- 
cure complete combustion, it is essential that 
the air shall have access to every part of the 
flame. If the wick be large, a great deal of 
carbon vapor remains unconsumed in the inte- 
rior of the flame, or breaks out at the top as 
smoke, and the flame appears yellow or even 
brownish. The smaller the wick, the clearer 
and whiter will be the flame ; yet a very small 
wick cannot give much light. It was first 
noticed by Dr. Franklin that two small wicks, 
placed close together, give more light than one 
equal in quantity to both ; the air being admitted 
between them, there is more surface of flame 
than in one only. {See Dtiplex Latfip below.) 
Three wicks, for the same reason, give still 
more light ; but they consume oil in proportion. 
It is rather difficult to keep several wicks always 
at the same height, and there is a good deal of 
trouble in adjusting and trimming them. Aflat 
wick is found to obviate this inconvenience, and 
to give a much better and clearer light than a 
round one which consumes the same quantity 
of oil. These are consequently now much used. 
By far the best arrangement of the whole, how- 
ever, is that invented by M. Argand, and known 
as the Argand burner. {See Argand.) 

The care of lamps requires so much atten- 
tion and discretion that it should only be 
entrusted to the most reliable servants, if to 
any. Lamps should be freshly filled, the chim- 
neys cleaned every day, and the wicks trim- 
med smooth with "a pair of sharp scissors. 
Take the lamp to pieces and clean it often. Half 
the light produced is often lost owing tothe 
dirty state of the chimneys. Renew the wicks 
before they get too short ; they should never 
be allowed to burn shorter than an inch and a 
half. The inside of oil-cans should be cleansed 
occasionally with soda dissolved in water (one 
tablespoonful of soda to a quart of water). Be 



LAMPS 



LARD 



323 



careful to drain them well, and not to let any 
gilding or bronze be injured by the soda coming 
in contact with it. Never leave a burning ker- 
osene lamp turned down, as it will always 
smoke. 

Argand Lamp. {See Argand.) 

Carcel Lamp. {See Carcel.) 

Chimneys of glass can be effectually clean- 
ed by kerosene or spirits, when water is inef- 
fectual. 

Duplex Lamp. — This is a lamp now made 
for burning kerosene, with two flat wicks side 
by side. (See remarks on preceding page.) 
The mechanical construction is too simple to 
justify illustration, but as these lamps are some- 




times made in quite elegant form we annex a 
cut giving the exterior view. 

Globes. {See under Gas.) 

Moderateur Lamp. (^See Carcel.) 

Shades. {See under Gas.) 

Spirit Lanap. — The ordinary forms are well 
known ; the one here given is not yet widely 
introduced, but is an immense convenience at 
the table, in the nursery and sick room, and in 
travelling. It is generally known as the 
Rachaud Lamp. The inventor is M. Lang. 

It burns alcohol vapor with which it supplies 
itself through a roll of wick contained in the 
small vertical central cylinder and reaching 
from the bottom of the lamp to near the top of 
the cylinder. The top of the cylinder is closed 
but near the top a circle of small holes is pierced. 
The part of the cylinder in and near the main 
reservoir is surrounded by a second wick pro- 
jecting slightly above the cover of the main 
reservoir of the lamp. When this outside wick 
is lighted the cylinder is heated, and the alcohol, 



with which capillary attraction has saturated 
the inner wick, is rapidly vaporized and rushes 
out of the holes near the top of the cylinder 
with considerable force. This vapor becomes 
ignited from the flame below it, of the outside 
wick, and large horizontal jets of flame are so 
kept up while the supply of alcohol lasts. 
Water may be boiled by this flame with an 
astonishing saving of time and fuel. 




Three vertical rods start from the periphery 
of the reservoir, and are bent inward horiz- 
ontally, so as to support the vessels to be 
heated. 

Student Lamp. {See German Student 
Lamp.) 

LARD. — The best lard is that made from 
the leaf-fat which adheres to the ribs and belly 
of the hog; lard made of this is called leaf- 
lard. As a general thing, however, the lard 
obtained in the stores is made of the fat cut 
from various parts of the hog — including both 
leaf-fat and meat-fat ; this is cut into very small 
pieces, then boiled till quite rendered, and 
the melted fat having passed through a strainer 
into pots becomes lard when cool. Good lard 
should be white and solid, and without dis- 
agreeable smell. 

Extensive adulterations are practised in lard 
by mixing flour., water, starch., lime., or alum 
with it, and in some cases carbonate of soda or 
potash and salt. In addition to these, veal 
and mutton fat are also mixed with it, in order 
to give inferior qualities the consistence which 
good lard ought to have. Water is easily de- 
tected by the sputtering made in melting. Flour 
and starch can only be detected by the micro- 
scope, excepting that on melting lard contain- 
ing these substances, an opaque body is usually 
seen floating in it, and generally falling towards 
the bottom. The saline ingredients mentioned 
above require chemical tests to make them 
apparent. 

To Make. — The best way to secure pure 
lard is to make it at home. For this purpose, 
if " leaf-lard " is desired, take the leaf-fat, wash 
it carefully and let it drain, cut it into bits, and 
put it into a tin kettle or stone jar, and set this 
in a pot of boiling water ; stir occasionally 
until it is melted, allowing it only to shmner 
slowly ; throw in a very Hule salt to settle the 
sediment ; and while still hot, strain through a 
coarse cloth into jars. Good lard for common 
use can be made of the fatty portions of the 
hog lying next the skin. Cut these into slices, 
put them in a large pot, add a teaspoonful of 
water to prevent scorching at the bottom, and 
melt slowly, stirring every few minutes. Sim- 
mer until the meat is shrivelled and brown and 



324: 



LARDING 



LAW 



dry ; remove the bits carefully with a perfor- 
ated skimmer, add a little salt as before, and 
when the fat is clean strain it into jars. Great 
care is required in making lard to prevent 
scorching ; for this reason it should simmer 
very gently, and should be stirred often— almost 
constantly at the last. Lard keeps better in 
small jars than in large ones. Cover the tops 
with bladders, and over these tie a cloth dipped 
in melted grease. 

LARDING. — This consists in the introduc- 
tion of thin and narrow pieces of ham or bacon 
into poultry and meats that are naturally some- 
what dry and devoid of flavor. Veal, turkeys, 
chickens, and rabbits may all be larded with 
advantage, and almost any roast or stewed dish 
is improved by it. The lar ding-needle, with 



Larding-needle. 

which the process of larding is performed, is 
merely a short, thick needle with a spring 
opening or slit instead of an eye, so that a nar- 
row slip of bacon may be introduced, just as a 
pen is inserted into a penholder. Charged 
with this larding, the needle is passed through 
a pinched-up portion of the flesh, and having 
inserted it so that its two ends project, the slit 
of the needle is opened and Hberates its charge. 
These pieces of bacon are inserted in regular 
order, at intervals of about an inch, in the 
breast of a turkey, chicken, or in the substance 
of veal, etc.; after which the article is consid- 
ered larded, and is ready for the fire. 

LARK. — This is one of the small birds 
ranked as game. The shore-lark or sky-lark., 
is the species oftenest found in the market ; it 
is generally very fat, and is considered excel- 
lent eating. It is in season throughout the 
winter months, but cannot always be obtained. 
The brown lark is not quite so plentiful as the 
preceding; it is in season during the months 
of March, April and May, when their flesh is 
said to be equal to the shore-lark. Meadow- 
larks, or meadow-starlings, are sometimes 
found in the market, and are shot in great num- 
bers South and West. The flesh of a young 
fat bird is almost as good as that of the quail, 
but the bird itself is neither so large nor so 
plump. They are in the best condition dur- 
ing the fall months. Cook and serve as Orto- 
lan. 

LARKSPUR.-One of the finest of the hardy 
herbaceous plants, and desirable for every flow- 
er-garden. It is perennial, requiring but little 
attention and will grow luxuriantly in any good 
garden soil. It grows readily from seed, or 
From increase of the roots ; and if the seed- 
pods are cut off, will continue in flower from 
July to November. All the attention they 
require is to loosen the earth around the roots 



each Spring and dig in a few spadefuls of ma- 
nure. The plants are propagated by division 
of the root, which should be performed in 
early Spring, just as the plant starts into growth, 
or in the latter part of Summer, when they 
have done flowering. The shades of blue in 
the larkspur are unsurpassed by any flower of 
similar color. 

The Delphinium Formosu7n, andZ>. Hender- 
sonii.,2ive. beautiful varieties of the brightest blue 
color with a white centre. Other varieties are, 
D . A Iba, pure white ; D. Belladonna, sky blue 
D. Chinensi Pumiluni, azure blue ; and D. 
Mons. Neuner, pale blue. 

LASTING. — A woollen fabric with a double 
warp, sometimes of two and sometimes of three 
threads ; it is made of various patterns, plain, 
twilled, or figured. It is generally black in color, 
and is used chiefly for the tops of ladies' shoes. 
Width eighteen inches. 

LATOUR. {See Claret.) 

LAUDANUM. — The ordinary tincture of 
opium. The ordinary dose for an adult is from 
20 to 30 drops. {See Opium.) 

LAUREL LEAVES. — The receipts in many 
cook-books direct the use of laurel leaves 
(cherry-laurel) as a seasoning or flavoring sub- 
stance. In all such receipts substitute the bay 
leaf. The first is poisonous, containing prussic 
acid ; the latter is simply aromatic, with a per- 
fume similar to that of cinnamon. Laurel leaves 
should be banished from cookery, for though 
no perceptible evil effects may follow their use 
in small quantities, the consequences of an 
overdose, or of a mistake on part of the cook, 
maybe serious. 

LAUGHING GAS. (See Nitrous Oxide.) 

LAURESTINUS.— This plant, hardy in 
England, is with us a winter-blooming parlor 
ornament. It is easily cultivated, grows rap- 
idly, and blows very freely. The flowers are 
small, white, and gathered into clusters, and 
are in bloom from February to May. The pots 
for growing the laurestinus should be large, and 
filled with a soil composed of four parts loam, 
and one part each of sand, leaf-mould, and 
manure. The plants should be freely watered. 
They should also be washed frequently, as 
dust collecting on the foliage injures the beauty 
and health of the plant. There are many varie- 
ties of the laurestinus, one of which, the snow 
ball {Viburnum opuhis) is a hardy garden 
shrub, highly ornamental. 

LAVENDER-WATER.— 7«/&^ .-A pint of 
proof spirits of wine ; essential oil of lavender, 
one ounce ; essence of ambergris, two drachms. 
Put all into a quart bottle, and shake it up well 
daily. 

LAW. — While there is the same danger in 
law as in medicine, that non-professional treat- 
ment may do more harm than good, fortu- 
nately the necessity for resorting to it is less 
frequent. Owing to the varying laws of differ- 
ent States, to go into the subject fully and 
without danger of misleading, would require a 
large volume. There are, however, a few uni- 
versal rules that everybody should know as a 



LAW 



325 



means of safety in estate, just as the principles 
of hygiene should be known as a means of 
safety in body. Some of these rules belong 
with the business forms elsewhere given under 
their respective titles of Account or Bill, 
Check, Draft, Power of Attorney, Pro- 
missory Note and Receipt, or under the 
law of master and servant, which is treated 
under Servants. We have endeavored to 
group the others in this article. 

Caveat Emptor (Let the purchaser take 
heed). — When the article sold is not at the 
time of sale in the possession of the vendor, 
the vendee buys at his peril, unless there be 
a covenant or warranty of title. But if the 
vendor at the time of sale has the article in 
his possession, and sells it as his own, and re- 
ceives a fair price, he warrants the title ; and 
in case the title prove defective, he is bound to 
make compensation to the vendee. After the 
completion of the sale by payment ^nd deliv- 
ery, the vendee may find that the article sold 
is not in quality and nature what he intended 
to buy. The general rule applicable here is, 
that it is the duty of the vendee at the time he 
entered into the contract to examine for him- 
self and ascertain whether the article will 
answer the intended purpose, and to exercise 
his own judgment with regard to its quality. 
If he omitted to do this, he cannot rescind the 
contract and recover the price paid, unless the 
vendor was guilty of false and fraudulent rep- 
resentations material to the sale, by which 
the vendee was misled ; or there was an ex- 
press warranty by the vendor; or unless a 
warranty is implied from the nature and cir- 
cumstances of the sale. When goods are sold 
by sample there is an implied warranty by the 
vendor that the quality of the bulk is equal to 
that of the sample. So, if one buys an article 
for a specific purpose, which is made known to 
the vendor, and the vendee relies upon the 
skill and judgment of the vendor to supply 
what is wanted, there is an implied warranty 
that the article will be fit for the purpose. 
And if an article is to be made to order, there 
is an implied warranty that is reasonably fit for 
the purpose for which it is ordinarily used. It 
is said that where provisions are sold by a 
trader for domestic use, there is an implied 
warranty that they are sound and wholesome. 
Good faith is required on the part of the ven- 
dor; and if the article sold have a secret defect, 
which the vendee by the strictest attention 
could not discover, but which is known to the 
vendor, it is his duty to disclose it. 
Change. See {Tender below.) 
Deed. — Any contract or agreement ex- 
pressed in writing, imder seal, and which has 
been delivered, is a deed ; but the term is 
often used in a more restricted sense to de- 
note a writing, sealed and delivered, by which 
lands or some interest therein is conveyed. 
A writing for the conveyance of lands, signed 
and sealed by the grantor, and placed in the 
hands of a third person, to be delivered to the 
grantee upon the happening of a certain event. 



is called an escrow. As a general rule the es- 
crow takes effect at the time of delivery to 
the grantee, and until then the title to the es- 
tate remains in the grantor. The formalities 
necessary for the due execution of deeds of 
lands are prescribed by the statutes of the 
several States ; and, as the assistance of a 
competent legal adviser should always be ob- 
tained, no forms are here given. 

The statute of frauds provides, that no ac- 
tion shall be maintained upon any agreement 
for the sale of real estate, or any interest in 
or concerning it, (except leases for a short 
term, usually not to exceed one year,) unless 
such agreement or some memorandum thereof, 
be made in writing, and signed by the party 
to be charged therewith, or his agent. 

In nearly all the United States, the wife is 
entitled to dower (an estate for life in one- 
third part of the husband's lands) in all the 
lands which the husband owned and possessed 
during his life ; in which case, if the entire in- 
terest in the lands is intended to be conveyed 
to the grantee the wife should join in the deeds. 
In those States, however, where the wife is 
only entitled to dower in those lands which 
the husband owned and possessed at the time 
of his death, there is no occasion for her to 
join in a conveyance by the husband. 

Erasures or interlineations in a deed, made 
by the grantee, subsequent to its execution 
and delivery, render it void ; and the rule now 
seems to be, that when erasures or interlinea- 
tions appear in a deed they are presumed to 
have been made after execution and dehvery, 
unless the contrary be proved. It is, there- 
fore, best when they are made before execu- 
tion to note that fact upon the instrument it- 
self before signing. 

It is deemed advisable in this country to 
have every man's title to real estate appear on 
record, and provision is made in the several 
States for the recording of deeds by the county 
clerk or other proper officer. An unrecorded 
deed is good as between the grantor and the 
grantee, but third persons may acquire an in- 
terest to the prejudice of the grantee. A 
grantee should, therefore, upon the delivery 
to him of a deed, have it recorded immediatel}\ 

The destruction of a deed after delivery, al- 
though unrecorded, will not revest the title in 
the grantor. To do this a reconveyance is 
necessary. 

An owner of lands should exercise caution 
in entering into a written agreement for a fu- 
ture sale of land, or any interest therein, and 
satisfy himself of the responsibility and good 
faith of the person with whom he deals, as 
otherwise he may find a cloud upon his title 
which may obstruct his selling to a third party, 
and cannot be removed without litigation. 

Delivery of personal property. — As be- 
tween vendor and vendee the property in 
the article sold passes to the vendee with- 
out delivery; but to give the vendee a 
title which will avail against third parties 
without notice, delivery is essential : as, if B 



326 



LAW 



buys A's horse and pays the purchase money, 
but leaves him in A's possession, who sells 
and delivers him to C, and receives the pur- 
chase money, if C has no notice of the prior 
sale to B he can retain the horse. So, if the 
vendee allow the article sold to remain in the 
possession of the vendor, it is liable to be 
taken by legal process for the vendor's debts. 
The general rule upon this subject is, that if 
the vendee of personal property suffer the 
vendor to remain in possession, this is evi- 
dence of fraud as against the creditors of the 
vendor or a bojia fide purchaser ; and, unless 
there be a sufficient excuse shown to and ap- 
proved by the court, that evidence is conclusive. 
In many States mortgages of personal prop- 
erty, or chattel mortgages as they are called, 
are authorized by statute. The mortgage 
must contain a* specific description of the prop- 
erty mortgaged, and be recorded in the same 
manner as deeds of real estate. Where such 
mortgages are allowed, and the provisions of 
law regulating them are complied with, the 
mortgage is good, although the mortgagor re- 
tains possession. In all other cases the mort- 
gagee should take possession, the rule being 
the same as in case of an absolute sale {See 
sale of pe7-soHal propej'iy.') 

Dower. (.5"^^ under Deed above.) 
Escro-w. (6"^^ under Z><r^^ above.) 
Grace. {See Promissory Note). 
Interest(for Money).— Interest, in the sense 
in which it is here considered, is the sum paid 
for the use of money or its equivalent. In most 
States the taking of more than a certain sum 
as interest is prohibited ; in which case the 
taking of a larger sum constitutes the offence 
of usury. The rate fixed by law is not uni- 
form throughout the United States. By re- 
cent legislation in some States, usury laws, so 
called, have been abolished, the parties being 
allowed to contract for any rate they choose. 
Owing to the diversity in the laws of the dif- 
ferent States relating to this subject only a 
few general considerations will be given here. 
To entitle a party to interest, it is not neces- 
sary in many cases that there should be an 
express contract to pay it. In general, the 
wrongful detention by one person of money 
due to another gives to the creditor a claim 
for interest ; as, if goods are sold on credit, 
the debtor in case of non-payment is liable for 
interest from the time the credit expired. A 
promissory note made without interest, pay- 
able at a specific time, bears interest from ma- 
turity. If payable on demand, it bears inter- 
est from the time demand was made. 

Compound interest, or interest upon inter- 
est, is in general not allowable. If a note was 
made payable five years after date, with inter- 
est annually, which the debtor should neglect 
to pa)', and, after the maturity of the note, a 
suit was brought for principal and interest, 
only simple interest could be recovered. The 
creditor might, however, have brought an ac- 
tion for each year's interest as it accrued, in 
which case, the measure of damages would 



doubtless be the unpaid instalment of interest 
and interest thereon from the time it became 
payable. But if unpaid instalments of inter- 
est are allowed to run until the principal is 
due, they become merged with it, and a sepa- 
rate suit cannot be maintained therefor. {See 
Tender below.) 

Legal Tender. (^See Tender below.) 

Limitations, Statute of. — It is a general 
rule that no action can be brought upon any 
account, debt, claim, negotiable note or con- 
tract not evidenced by a writing under seal, 
except within six years after the right of ac- 
tion shall accrue. The object of this rule is 
to prevent attempts to enforce doubtful or 
fraudulent claims after the evidence by which 
they could be defeated has been dissipated. 

The six years are to be counted from the 
time the creditor might have brought his ac- 
tion. If goods are sold on credit, the six 
years be^n from the time the credit expired. 
In case of a promissory note on time, when 
the note is due and payable. An acknowl- 
edgment or promise to pay the debt renews 
the liability of the debtor, and removes the 
protection of the statute. Formerly a verbal 
acknowledgment or promise was sufficient ; 
but about fifty years ago a statute was passed 
in England, requiring it to be in writing, and 
similar statutes have been enacted in most of 
the United States. In a few States, a verbal 
acknowledgment or promise is still sufficient. 
A part payment of the debt, or a payment of 
interest due upon it, also renews the liability 
of the debtor. This is upon the ground that 
the part payment of a debt is, in effect, an 
acknowledgment of the residue, and a prom- 
ise to pay it. If, therefore, at the time of 
payment the debtor denies any further liabil- 
it}', the protection of the statute is not re- 
moved. When a debt is renewed in either of 
the above modes, it is treated as giving a new 
cause of action to the creditor, and the six 
years begin to run again from the time of 
such renewal. 

The statute also prohibits the bringing of 
an action to recover possession of real estate 
after a certain time, usually twenty years, 
although a shorter period is prescribed in 
some states. 

Exception is made in favor of infants or 
persons under twenty-one years of age, mar- 
ried women, and other persons legally incapa- 
ble when the right of action accrues. As to 
them, the statute begins to run from the time 
the disability ceases. When the time has 
once begun to run, however, it is not sus- 
pended by a disability that arises afterwards. 

Payments, Appropriation of. — Where an 
indebtedness consists of several items accru- 
ing at different times, the debtor in making a 
partial payment may, at the time of making 
sucli payment, apply it as he sees fit. If the 
debtor niake no application the creditor has a 
right to do so. If neither makes a specific 
application by an express act, the law implies 
an application of the payment to the items in 



LAW 



327 



the order of their respective dates, commenc- 
ing with that which accrued first. The im- 
portance of these rules would be illustrated in 
a case where the creditor held two demands, 
one secured and the other not. It might 
become of considerable consequence to which 
demand a payment was appropriated. 

Mortgage. — The rules vary too much in dif- 
ferent States to make good advice practicable 
here. {See, however, Delivery and Pay- 
menis.) 

Outla-rory of Claims. (^See Limitations, 
Statute of, above.) 

Release. — A release is a written instrument, 
by which a right of the maker to sue another 
person is discharged, or by which such other 
person is released from some obligation or 
duty with respect to the maker. The fol- 
lowing is the ordinary form of a general re- 
lease : — 

" Know all men by these Presents : 

"That I, John Doe, of the city, county and 
"state of New York, in consideration of one 
"hundred (loo) dollars to me paid by Richard 
" Roe, of said city of New York, do, for my- 
"self, my heirs, executors and administrators, 
"remise, release and forever discharge the 
" said Richard Roe, his heirs, executors and 
"administrators, of and from all actions, 
"debts, contracts, agreements and demands 
"whatsoever, which against the said Richard 
" Roe I ever had, now have, or which I, my 
" executors or administrators, hereafter can or 
" shall have, by reason of any matter, cause or 
" thing whatsoever, from any time hitherto to 
" the day of the date hereof. 

" In witness whereof, I have hereunto set 
"my hand and seal, this first day of May, 
"A. D. 1876. 

John Doe, [l. s.] " 

A release will be set aside when its execu- 
tion Avas procured by fraud, or it was the re- 
sult of accident or mistake. 

Sale of Personal Property. — A sale is de- 
fined by Chancellor Kent to be "a contract for 
the transfer of property from one person to 
another for a valuable consideration ; and 
three things are requisite to its validity, viz.: 
the thing sold, which is the object of the con- 
tract, the price, and the consent of the con- 
tracting parties." The seller is termed the 
vendor, and the purchaser the vendee. 

If an article is exchanged for another the 
transaction is called a barter. If an article 
is voluntarily given to another without con- 
sideration, it is a gift. 

Unless a contrary intention appears, it is 
presumed that a sale is to be completed at 
once — the article delivered and the price paid. 
The parties may, however, agree for a future 
delivery or a future payment. 

The seventeenth section of the Statute of 
Frauds, so called, passed in the twenty-ninth 
year of Charles II., provides, that "no contract 
" for the sale of any goods, wares and merchan- 
"dize for the price of ^10 sterling or upwards, 



" shall be allowed to be good except the buyer 
" shall accept part of the goods so sold, and'ac- 
"tually receive the same, or give something in 
" earnest to bind the bargain, or in part payment, 
"or that some note or memorandum in writing 
" of the said bargain be made and signed by 
" the parties to be charged by such contract, or 
"their agents thereunto lawfully authorized." 
This section, with some variation as to the 
amount, has been generally reenacted in this 
country. It is, therefore, essential to a valid 
contract for the sale of goods for the price of 
fifty dollars or more (the limit in New York) 
that- 
First. There should be some note or mem- 
orandum of the contract made in writing, 
signed by the parties to be charged thereby, 
or their agents ; or — , 

Second. That the buyer shall accept and 
actually receive part of the goods ; or — 

Third. That the buyer shall give something 
in earnest to bind the bargain, or pay some 
part of the purchase money. 

If the thing sold is not in existence at the 
time the contract is entered into, the sale is 
wholly void ; as, if the furniture in a house is 
sold, and unknown to either party, it had been 
destroyed by fire. An article which a man 
has not in his possession but which he ex- 
pects to obtain, as b)^ pur.^hasing in the mar- 
ket, cannot be the object of a present sale, al- 
though it may be the basis of a contract for a 
future sale. 

No one can sell that to which he has him- 
self no title. As if the article be stolen, the 
original owner may reclaim it, although tlie 
purchaser paid the thief full value, and had no 
knowledge of the circumstances under which 
the article was obtained. A good title may, 
however, be obtained to money, and also 
notes, checks and bills of exchange payable to 
bearer, which have been stolen, by an inno- 
cent third person who takes them bona fide, 
without knowledge that they have been stolen, 
and in the usual course of business. {See 
Caveat Emptor and Delivery.^ 
Sale of real property. [See Deed. ) 
Tender. — If a creditor for any reason re- 
fuses to receive the amount justly due him 
from his debtor, the latter may, at any time be- 
fore suit is brought, make a tender of the sum 
due, and thereby stop interest and entitle him- 
self to costs if a suit is subsequently brought. 
The tender should be of the exact sum due at 
the time, and no condition or qualification 
must be insisted upon to which the creditor 
can reasonably object. 

A tender is vitiated by a demand for a re- 
ceipt mfull, and it is doubtful whether the 
debtor is entitled to demand a receipt for the 
sum tendered. 

A tender should be made in lawful money. 
No foreign gold or silver coins are a legal 
tender in the United States. 

The gold coins of the United States are a 
tender in all payments at their nominal value, 
when not below the standard weight, etc. If 



328 



LAW 



reduced below such standard, they are a legal 
tender at a valuation in proportion to their ac- 
tual weight. 

By the Act of Congress of Feb. 12, 1873, 
the silver coins of the United States were 
made a legal tender at their nominal value for 
any amount not exceeding five dollars in any 
one payment. This limit has recently been 
increased, and several bills are now pending 
before Congress relating to the subject. 

The minor coins of the United States are a 
legal tender at their nominal value for any 
amount not exceeding twenty-five cents in any 
one payment. 

United States notes (greenbacks) are a legal 
tender in payment of all debts, pubhc and pri- 
vate, except duties on imports and interest on 
the public debt. 

A tender made in other than lawful money 
is not thereby vitiated, if the creditor object 
to it only upon some other ground, as that the 
sum tendered is not sufficient. 

Where several distinct debts are due from 
the debtor, as upon several promissory notes, 
a tender may be made of the amount due upon 
one. 

While the exact sum due should be tender- 
ed, the offer of a larger sum will make a goo& 
tender unless coupled with a demand for 
change ; in which case, if objected to upon that 
ground, the tender will be vitiated. If, how- 
ever, the creditor object only upon some other 
ground, as that the amount is not sufficient, 
the demand for change does not vitiate. 

To constitute a valid tender, the money must 
be actually produced and offered, unless there 
he an express or implied waiver thereof by 
the creditor. 

As before stated, the object of a tender is 
to stop interest or damages and give the 
debtor a claim for costs in case a suit is after- 
wards brought. It follows, that it is not a dis- 
charge of the indebtedness, but rather an 
admission of it. It is, therefore, the duty of 
the debtor to be in readiness to pay the sum 
tendered upon demand, although it was refused 
by the creditor when first offered. 

A tender should be made in the presence of 
witnesses, and it is well to make a memoran- 
dum of the circumstances attending it. 

Warranty. (See Caveat Emptor above, and 
Endorscmcjit, under Promissory Note.) 

Will. — A will, or testament, as it is some- 
times called, is a declaration of a man's in- 
tention with regard to the disposition of his 
property after his death. The person making 
the will is called the testator, and those taking 
under it legatees or devisees. 

A nuncupative will is a verbal declaration of 
a man's intentions with regard to the dispo- 
sition of his property, made before witnesses. 
In many States, wills of this kind have been 
abolished altogether, and in others they are 
only good under peculiar circumstances, as in 
case of soldiers and sailors. 

The making of a will is an important event 
and the best legal assistance at command, 



should always be secured. Wills unskilfully 
made are often the source of protracted litiga^ 
tion, and become a curse rather than a blessing 
to those whom the testator intended to serve. 

To take effect, wills must be executed with 
the formalities required by law : and in this re- 
gard the laws of the several States are not 
uniform, some States require three witnesses, 
others only two, etc. 

To show the necessity of attending to all 
the formalities required by law, it may be 
stated, that if a testator after the execution of 
his will adds another provision by an inter- 
lineation in his own handwriting, it has no 
effect whatever, unless made with the same 
formalities required for the will itself. 

Any person of sound mind, not under 
twenty-one years of age, nor a married woman, 
is competent to make a will devising both real 
and personal estate. As to the capacity of 
persons under twenty-one years of age, and 
married women in this regard, the laws of the 
several States are not uniform. 

A will takes effect at the death of the tes- 
tator, and may be revoked by him at pleasure 
during his life. A subsequent will is a revo- 
cation of a prior one, if it is so expressed, or 
if a different disposition is made of the prop- 
erty. The burning, cancelling, tearing or ob- 
literating a will by the testator, or by another 
person in his presence and by his direction, 
will also operate as a revocation. It is also 
a general rule, that marriage and the birth of 
a child subsequent to the execution of a will, 
when no provision is made for such contin- 
gency, operates as a revocation. If a single 
woman makes a will and then marries, the will 
is thereby revoked. 

No person who is to take a beneficial inter- 
est under a will should be a subscribing witness, 
nor is it prudent for such a person to draft it. 

While we advise strongly the obtaining of the 
best professional assistance in all cases where 
it is possible, nevertheless emergencies may 
arise where help cannot be had. For such 
cases, and such cases only, the following sug- 
gestions are given : Write out in clear and 
simple language the exact disposition of prop- 
erty desired. Call in three substantial and judi- 
cious persons, and let the testator sign and 
seal the will in their presence, telling them 
that it is his last will and testament, and re- 
questing them to act as witnesses. Then let 
the witnesses, in the presence of the testator, 
and in the presence of each other, each sign 
the following form, which should be written 
underneath the signature of the testator, and 
on the same sheet of paper : — 

" Signed, sealed, published and declared by 
" the testator as and for his last will and testa- 
" ment in our presence, who at his request, 
"and in his presence, and in the presence of 
" each other, have hereunto subscribed our 
" names as witnesses." 

Following their names, the witnesses should 
write their places of residence. It is believed 
that a will executed in the above described 



LAWN 



LEEK 



329 



manner would take effect in nearly if not quite 
all the States. 

LAWN. — A linen fabric, thinner and more 
transparent than ordinary linen and resembling 
cambric. The thread for it is made as round 
as possible, and is not pressed so much as for 
calicoes. The finest lawn is of French manu- 
facture. The Irish is next to the French, and 
there are also Scotch and American lawns. 
Lawn has the advantage that it will take and 
hold very delicate colors and shades of colors. 
It comes in pieces a yard wide, and should be 
shrunk before cutting. 

LAXATIVES. — Remedies which gently 
open the bowels, so that they are inclined to 
be loose, but no more. It is highly desirable 
that in all cases the medicines of the least 
power in this respect should be first employed 
when it is necessary to open the bowels artifi- 
cially, and more powerful purgatives used only 
when these have failed. Sometimes, if the 
food has been too concentrated, that is, if there 
has not been a fair amount of indigestible mat- 
ter in it, the bowels are apt to become con- 
fined ; in such cases, the use of brown bread in- 
stead of white bread will often suffice. Figs 
and prunes especially are excellent laxatives. 
Manna, tamarinds, and cassia are still better. 
But the most convenient for use are castor- 
oil, flour of sulphur, and magnesia, or its car- 
bonate. 

LEAD. — Lead is not a proper metal to be 
used in any vessel for receiving food, it is so 
readily acted on by the vegetable and miner 
ral acids, and the salts thus produced are 
highly prejudicial to health, and even fatal 
to life itself. Water-tanks should never be 
lined with lead, nor should the gutters of 
houses from which the rain-water is used be 
made of it. Water that has been standing m 
the pipes should not be used until the pipes 
have been some time in use. 

LEAK (In lead pipe). — If you cannot turn 
off the water and cannot wait for the plumber, 
put some flat metal object, such as an axe 
or hatchet blade behind the pipe, and hammer 
the pipe flat against it. This, of course, can be 
done at any place between the source and the 
leak, and does not necessitate waiting to tear 
away any impediment that may surround the 
leak or working in an inconvenient place. If 
the leak is up stairs at a part where the water 
stops running when water is turned on down 
stairs simply turn the water on at some faucet 
down stairs till the plumber comes. {See 
Drainage and Water.) 
LEAVEN. {See Yeast.) 
LEDUM. — A species of low-growing ever- 
greens, making very pretty miniature plants for 
garden culture. They are perfectly hardy, and 
require no attention after starting, further than 
digging round the roots in the Spring and work- 
ing in a few spadefuls of manure. In planting, 
dig a hole about two feet in diameter, fill in 
with loam, and set the plant carefully in the 
centre, treading the soil closely around it so 
that it may be firmly established. The ledum 



blooms in June, throwing out a multitude of 
small white flowers. 

The varieties are: L. Auguslifoltum, luxi- 
folium^ intermeditun, latifoliurn, plaustre, 
procutnbens, and thyinofolui7n, 

LEECHES (How to use.)— Very often it 
is found almost impossible to get leeches to 
bite ; they will either refuse to bite at all, or 
will fasten anywhere but on the desired spot. 
This is because they are not managed rightly. 
A leech partakes, to some extent, of the nature 
of a fish — that is, it lives in water, — and there- 
fore, instead of holding them in a warm hand 
or a dry towel, act in this way : First, wash 
the place perfectly clean, then put the leeches 
into a wine-glass and fill it with water ; put a 
piece of paper over it, turn the glass upside 
down on the place where you want them to fix, 
and draw the paper away ; the leeches being 
now in their native element, will settle instantly, 
thereby saving a great amount of vexation and 
loss of time. As soon as they have taken 
hold, place a towel round the glass to soak up 
the water, and remove it. In this way you get 
them exactly where you wish, either all on one 
spot or distributed over a larger space, by put- 
ting on only one or two at a time. If you re- 
quire one on a very particular spot, for in- 
stance, close to the eye, and have not a proper 
leech-glass, put its tail first into a small, narrow 
phial filled with water. Where they have to 
be used inside the mouth, nostrils, etc., it is 
better to pass a needleful of thread through 
the tail to hold by. It will not prevent them 
biting. If one should be swallowed, drink a 
little salt and water, which is poisonous to 
them. 

Leeches are always expensive, but with a 
little care they need not be destroyed. When 
they come oft do not dip them into salt; put 
them into a large jar of water, with an inch or 
two of turf or garden soil ; change the water 
every day for the first week, then once a week 
will be sufficient ; in this way they will clear 
themselves and recover. Any dead ones must 
be removed, or they will spoil the water and 
destroy the others. 

LEEK. — This is a common plant of the onion 
tribe ; it is sometimes called flag-onion, from 
the large, flag-like leaves which it throws up 
from its small, fine roots. Leeks are cultivated 
in all respects like the onion, and have the ad- 
vantage that they stand the severest winter. 
In the markets they are generally found tied in 
bunches, or one or two tied up with a small 
bunch of parsley, being a quantity sufficient 
for a soup or stew. The whole plant is used 
in soups and stews. Notwithstanding its un- 
pleasant odor, it is very wholesome, but re- 
quires to be well boiled, that it may not taint 
the breath. The young leeks appear in Au- 
gust, and can be found throughout the winter. 

Boiled Leeks. — Trim off the coarse leaves 
from some young leeks, cut them into equal 
lengths, tie them up in small bunches, and boil 
them twenty to twenty-five minutes in plenty of 
water which has been previously salted and 



330 



LEG 



LETTUCE 



skimmed. Serve them on toast, and send 
melted butter to table with them. 

LEG (Broken.) {See Fractures.) 

LEMON. — The lemon is the most useful of 
all the foreign fruits. It is scarcely an article 
of mere luxury, but is almost essential for culi- 
nary and many other purposes. The juice 
consists chiefly of citric acid, which, besides 
its agreeable flavor, is particularly cooling and 
grateful. It is also a powerful antiscorbutic, 
and is frequently administered as a medicine. 
The outward rind or peel of the lemon con- 
tains a highly odoriferous essential oil, and on 
that account is a valuable and agreeable stom- 
achic, and is used for flavoring a variety of 
dishes ; it is warm, aromatic, and slightly bitter ; 
it is also made into an excellent sweetmeat 
when cleaned of the pulp and preserved with 
sugar, well known by the name of candied 
le7)ion-peel. Lemons can almost always be ob- 
tained. Fresh ones arrive from the West In- 
dies in the Winter and from the Mediterranean 
in the Spring. The best are those with thin 
rinds and rather small. 

LEMONADE.— r^/^^ .--Sugar (granulated) 
Yi lb ; lemon juice, (free from seeds) i gill ; 
water, i qt. 

Grate the rind of two lemons, and leave it 
in the water for an hour or two ; or, if wanted 
immediately steep it in a little of the water ; in 
either case strain the water before using it. 
Mix the three ingredients ; add a large piece of 
ice and serve. The lemons should be well rolled 
before squeezing and the peel not put in un- 
less the lemonade is to be drunk immediately. 

Concentrated Lemonade. — Take : - Es- 
sence of lemon, i drachm; citric acid, i^ oz; 
loaf sugar, ly^ lbs ; water, i pt. 

To make the syrup, put the sugar into the 
water when cold, and let it boil gradually ; then 
pour it hot on the acids. Keep this in bottles. 
To make the beverage, put a tablespoonful of 
the syrup into a tumbler of water. 

Milk Lemonade. — Dissolve six ounces of 
loaf sugar in a pint of boiling water, and mix 
with them a gill of lemon-juice and the same 
quantity of sherry ; then add three gills of cold 
milk, stir the whole well together, and pass it 
through a jelly-bag'till clear. This is delicious. 

Portable Lemonade. — Rasp, with a quarter 
of a pound of sugar, the rind of a fine, juicy 
lemon, reduce it to powder, and pour on it the 
strained juice of the fruit. Press the mixture 
into a jar, and, when wanted for use, dissolve 
a tablespoonful of it in a glass of water. It 
will keep a considerable time. If too sweet, 
a very small portion of citric acid may be 
added when it is taken. 

LEMONS, Salt of. — This is an old-fashioned 
preparation, used for taking iron-mould out of 
linen ; and in the printed directions sold with 
it, it is recommended for flavoring punch and 
apple puddings instead of lemon-Juice. Now, 
this so-called salt of lemons is not prepared 
from lemons at all — it is composed of cream of 
tartar and oxalic acid, or salt of sorrel. Both 
the latter are poisonous and the quantity of 



salt of lemons recommended to flavor half a 
pint of punch or an apple pudding may produce 
serious effects. JVever \.\?,q. it for flavoring any- 
thing that is to pass into the stomach. 

LEMON VERBENA.— A half-hardy shrub, 
brought originally from Chili. It is desirable 
chiefly from the delicious fragrance of its 
leaves. The flowers are small, whitish, and of 
little beauty. As a Winter plant it is of no 
value, as it needs a season of rest, which 
must be given in a cellar free from frost. 
The best treatment is to plant it out in the 
open garden in the Spring, where it will attain 
a vigorous growth. In the fall, before the first 
frost, remove the plant, with a ball of earth at- 
tached to the roots, to the cellar. When Spring 
comes, trim the plant into a neat shape and re- 
plant it. If grown in pots, the proper soil is 
two parts loam, two parts leaf-mould, with a 
little sand mixed in. Give plenty of water 
while the plants are growing, but withhold it 
entirely during the Winter. 

The lemon Verbena is often called the Aloy- 
sia, and the only species is A. citriodora. 

LETTUCE. — Lettuce may be considered as 
a cooling Summer vegetable, and useful rather 
as correcting and diluting animal food than as 
containing much nutriment itself. There are 
two principal varieties : the Cabbage and the Cos 
lettuce. The first comes earliest in the season ; 
the leaves are roundish and the head flat and 
close to the ground. The Cos lettuce is more 
upright, and the head is of an oblong form. 
When very young, the cabbage lettuce is pre- 
ferred, but when mature the Cos has the finer 
flavor, and is much employed for salads. The 
cabbage lettuces (such as Tennis Ball, and 
Black-seeded Butter) are always the best to the 
time of running to seed. The only advantage 
of the Cos is that it stands heat better and is 
slower in running to seed. 

The Boston Tennis Ball, and the Black- 
seeded Butterzx^ the best varieties at all seasons 
save in Summer. 'Y\it Early Curled Simpson 
is good for Spring and early Summer use. The 
Large Curled Indian is better for later use ; it 
does not run to seed so quickly as other kinds, 
and bears the sun better. The Green Paris 
Cos is one of the best of the ordinary Cos 
varieties. The hard lettuce raised in the open 
air generally appears in the market in May, but 
is most abundant in June and July and con- 
tinues throughout the year, being very largely 
raised under glass throughout the Winter and 
early Spring. 

In Salad. — Lettuce for salad should be 
handled very carefully, in order not to wilt the 
leaves while cleaning it. When the head of 
the lettuce is hard, it is not necessary to wash 
it at all, as when the outer leaves are taken off, 
the rest is perfectly clean. Never use the 
knife, but break the leaves ; put them into a 
salad-dish, and keep them fresh with water un- 
til the time comes to eat them. Then season 
with salt, pepper, vinegar, and oil (mustard 
may be added if liked), in proportions to suit 
the taste. The salad may be decorated when 



LEUCORRHCEA 



LIBRARY 



331 



it is put on the table with the blossoms and 
petals of the rose (any kind), pink, sage, nas- 
turtium, periwinkle, lady's slipper, marsh-mal- 
low, or wild, chicory ; these are not removed, 
but are cut up and eaten with the lettuce. In 
a regular dinner, lettuce should be served im- 
mediately after the roast. 

Stewed Lettuce. — Strip off the outer leaves 
and cut away its stalks ; wash the remaining 
leaves very carefully, and throw them into water 
with a little salt in it. Boil them twenty to 
thirty minutes, or until quite tender, then lift 
them out and press the water thoroughly from 
them ; chop them a little, and heat them 
in a clean sauce-pan with a seasoning of 
pepper and salt, and a small slice of but- 
ter ; then add a little flour and stir them 
well ; add next about a teacupful of broth or 
gravy, boil them quickly until they are tolerably 
dry, and stir in a httle pale vinegar or lemon 
juice. Serve as hot as possible. 

LEUCORRHCEA. [See Whites, under 
Menstruation.] 

LEVERET. (See Rabbit.) 

LEBRARY. — Every home should contain a 
collection of books, however small; and they 
should be accumulated on some definite plan, 
however limited. The privilege of using a 
public library is generally valuable ; but some 
books must be owned, and be constantly with- 
in reach, or no real satisfaction can be had 
from them. Of this character are cyclopae- 
dias, histories, standard poets, and discursive 
essays. Ordinary novels, satires, and other 
ephemeral books may be drawn from the cir- 
culating library, finished up in an evening or 
two, and returned. 

There are innumerable families who never 
dream of buying any book but school-books 
and Christmas gifts. Every one who can af- 
ford anything at all beyond the necessaries of 
life should set aside a definite yearly sum for 
books, and should form the habit of frequently 
dropping into a book-store to see what there 
may be that would interest him. An excellent 
way to cultivate a habit of reading in a child is 
to give him, for his own, every book of your 
selection which he will read through. And 
living among good books at home is as im- 
portant as going to school. 

We disclaim any intention, in this article, of 
instructing learned or " bookish " people; but 
we hope to throw out a few hints which will 
be valuable to the vast number who may wel- 
come guidance regarding what to read. 

Any one who can look forward to spending 
within a year or two over, say, $150 in books, 
will find it well to consult " Putnam's Best 
Reading" (15th edition). It contains much 
valuable information, though there is room for 
dissent from some of its critical estimates. 

In the matter of subscription books, some 
people buy any one that is brought to the door, 
if the agent is persistent enough ; others refuse 
utterly to look at one. As Andrew Fairservice 
said of the Campbells, " There's baith gude and 
bad " o* subscription books, like other books. 



Examine the subscription book, and test it, as 
you would any other article ; even tell the 
agent to call again, and meantime seek advice. 
Never buy a book solely because of a great name 
on the title-page. One or two of our most 
famous authors have of late sold their names 
to books which they did not write, and which 
they should be ashamed of if they had written. 
It is a common trick in subscription books to 
spread out the matter by means of large type, 
wide spaces between the lines, and thick, pulpy 
paper ; so that you pay four or five dollars for 
w^hat should have been put into a dollar-and- 
a-half book. 

Always get good paper and print if you can; 
the latter is economical because it saves the eyes, 
and both will make the book worth re-binding 
some day. But so long as you are obliged to 
refrain from buying any book that you would 
like, never indulge in expensive bindings. 
Dictionaries and cyclopaedias should have 
strong leather bindings ; but for all other books 
the ordinary cloth is good enough. Do not 
bind up sets of magazines. The binding of 
each volume would pay for a new book; any 
valuable series of articles is pretty sure to be 
collected in a volume by itself; and not one in 
a hundred of those who imagine they will re- 
read their monthlies ever does so. Send your 
old magazines to the hospitals and the mission- 
aries, and save the shelf-room and the binding 
price for fresher books. 

The bottom book in every library must be a 
dictionary. But it is by no means necessary to 
get an unabridged ; the octavo size will answer 
every ordinary purpose, and being easier to 
handle will be consulted much oftener. Yet 
the quarto editions have, in addition to the 
dictionary proper, much matter which tends 
to obviate the need of other books of reference. 
There is now no important difference between 
Webster and Worcester. 

An American who can have but one cyclo- 
paedia should buy one prepared in America. 
The chief of these is the American (16 vols., 
$80). Johnson's ranks next (4 vols., $43) ; and 
there will soon be a smaller one, confined to 
the requirements of the average reader, and 
omitting the things which scholars alone can 
understand, issued by Henry Holt & Co., for 
$10. A cyclopaedia is equivalent to a large 
number of books of reference. 

Next get an atlas. One of the better sort 
of school atlases answers all general purposes. 

Then a history of your native land. There is 
but one short history of the United States, for 
grown folks, that has the approval of scholars. 
This is Doyle's ($1.40), edited by Freeman, the 
English historian. Of the longer histories, the 
choice is between Bancroft (new ed., 6 vols., 
$13.50) and Bryant's, still (1877) incomplete. 
For an outline of the world's history. Freeman's 
General Sketch ($1.50) is incomparably the 
best. Green's Short History of the English Peo- 
ple ($1.75) 's not only the best short book on the 
subject, but one of the best books ever written 
on any subject. Bryce's Holy Roman Empire 



332 



LIBRARY 



($3), a work of the very first excellence, is 
virtually a general history of Europe from the 
beginning of the Christian era. 

For an analysis and summary of the litera- 
ture of our native tongue Taine's is confessedly 
the best (3 vols., $7.50; abridged, $2.50). 

Very early in your collection should come a 
popular physiology: Dalton's ($1.50), Huxley 
and Youmans's ($1.75), Flint's ($6) ; a natu- 
ral history : Hooker's ($1.50), Wood's abridged 
($1.50), Milner's ($8) ; and a botany: Gray's 
($1.30 to $3.50), Koehler's ($3). 

Every house where English is spoken should 
contain a Shakespeare (50 cts. to $5,000). Add 
to this, Dana's Household Book of Poetry, 
($3 to $6). 

Let us recapitulate : 



English Litera- 
ture i^-SO to $7.50 



Physiology .. .. 
Natural History. 

Botany 

Shakespeare 

Household Book 
of Poetry 


1.50 • 
1.50 ' 
1.30 * 
.50 ' 

3.00 ' 


' 6.00 
' 2.00 

' 3-5° 
• 30.00 

' 6.00 



Dictionary $500 to |i2.oo 

Cyclopaedia. ... 10.00 " 80.00 

Atlas 1.50 " 25.00 

U. S. History. . . 1.40 " 20.00 

General History, 1.50 " 1.50 

English History, 1.75 " 1.75 
Holy Roman 

Empire 3.00 " 3.00 

134-45 $198-25 

Here we have the essentials of a library at 
a price varying from a little over $30 to about 
$200. 

We now proceed to books the choice of 
which will be determined by individual tastes; 
and for the use of the reader who wishes to ex- 
pand his library we add lists of the best books 
in various departments. Regarding prices, 
please observe what is said in the " Hints " in- 
troductory to this volume. Standard works 
of fiction and poetry exist in so many editions 
that we have not attempted to give their prices_ 

Reference. 

Men of the Time, $6. Smith, Dict'y of Antiquities, ^2.50. 
Cruden, Concordance to Bible, ^1.50 to $2.75. Smith, Dict'y 
of Bible, $4. Goodholme, Domestic Cyclopaedia, $5. Gasc, 
French Dict'y, $1.50 and $4. Whitney, German Dict'y, $2.50. 
Dodd, Dict'y of Manufactures, Mining, and Mechanics, $2. 
Ure, Dict'y of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, $15. Bartlett, 
Familiar Quotations, $3. Schem, Statistics of the World, 50 cts. 
General Literature. 

Botia, Handbook of Universal Literature. Taine, English 
Literature, condensed, $2.50; 3 vols., $7.50. JF/i/V^, Classical 
Literature, $2.50. Gostzuick and Harrison, German Lit- 
erature, $2.50. Van Latin, French Literature, $7.50. Tick- 
nor, Spanish Literature, $10. 

Religion and Philosophy. 

Robertson, Sermons, $2. Hardwick, Christ and other 
Masters, $3. Gazelle, Outlines of Evolution Philosophy, $2. 
Wright, Philosophical Discussions, S3. 50. Fiske, Cosmic 
Philosophy, $6. Lexues, History of Philosophy (English ed.) 
Bain, Mind and Body, $1.50. Spencer, Synthetic Philosophy, 
6 vols., $15. Leckey, History of Rationalism, $4. Farrar, 
History of Free Thought (orthodox), $2. 

History and Politics. 

Ancient — Herodotus (Rawlinson's), $10 ; Bohn's ed., $1.75. 
Smith, Student's Anc. Hist., 582. Greece — Grote, $18 ; Cox, 
$2.50; Smith's Student's, $2. Rome — Mommsen, %^ ; Gibbon, 
$6 (Student's ed., $2) ; Arnold, $3. Middle Ages — Hallam, 
$5.25 (condensed, $2.50). England — Hume, $7.50 (Student's 
ed., $2). Froude, f 15. Macaulay, §3 to $16. Hume, Froude, 
and Macaulay connect with each other. For a short history, 
get Green's, or Freeman's Thompson, gi. Germany — Siine, 
$1, also in Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, $3. Bayard Taylor, 
$1. Freetnan's, Ji. France — Gtiizot (now publishing). 
Smith, Student's, $2. [Freeman's Historical Course, by vari- 
ous authors, edited by the great historian, is an excellent 
collection of manuals, at low prices. It now (March, 1877) in- 
cludes the editor's General Sketch, and histories of the United 
States, England, Scotland, Germany, and Italy.] Politics — 
Mul/ord, The Nation, S3. De Tocquevile, Democracy in Amer- 
ica, $5. Mill, On Liberty, $2. 50; Political Economy, $2.50 to $4. 
Art. 

Taine, Lectures, 8s ; Italy, $5. Clement, Handbook, $3.25; 



Legendary Art, S3. 25. Blanc, Grammar of Painting, $6.50. 
Kugler, Hand-book of Painting, 4 vols., $21. Mrs. yameson's 
works, S'5 to S42- Ruskin, Modern Painters, $18 to $60; 
Lectures, S'So. 

Travels, Geography, etc. 

Africa — Jones's Summary, $5- Alps — Whymper's Scram- 
bles, $2.50. Arabia — Palgrave, $2.50. Arctic Regions — Hayes, 
Kane, Markham. Asia — Pumpelly' s Across America and Asia, 
S2.50. Toy/or'j India, China, and Japan, Si. 50. Brazil — Agas- 
siz, S5. Bates, $2.50. Orton, S3. California — Nordhoff, S2.S0. 
Canada — Thoreau, $2. China — Williams's Middle Kingdom, 
S4. Taylor, as above. Egypt, Arabia, and the Holy Land — 
Stephens, %■},. Prime, %i. Cwr^zV, Nile Notes, Si-so. The Sea — 
Dana, Two Years before the Mast, $1.50. India — Murray, 
$2.25. liaXy^Hoivells , $2. Taitte, Ss- Japan — Pumpelly, as 
above. Norway — Z'?<^i?^/"«, Yacht Voyage, $1.50. Russia — 
Wallace, %^. Scandinavia — Taylor, Northern Travel, $1.50. 
Siam— J V«r^«/, Land of the White Elephant, S3. 50. Siberia 
— Pumpelly, S2.50. Kennan, Tent Life, $2. Spain — Hare's 
Wanderings, $3- Sweden — Anderson, Si-75- Switzerland — 
Jones, Si. 75. Turkey — Gautier, $2. West Indies — Kingsley, 
Si. so. 

Science. 

Astronomy — Newcomb (in press). Mitchell, Si-75- Biol- 
ogy — Spencer, S5. Botany — Gray, Si. 30 or S3S0. Koehler, 
S3. Chemistry — Cooke, Chemical Philosophy, $2.50. John- 
ston, Chemistry of Common Life, S3- Cosmology — Hteckel, 
Ss. Geography — Johnston, Dict'y, S12. Steinwehr's School 
Series. Geology — Dana's Books, Si-5o to $5- Health — Fotk- 
ergiirs Maintenance of, S2. Jacobi, Infant Diet. 7s c. 
Mineralogy — Dana's Manual, S2. Natural History — Milner, 
The Gallery of Nature, S8. Wood's ahriA^^A, $1.50. Physics 
— Ganot, ed. by Peck, Si-75- Physical Geography — Marsh, 
Man and Nature, $3- VhysioXogy—Dalton's, abridged, Si-50- 
Flint's, S6. Psychology — Spencer, Ss. Bain, Mind and Body, 
Si. so. Spectroscopy — Lockyer, $1.25. Zoology — Packard (in 
press). Agassiz and Gould, Ji-So. Tenney, $2. 
Fiction. 

If your means are limited, do not think that j'ou must get 
complete sets of books. Buy only masterpieces. Owning 
and being familiar with these, you can afford to gallop through 
most of the authors' others with copies from the circulat- 
ing library. For light reading in variety, and to afford 
a wide choice of selections for reading to a company, get 
Knight's Half Hours with the Best Authors (4 or 6 vols.), or 
Little Classics (8 or 16 vols.) The latter includes 3 vols, of 
poetry. We give the names, in Italic type, of very good 
writers first, and then of other good ones, with here and there 
the name of a representative work in ordinary type. 

Scott, Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, Kenilworth. Cooper, Last of the 
Mohicans, Pioneer, Spy. Dickens, David Copperfield, Pick- 
wick, Our Mutual Friend. Thackeray, Pendennis, Vanity 
Fair, Henry Esmond. Buhuer, Last Days of Pompeii, Rienzi, 
What will He do with It? George Eliot, Adam Bede, Silas 
Marner, Daniel Deronda. Hawthorne, Scarlet Letter, 
Marble Faun, Twice-told Tales. Irving, Knickerbocker, 
Sketch Book. Goldsinith, Vicar of Wakefield. Auerbach, 
On the Heights, Village Stories. 

About, Miss Aguilar, Miss Alcoti, Mrs. Alexander, Ander- 
sen, Improvisatore, Arabian Nights, Miss Austen, Black, 
Princess of Thule. Blackmore, l^or'na.T>oonc. Miss Bronte, 
Jane Eyre. Bunyan, Pilgrim's Progress. Cervantes, Don 
Quixote. Cherbuliez, Count Kostia. Mrs. Charles, Schpen- 
berg Cotta Family. Miss Roberts, Noblesse Oblige. Wilkie 
Collins, Woman in White. Mrs. Craik, John Halifax. Cur- 
tis, Potiphar Papers. De Foe, Robinson Crusoe. Disraeli, 
Coningsby, Lothair. Droz, Around a Spring. Dumas, Miss 
Edgeivorth, Mrs. Edwards, Erckmann-Chatrian, Feuillet, 
Fielding, Fouque, Undine, Sintram, Aslauga's Knight. Mrs. 
Gaskell, Goethe, Wilhelm Meister. Hardy, Far from the Mad- 
ding Crowd. Bret Harte, Hozvclls, Foregone Conclusion. 
Hughes, Tom Brown. Hugo, Les Miserables. H. James, 
Jaw., The American. i1/rj. 7<^h/?.-/«, Who Breaks— Pays. Miss 
Kavanagh, Kennedy, Horse-Shoe Robinson. Kitnball, 
Kingsley, Hypatia. Lawrence, Le Sage, Gil Bias. Lez'er, 
MacDonald, Miss Manning, Mary Powell. Marlitt, Mar- 
ryat. Midshipman Easy. Mayo, Kaloolah. Mitchell, Rev- 
eries of a Bachelor. Miss Mit/ord, Our Village. Mrs. Oli- 
phant. Chronicles of Carlingford, 6 vols. Mrs. Parr, Roe, 
Miss Porter, Scottish Chiefs. Miss Poynter, My Little Lady. 
Charles Reade, Peg Woffington, White Lies. Renter, In the 
Year 13. Richardson, Clarissa Harlowe, condensed. Rich- 
tcr. Titan. Robinson. Ruffini, Dr. Antonio. George Sand, 
Miss Servell. Miss Sheppard, Charles Auchester. Simms, 
Smedley, Frank Fairleigh. Smollett, Humphry Clinker. Mrs. 
Sfrofford, Amber Gods. Mme. de Stael, Corinne. Sterne, 
Tristram Shandy, jl/rj. 5?(nw, ^a^". Mysteries of Paris. Taut- 
phoeus. Bayard Taylor. Anthony Trollope, Turgenieff, Jules 
Verne, Wal/ord, Mr. Smith. Ware, Zenobia. Misses War- 
ner, Qeechy. Warren, Ten Thousand a Year. Mrs. • 
Whitney, Miss Yonge. 

Poetry. 
The standard poets are issued in numerous editions. One 



LICHENS 



LIGHTNING 



333 



of the most compact is Appletons' Works of the British 
Poets, revised ed., brought down to date (3 vols., 8vo, '^15). 
The best collections of short poems, both British and Ameri- 
can, are Dana's Household Book of Poetry, Bryant's Li- 
brary of Poetry and Song (new ed.), Kendrick's Poetical 
Favorites, Beeton's Great Book of Poetry, Whittier's Three 
Centuries of Song, and Saunders's Sacred Poefs. 

The poets most desirable to have in separate volumes are 
the following : British — Shakespeare, Byron, Burns, Tennyson, 
Shelley, Moore, Mrs. Browning, Robert Browning (any vol- 
ume except Sordello), Wordsworth, and Keats. American — 
Longfellow, Whittier, Lowell, Holmes, Stedman. 

In humorous poetry Aytouji, Bon Gaultier Ballads. Barham, 
Ingoldsby Legends. Calverley. Fly Leaves. Gilbert, Bab Bal- 
lads. Harte, Poems. Hood, Poems. Loiuell, Biglow Papers. 
Saxe, Poems. Smith, Rejected Addresses. Jones, Vers de 
Society. 

Miscellaneous. 

Smiles's works, lives of men, principally self-made, emi- 
nent in industry and invention, 8 vols., S1.50 each, can be had 
separately. Carlyle, Anthology, selections from his writings, 
$2.50. Milton, Anthology, from his prose writings, $2.50. 
Book of Golden Deeds, $1.25. i?£?j~zt>c//'.r Life of John.son, best 
edition for practical use, condensation by Jones, $2.50. Plu- 
tarch's Lives, handiest edition by Clough, Boston, i vol., $4. 
Modern British Essayists — Macaulay, Carlyle, Allison, Jef- 
frey, Sydney Smith, Mackintosh, Wilson, Talfourd, and 
Stephen, 8 vols., $2 each. Arnold's Essays in Criticism, $2. 
MilVs Dissertations and Discussions, 5 vols., and Autobiogra- 
phy, I vol., $2.50 each. Lamb, Essays of Elia, $1.75. Lowell, ^ 
vols, of essays, $2 each. Spencer [Herbert), 3 vols, of essays, 
$2 to ^2.50 each; and, On Education, $1.25. Ruskin'slTM^ 
and Beautiful, $1.25. 

LICHENS. — Lichens form a remarkable 
class of plants that live in the most barren 
situations in the most northern parts of the 
world, growing even on bare rocks and under 
circumstances where nature refuses any de- 
scription of corn. They have no roots, but ad- 
here by a kind of claws, and are nourished by 
absorption from the atmosphere. The Lichen 
Islandicus is the " Iceland Moss " of com- 
merce, and is so named from existing in vast 
abundance on the northern coast of Iceland, 
where no other vegetable is to be seen. Not- 
withstanding its mode of growth, it is an ex- 
tremely nutritious substance, and with the Ice- 
landers constitutes a very important article of 
food, and is prepared in a variety of ways. It 
is thought to have some tonic power, and to 
have other qualities which commend it, espe- 
cially to convalescents ; and for this reason it 
enters to some extent into cookery throughout 
the world. It should be made into a blanc- 
mange and eaten with milk and sugar. 

LIBBIG'S EXTRACT OF MEAT.— By 
rigid analysis and very careful experiments this 
extract has been degraded from a very high 
position in the scale of nutritive substances to 
a point where it can scarcely be claimed for it 
that it is a food at all. Professor Liebig, him- 
self, acknowledged shortly before his death that 
" it is not nutriment in the ordinary sense ; " 
and Dr. Edward Smith says, in his book on- 
Foods : " What is necessary to render this ex- 
tract as valuable as the meat itself, for the pur- 
poses of nutrition, is to restore the substances 
which were rejected in the process of making, 
and those have been shown to be almost equiv- 
alent to the whole meat. There is but little 
left in the extract to nourish the body, and the 
elements which it really possesses are salts, 
which may be obtained otherwise at an in- 
finitely smaller cost, and the flavor of meat, 
which disguises the real poverty of the sub- 
Stance." At the same time " it is a valuable 



addition to other foods, since it yields an agree- 
able flavor, and when prepared with hot water 
and properly flavored, gives a degree of ex- 
hilaration which may be useful to the feeble, 
and is as useful to the healthy as tea and 
coffee." Its proper position in dietetics is 
somewhat more than that of a meat-fla- 
vorer, but all that is required for nutrition 
should be added to it. Thus, in the prepara- 
tion of ordinary soup and beef-tea, the extract 
may be added to increase the flavor ; or it may 
be mixed with white of egg, gelatine, bread, and 
other cooked farinaceous substances. If, how- 
ever, it be relied upon as a principal article of 
food for the sick, it will prove a broken reed, 
except to those extremely feeble persons who 
can take very little food, and are favorably in- 
fluenced by slight causes. 

To Make. — The extract as sold in the shops 
is rather expensive, and by the following re- 
ceipt (which is Professor Liebig's own) it can 
be made at home with little trouble and at a 
slight cost : — Take :-A pound of good lean beef 
(rumpsteak is best for the purpose), from which 
all the skin and fat that can possibly be separ- 
ated from it has been cut away. Chop it up 
small like sausage-meat ; then mix it thoroughly 
with an exact pint of cold water, and place it 
near the fire so that it will heat very slowly y 
give it an occasional stir. It may stand two or 
three hours before it is allowed to simmer, and 
then will require at the utmost but fifteen 
minutes of gentle boiling. Salt should be add- 
ed when the boiling first commences, and for 
invalids this, in general, is the only seasoning 
required. When the extract is thus far pre- 
pared it may be poured from the meat into a 
bowl, and allowed to stand until any particles 
of fat it may show on the surface can be skim- 
med off entirely, and the sediment has sub- 
sided and left the soup quite clear ; then pour 
off gently, heat in a sauce-pan, and serve at 
once. 

To mingle vegetable diet in its best form 
with this extract, boil down the kind of vege- 
table desired, sliced or cut up small, in a very 
moderate quantity of water, until its juices are 
well drawn out ; then strain off the liquid from 
it by slight pressure, and when it has become 
cold, pour it on the chopped meat, as directed 
above, instead of water. Several different 
kinds of vegetables can be mixed together and 
cooked in this way ; the water must boil before 
they are added to it. 

LIGATURE. — A thread or cord tied tightly 
round a severed artery to stop the bleeding. 
Stout silk or pack-thread is best for the pur- 
pose and it should be tied around the end nearest 
the heart. It should be employed only when 
pressure and cold have failed to arrest the 
hemorrhage, and when surgical advice cannot 
be had at once. {See Bleeding.) 

LIGHTNING, Stroke of.— If a person be 
struck by lightning there is hope of resuscitation 
unless the body is scorched and blackened. 
Throw pailfuls of cold water on the head and 
body, apply strong mustard poultices to the 



334 



LIGHTNING-ROD 



LIME 



stomach, and rub the whole body briskly with 
flannel cloths. Try inflation of the lungs as 
directed in the case of the apparently drowned. 
Do not desist from rubbing when the patient 
exhibits signs of life, but keep on until the cir- 
culation is thoroughly restored. As soon as 
he can swallow, give a cup of coffee or some 
other stimulant. 

In thunder-storms, the doors and windows 
should be closed, and all currents of air through 
the room stopped as far as possible. The 
safest position in a room is the centre ; a 
feather-bed placed here will add to its security. 

LIGHTNING-ROD.— Lightning-rods should 
be sunk in the earth at least six feet at the 
bottom, and the tops should be well pointed. 
Each rod will then afford certain protection to 
a circle around it whose diameter equals the 
height of the rod above the highest chimney; 
but it protects no farther than this extent. As 
usually placed, lightning-rods are a very slight 
protection to a building, especially if it be in 
an elevated and exposed situation. The best 
material for a lightning-rod is copper, which 
should be tipped with some bright polished 
metal ; the glass holders, which are supposed 
to act as " insulators," are not considered by 
Professor Henry to be of much importance, 
and they seriously increase the cost. 

LHiAC. — There are about twenty varieties 
of the lilac, all of which are pretty and flourish 
in any garden soil under circumstances in which 
other shrubs would dwindle and die. The com- 
mon hlac is the largest of the species and one 
of the most beautiful of our spring-flowering 
ornamental shrubs. The white variety is less 
common than the purple, and is not so sick- 
ishly sweet. The Persian and Chinese lilacs are 
smaller and better adapted for a small garden. 
The former is a small tree of graceful habit, 
and its flowers are of a lighter lilac color. The 
latter is especially desirable ; the flowers are 
much darker than the other varieties, and its 
foliage is of a dark, glossy green, very rich. 
All these shrubs are perfectly hardy, and are 
usually grown without any care ; yet if pruned 
and manured their beauty will be much in- 
creased. 

LILY. — The lily is a large family of orna- 
mental bulbs, most of which are hardy, and in- 
dispensable in every flower garden. The 
plants will grow in any garden soil, but a little 
attention will be repaid by greater luxuriance 
and more abundant bloom. The proper soil is 
a compost of one part loam, one part peat, one 
part sand, and one part leaf mould. Dig a 
hole about two feet deep, and fill in with the 
compost. The bulbs should be planted from 
three to five inches deep, according to size ; 
autumn is the best time for planting. The soil 
should be frequently enriched, as the lily is a 
gross feeder, and will bear a large amount of 
manure, showing the effect in the increased 
size of stem and leaves and greater abundance 
of blossoms. During the winter the bulbs 
should be protected by a covering of coarse 
manure which may be dug in in the Spring. 



The most desirable species are : — L. candi' 
dum, one of the oldest garden flowers, of great 
beauty and fragrance, and too well known to 
need description ; there is a pretty variety with 
striped leaves, L. perigrumiutn, is somewhat 
similar to the last but is botanically distinct. 
L. bulbiferum is the common orange lily ; L. 
Caitadcnse is one of the finest of the native 
variety ; it has light orange and yellow drooj> 
ing flowers, and throws up a stalk, sometimes 
five feet in height, having as many as twenty 
flowers. L. PhiladelpJiitim is commonly called 
the Blackberry Lily; it has deep red flowers, 
spotted with black. L. MotiadelphiDii is some- 
times called the Circassian Lily, from its native 
country; it has drooping, yellovz-spotted flow- 
ers. L. Martagon is a very ornamental variety, 
with white and purple flowers ; the soil should 
be rather sandy. L. Chalcedonicum is the 
Scarlet Martagon, one of the most highly- 
colored species. L. Superbum is the finest 
native species ; flowers drooping, orange red- 
dish, with numerous spots. 

Tlie Japan Lilies are, perhaps, the finest 
of the family, and are as hardy and easy of cul- 
tivation as the native species. The treatment 
is the same, except that the soil must not be 
made too rich with manure, as it tends to rot 
the bulbs. L. Longifiorum is a very beautiful 
species ; flowers pure white, very long, and 
fragrant. It blooms in July, and requires a 
slight protection during the winter. L. Exi- 
mium is another lovely variety resembling Z. 
longifiorum, but the flowers are still larger and 
their color is of a satin whiteness. L. Japoni- 
cum is a variety with large, white, bell-shaped 
flowers, and very desirable for either parlor or 
out-door culture. 

The Lily of the Valley grows from large 
roots, which partake of the nature of tubers. 
It requires no care, will bloom year after year, 
in the same bed, and is perfectly hardy, requir- 
ing no protection in the coldest winter. There 
is no bulb that flourishes so perfectly under 
neglect, and no flower more perfect in form and 
fragrance. It will grow anywhere, but flour- 
ishes best in sandy out-of-the-way corners, 
where the soil is moist and rich. Plant in the 
late Autumn. It flowers in May and produces 
red berries in September. 

LIME. — A small variety of lemon, more acid 
and cooling than the ordinary. Most of the 
citric acid of commerce is prepared from it. 
The green fruit is excellent for preserving, 
but is seldom found here. As a substitute for 
lemons its flavor is not agreeable to every- 
body. 

Lime Juice is an antiseptic in scurvy ; dose 
from one to two tablespoonfuls, with sugar, two 
or three times a day. 

LIME.— A mineral used in mortar, in white- 
washing, and as a manure, disinfectant, etc. 
In its original form it is called quick-lime, and 
is highly caustic. Before using it is slaked; 
that is, caused to go to pieces by adding water 
and leaving it in the open air. It is slaked when 
more water can be added without causing it to 



LIME-WATER 



LIQUEURS 



335 




smoke. Slaked lime can be had at gas-works, 
or where building is being carried on. 

LIME-WATER,— Cover the bottom 
large bottle two or three inches 
deep with slaked lime. Fill up with ^ 
Clearwater. It will not become too 
strong. After well shaking, and 
allowing it to settle, it will be ready 
for use. The bottle shown in the 
cut is very convenient. By blow- 
ing through the glass tube a, the 
water is forced through d, with- 
out disturbing the lime remain- 
ing in the bottom. Refill with 
water until the lime disappears. 

LINEN. — In choosing linen, examine the 
threads, and select those which are even and 
close. A raw linen with uneven threads does 
not wear well. Also choose that which is per- 
fectly white ; if linen is not white at first it will 
never become so afterwards. Fine linens 
answer better than coarse ones, provided they 
are not unsuitable for the purpose for which 
they are destined. The wide linens are not 
thought so strong and well made as those of 
narrow width, but the latter will not cut to the 
same advantage as the wider ones. Much 
that is called linen in the shops is half 
cotton, and does not wear so well as the cotton 
alone ; cheap linens are usually of this kind. 

To discover which are all linen take a 
sample home, wash it and ravel it. If this be 

food the rest of the lot will probably be so. 
f it is not convenient to do this, draw a thread 
each way, and if both appear equally strong, 
it is probably all linen. Linen comes of various 
widths, from three-quarters of a yard to two 
and a half yards. It should be put into clean 
water and boiled, and ironed, before it is cut. 
LING. — The ling is in season from Novem- 




ber to March, but is seldom very plentiful in 
the markets. Usual weight about six pounds. 
'Prepare, cook, and serve same as cod. 

LINIMENT. — A term applied to an oily or 
other stimulating application for external use. 
Camphorated oil, an excellent antispasmodic 
liniment, to be used in obstinate rheumatism, 
etc., is made by rubbing an ounce of camphor 
with two ounces of Florence oil in a mortar till 
the camphor is entirely dissolved. 

Volatile Liniment. — Take of Florence oil an 
ounce, and spirits of hartshorn half an ounce ; 
shake them well together. This liniment made 
with equal parts of the oil and hartshorn will 
be more effective when the skin of the patient 
can stand it. In inflammatory quinsy, moisten 
a flannel cloth in this liniment and apply it to 
the throat, renewing every four or five hours ; 
it rarely fails to afford relief. It is also excel- 
lent for inflammation or tension of any kind. 

"White Liniment. — Take of olive oil, one 
pint ; spermaceti, three ounces ; white wax, one 



ounce. Melt them together, stirring all the 
time. This is good for burns, scalds, or any 
excoriated surface. 

LINSEED.— The seeds of the flax-plant. 
They contain a good deal of oil which may be 
readily obtained by expression ; the amount 
depends upon the method adopted, and varies 
from eighteen to twenty-seven per cent. Linseed 
oil is especially remarkable for drying rapidly 
when applied to the surface of any body ex- 
posed to the air, and thus forming a hard 
transparent varnish. This property of drying 
quickly is much increased by pi-eviously boil- 
ing the oil, either alone or with some prepara- 
tion of lead. 

The cake left after the expression of the oil 
is known as oil-cake and forms an excellent 
food for cattle. When powdered, it is common- 
ly sold as linseed-meal, which is much used for 
poultices and for other purposes. The linseed- 
meal, however, directed to be used in medicine, 
is merely the linseed powdered ; hence, it con- 
tains the oil which is not present in ordinary 
meal. 

Linseed-tea is made by putting a quarter of 
an ounce of linseed in a quart of boiling water. 
Steep two hours, and then strain. 

LINSEY-WOOLSEY. — A cheap fabric 
made of linen for warp, and wool for woof, 
generally one blue and the other white, or 
mixed with red. It was more used formerly 
than now, but is still very serviceable stuff for 
children's common dresses in winter. Shrink 
it in hot water before cutting. 

LIPS, Chapped. {See Chapped-Hands.) 

LIQUEURS. — These are intermediate be- 
tween common spirits and the foreign sweet 
distilled spirit, mixed with certain flavoring 
matters, such as pine apple, peach kernels, etc. 
Below are given descriptions of the principal 
ones, with recipes for such as can be conve- 
niently made at home. 

Some not given here can occasionally be ob- 
tained from a few special dealers, but the list 
is believed to contain not only all that are 
" standard," but about all that the best dealers 
think it worth while to keep regularly in stock. 

Liqueurs are taken after coffee, frequently 
mixed together, and sometimes added to bran- 
dy. One small glass of liqueur is sufficiently 
agreeable, but a larger quantity is cloying, and 
frequently disturbs digestion. The habit of 
drinking liqueurs during the day, which is not 
uncommon in France, especially among women, 
is excessively injurious, as the spirit used in 
their manufacture is usually of inferior quality. 

All liqueurs improve vastly with age, and 
they are not usually good for several months 
after their manufacture. 

Anisette. — This is composed of sweetened 
spirit flavored with aniseed and coriander. 
Bordeaux is famous for the manufacture of 
this liqueur, which is very popular in France, 
the best being made by Marie Brissart. 

Benedictine. — Made by a community of 
Benedictine monks from fragrant herbs. The 
recipe is unknown. It is believed to promote 



336 



LIQUEURS 



LIVER 



digestion. It comes in odd-looking squat black 
bottles that set off ornamental glass quite ef- 
fectively. 

Black Currant Liqueur. — The skins only 
of the black currants should be used ; the pulp 
should be squeezed out from the currants, one 
by one, between the finger and thumb. Steep 
a pint of the skins in a quart of rectified spirit 
for a fortnight in a warm place ; then strain the 
liqueur from the skins, and add to it a pound 
and a half of sugar. 

Creme de Girofle. — Add forty drops of oil 
of cloves to a quart of spirits of wine and a quart 
of syrup, with a little red coloring matter. This 
liqueur is said to be beneficial to singers suf- 
fering under relaxation'of the throat. 

Creme de Noyea.u.—TaJ^e :-Soit water, 2 
quarts ; loaf sugar, 2 lbs ; brandy or rum, i 
gal ; milk, i K pts ; lemons, peel of 5 ; bitter 
almonds, ^ lb. 

Boil the sugar in the water, and add the 
brandy or rum ; then add the milk (boiled), the 
lemon peel, and the bitter almonds (blanched and 
bruised). Let the ingredients stand together 
five days, stirring well each day, then filter 
through very fine linen, and bottle it. It may 
be drunk in a month, but improves by keeping. 
Creme de The is made in France, flavore'd 
with tea, and put up in bottles covered with 
gay-colored silk, on which are pasted paper 
pictures of Chinese scenes. The effect is quite 
ornamental to the dinner-table. 

Creme de Vanille.— Spirit and syrup fla- 
vored and colored with the tincture and pod of 
vanilla. 

Chartreuse. — This liqueur, of which there 
are two varieties, the white and the green, was 
originally prepared from a secret recipe by the 
monks of Chartreuse, in France. In 1809 its 
manufacture by the monks was prohibited by the 
Pope, and the liqueurs now sold under the name 
of Chartreuse are imitations of the original. 
The flavor is aromatic, and the liqueur has done 
good service in many cases of dyspepsia. 

Curagoa. — This, which is one of the most 
popular of the liqueurs, is made bv macerating 
orange-peel with a little cinnamon and a few 
cloves in sweetened brandy. Two varieties 
exist in commerce, the white and the red, the 
latter being simply colored. For directions 
for making at home, see Curacoa. 

Eau de Vie de Dantzic— One quart of spir- 
its of wine, twelve drops of oil of aniseed, six 
drops of oil of cinnamon, three drops of oil of 
roses, eight drops of oil of citron. Mix the 
above with a quart of syrup, filter, mix with the 
liqueur some fine bits of gold leaf, and bottle. 

Kirschwasser. — This is a spirituous liqueur, 
made of black cherries, bruised and fermented.' 
the stones of the cherries are bruised with the 
fruit, and used to give additional flavor. The 
fermented liquor is afterwards distilled. 

Kuemmel. — This is a favorite Russian liq- 
ueur. It consists of sweetened spirit flavored 
with cumin and caraway seeds. 
Maraschino comes in wicker-covered bottles. 
To make at home, 7«/t^ , -Seville oranges* 



rinds of 12 ; lemons, peel of 5 ; sugar-candy, 3 
lbs ; gin, I gall. 

Steep all the ingredients together for four 
days and nights, stirring well each day ; filter it 
clear, and bottle it. 

IL Ta,^^ .--English gin, i qt ; bitter almonds, 
2 oz. ; white sugar-candy, 6 oz. 

Mix the ingredients and let them stand a 
fortnight ; then strain it, and it will be ready for 
use in another fortnight. 

Noyeau. — ^I. Take:-BiitQr almonds, blanch- 
ed and pounded, 2 lbs ; brandy, i gall ; white 
sugar-candy, 2 lbs ; mace, ^ oz ; one grated 
nutmeg. 

Mix together thoroughly ; stir up well every 
day for twelve days, and then leave it for six 
weeks, when it may be bottled. It must be 
kept at least five months before it is ready for 
use. 

n. Take .'-Sweet almonds, \ lb ; bitter al- 
monds, i lb ; loaf sugar, l lb ; English gin, i 
qt. 

Blanch the almonds and cut them small be- 
fore adding them, with the sugar, to the gin. 
Keep them in a warm place ; stir up frequent- 
ly during a fortnight ; then strain and filter 
into bottles. 

Orange Liqueur. TIt;^^ .--Brandy, i qt ; lump 
sugar, 5 lbs ; vanilla, | of a stick ; one orange. 
Put the brandy into a wide-mouthed glass 
jar ; add the sugar (reduced to powder), and 
the vanilla ; stir till the sugar is all melted. 
Then put in one fine, smooth, unspotted 
orange, whole ( cover the jar closely, and set it 
aside in a warm place. This liqueur should 
stand two or three months, so as to be well im- 
pregnated with the perfume of the orange. 

Raspberry Liqueur. — Allow three pints of 
raspberries to a quart of spirit, and let them 
stand a fortnight in a warm place ; then strain 
the liqueur, and add to it a pound and a half of 
loaf sugar. 

Ratafia. — 77?/^^ .--Peach and apricot kernels, 
2 oz ; brandy, I qt ; white sugar-candy, i lb; 
cold water, i teacupful. 

Blanch the kernels, bruise them, and put 
them into a bottle ; pour on the brandy, and 
let them stand a month ; then strain it off; add 
the sugar, dissolved in a cup of cold water ; 
filter, and bottle for use. The leaves of peaches 
and nectarines, plucked in the spring and dis- 
tilled, are an excellent substitute for ratafia in 
puddings. 

LIVER.— The liver of the calf is better than 
any other, not even excepting goose liver, or 
pate de fois. Lamb's liver is also better fla- 
vored, more tender, and less dry than that of 
the sheep. In choosing liver, select that which 
presents a clear, bright, yellowish-red color, 
though that which is of a clear, dark color is 
good ; yielding easily under the pressure of 
the finger is a sure sign of tenderness. Those 
which present dark, " sedgy " streaks, sandy 
spots, and abscesses, are unwholesome, and, in 
fact, unfit to be eaten. 

Baked Liver. — Lard the liver with fat pork, 
and put into an iron pan, with a pint of water 



LOBSTER 



337 



or veal stock. Bake it three-quarters of an 
hour, basting it frequently. Have ready some 
macaroni, well boiled in milk and water. Dish 
the liver, and lay the macaroni around it. Add 
to the gravy a tablespoonful of butter, a little 
flour, and pepper, salt, and sage ; boil it up once, 
and turn it over the dish. 

Fried Liver (with Bacon). — Cut the liver 
into slices about a quarter of an inch thick, 
season it with salt and pepper, and fry it 
to a crisp brown with some breakfast bacon 
cut into thin slices. Serve with the gravy 
alone, or thicken the gravy with a very little 
browned flour. Help a piece of the bacon with 
each piece of liver. 

Roast Liver. — Take the whole or part of a 
liver, and either lard it on the surface, or with 
large strips of highly-seasoned bacon in the in- 
side {see Larding); or, should either of these 
modes be objected to, merely wrap it in a well- 
buttered paper, and roast it before a brisk fire 
from an hour to an hour and a quarter, keep- 
ing it constantly basted. Serve with a sauce 
of some piquancy, in addition to some good 
gravy. As an economical mode, some small 
bits of the liver may be trimmed off, floured, 
and lightly fried with a sliced onion, then stewed 
down for gravy in three-quarters of a pint of 
water which has been poured into the pan, 
with the addition of a small bunch of herbs, a 
few pepper-corns, salt, and a little lemon-juice. 

Stewed Liver. — L From three to four 
pounds of liver will be sufficient for a dish of 
moderate size. First lard it quite through with 
bacon rolled in a seasoning of spice and of 
savory herbs very finely minced ; then lay it 
into a stew-pan or sauce-pan just fitted to its 
size, and pour in about half a pint of broth or 
gravy ; heat it very gently, and throw in, when 
it begins to simmer, a sliced carrot, a small 
onion cut in two, a small bunch of parsley, and 
a blade of mace ; stew the liver as gently as 
possible over a slow fire from two hours and a 
half to three hours ; thicken the gravy with a 
dessertspoonful of browned flour ; add a couple 
of wineglassfuls of white wine, and a little spice, 
if needed, and serve it very hot, after having 
taken out the herbs and vegetables. 

The liver may be stewed without being 
larded. The wine can be altogether omitted, 
or a wineglassful of port, mixed with a little 
lemon-juice, may take the place of the sherry. 

IL Parboil the liver, cut it into small pieces, 
and stew in gravy or broth until done. Thicken 
with brown flour, and season with salt and pep- 
per, and, if liked, some sweet herbs. 

LIVERWORT. {See Hepatica.) 

LOBSTER. — Lobsters are generally plenti- 
ful in the markets throughout the year, except 
during the months of December, January, and 
February. They are better, however, in some 
months than in others — that is, the female lob- 
ster is generally preferred through the summer 
months, especially in June and July, and the 
male during the winter months. The latter is 
distinguished from the female not only by the 
absence of eggs under the tail, but by the longer 

22 



and narrower back, running quite to the tail 
and including the fan or fins. The female con- 
tains the coral. If the lobster is stale, the 
tail hangs limp ; while, if fresh, it is retained 
close to the belly, and if drawn down, will 
spring back with some force as soon as releas- 
ed. When the eggs of the female are large 
and quite brown, the lobster will be found ex- 
hausted, watery, and poor. Lobsters ranging 
from four pounds in weight are most delicate. 
The whole of the lobster is good to eat, except 
the shell and the craw, or stomach which lies 
between the eyes. 

The blue-back lobsters are a very fine variety. 
The shell is quite thin, and they are in season 
during May and June. Their average weight 
is from two to four pounds. They are fre- 
quently found in the markets already cooked- 
Boiled Lobster. — Put five ounces of salt in 
a gallon of boiling water ; tie the claws of the 
lobster together, if the fish merchant has not 
already skewered them, and throw it into the 
water ; boil from fifteen to twenty minutes, if 
of moderate size ; thirty to forty minutes, if 
large, and an hour, if very large. When done, 
lift it out, and lay face downward on a sieve 
to dry. 

Before a lobster is sent to table, take off 
the large claws, hold each of them firmly, 
with the edge upward, and with a quick blow 
with a heavy knife, crash the shell without dis- 
figuring the fish. Split the tail open with a very 
sharp knife, and dish the lobster in the manner 




Dressed Lobster. 

shown in the engraving, either with or without 
a napkin under it. When the soft part of the 
body is required to mix with the dressing, take 
it out before it is served, and add it to the 
sauce intended for it. It is customary to dress 
the salad before serving, as few persons care to 
prepare their own salad. 

Croquettes of Lobster.— Cut the meat of a cold 
boiled lobster into small, neat dice ; season with 
cayenne, white pepper, and salt. Have one half 
pint of stiffly reduced bechamel sauce ; add to it 
the yolks of 3 eggs, and i blade of powdered 
mace; then add the lobster, stir until scalding; 
turn on a well-oiled dish, and when firm by cool- 
ing form them as desired. Bread-crumb, and 
fry in plenty of lard made hot for the purpose. 

Curry of Lobster. — Extract the meat from 
a boiled lobster; lay it in a sauce-pan with 
gravy and cream at discretion ; then add a ta- 
blespoonful of butter and two teasf^oonfuls of 



338 



LOBSTER 



curry-powder, (if not powerful, three,) and sim- 
mer for an hour, adding a pinch of cayenne 
and salt. Half a wineglassful of sherry or 
Madeira will add to the aroma, but is not 
essential. 

Devilled Lobster. — Prepare the meat as for 
salad, reserving the coral ; season highly with 
cayenne, mustard, salt, and some pungent sauce, 
and mix all together thoroughly. Rub the coral 
smooth, moistening with vinegar until it is thin 
enough to pour easily, and have it ready to add 
to the lobster. Put the lobster into a porcelain 
sauce-pan, with just enough hot water to keep 
it from burning, and cover it ; let it boil up once, 
and add the sauce, prepared as above ; then stir 
in a tablespoonful of butter, and when it boils 
again, take the pan from the fire. This is a 
famous supper dish. 

Fried Lobster. — To be fried, the lobster 
must be bled; separate the body from the 
tail ; then cut the tail in pieces, making as many 
pieces as there are joints. Put these pieces in 
a frying-pan, with two or three ounces of butter 
and an onion minced fine ; set on a brisk fire, 
and stir occasionally till they are fried ; then 
add a bunch of seasoning, composed of three 
sprigs of parsley, one of thyme, and a clove ; 
add also salt, pepper, and three gills of Ma- 
deira, Catawba, or Sauterne wine. Boil gently 
till reduced one-half ; dish the pieces of lob- 
ster ; add two or three tablespoonfuls of gravy 
to the sauce, stir it, give one boil, and turn it 
over the lobster through a strainer. Serve hot. 

Lobster Farcie — Pound in a mortar the 
meat and coral of 2 fine lobsters, with 3 ozs. 
butter, 2 anchovies, i blade powdered mace, 
cayenne, white pepper, and salt, the juice of i 
lemon, 4 ozs. of crumb of bread, the yolks of 2 
raw eggs, i giil of cream, and i gill of brotli. 
Fill the empty shell, sprinkle with crumbs, 
bake 10 minutes. 

Patties (Lobster).— Cut the meat of i large 
lobster, with the coral, into small dice; bone 
2 anchovies; cut them into small dice with 2 
ozs, mushrooms, nutmeg, cayenne, salt, and 




Lobster Patties. 

I glass of white wine. Simmer 3 or 4 minutes, 
then add | pint of white sauce, the yolk of an 
egg, and 2 ozs. of butter. Empty the patties, 
and fill with the lobster. 

Potted Lobster. — Separate carefully the 
flesh of freshly-boiled lobsters from the shells 
and from the tough red skin of the tails; mince 
the fish up quickly with a sharp knife, turn it 
immediately into a large mortar, and strew over 
it a mixed seasoning of fine cayenne, pounded 
mace, lightly grated nutmeg, and salt ; this last 
should be sxtaringly used in the first instance, 



and should be reduced to powder before it is 
added. Pound the lobster to a perfect paste, 
with from two to three ounces of butter to each 
fish if of large size, but with less should they 
be small, and the lobster-coral previously rub- 
bed through a sieve. When there is no coral, 
a fine color may be given to the mixture by 
stewing the red skin of the tails very gently for 
ten or twelve minutes with part of the butter 
which is used for it, but which must be strained 
and allowed to become perfectly cold before 
it is mixed with the meat. The degree of sea- 
soning must be regulated by the taste ; but no 
flavor should predominate over the lobster it- 
self, and all over-spicing must be avoided. Be- 
fore the mixture is taken from the mortar, it 
should be set over the ice for a short time, or 
placed in a cool closet to render it firm before 
it is pressed into the potting-pans or moulds. 
In putting into these, be careful to press it into 
a compact, even mass ; smooth the surface, and 
run a little clarified butter over when it is only 
jMsi liquid, for if hot it will prevent the fish 
from keeping. Send to table garnished with 
light green foliage ; or with ornamentally cut 
paper fastened round the mould ; or with a 
small damask napkin tastefully arranged about 
it. 

Salad (Lobster). {See Salads.) 

Sauce (Lobster). — Take a large fresh lobster, 
carefully pick out the berries and all the inside ; 
cut it small ; make a sauce with a lump of flour 
and butter (half and half), a little milk or cream, 
a very small quantity of essence of anchovy, a 
very little pounded mace, and cayenne; then 
puU the rest of the lobster to pieces ; add the 
sauce by degrees to the berries, and put in the 
lobster. Boil, stirring all the time, and serve. 

LOCKJAW. (^^^ Tetanus.) 

LOTION. — A medical preparation used as 
an outward application for bruises, burns, or 
hurts of any kind, for allaying local inflamma- 
tion, or for stimulating some indolent sore or 
ulcer. Lotions are of various kinds, such as 
refrigerating, sedative, astringent, stimulating, 
or evaporating, according to the effect they are 
employed to produce. The following are those 
most often prescribed in general practice. 

Arnica Lotion. — Tincture of arnica, one part, 
water from five to eight parts. Mix together. 

Astringent Lotion. — Dissolve one drachm 
of alum, and one drachm of sugar of lead, in a 
pint of cold water. 

Evaporating Lotions. — Dissolve 2 drachms 
of sal-ammoniac in a pint of camphor-water, and 
add one ounce of spirits of sulphuric ether. Or, 
mix two ounces of spirits of wine, or three ounces 
of brandy, with a pint of cold water. To secure 
evaporation, free access of external air is ne- 
cessary ; a single piece of linen should be dip- 
ped in the lotion and laid on the injured part, 
and no other covering must be placed on this. 
As fast as the linen dries, it should be saturated 
afresh. 

Raspail's Sedative Lotion. — Take of liquid 
ammonia, two ounces ; camphorated spirit of 
wine, one-third of an ounce; coarse salt, one 



LUMBAGO 



LUNGS 



339 



ounce ; rain-water ; one quart. Mix the cam- 
phorated spirit and the ammonia together in a 
bottle; stop it up carefully, and shake. In an- 
other vessel dissolve the salt in the rain-water, 
adding a few drops of liquid ammonia; when 
it is completely dissolved, and its impurities 
have settled, pour it off gently, or filter it through 
filtering paper. Then pour in rapidly the mixed 
spirit and ammonia ; cork it, and shake well 
together^ It is then ready for use, but must 
always be kept ti*htly stopped. This lotion is 
excellent to apply to the bites of insects and 
even of venomous snakes. It is also much used 
as a remedy for headache. 

Stimulating Lotions. — Mix an ounce of 
spirits of wine with half a pint of camphor-water. 
Or, dissolve three grains of sulphate of copper 
in one ounce of water. 

LUMBAGO. — A rheumatism or rheumatic 
pains in the loins and small of the back. Its 
cause, and the manner of treatment are the 
same as for rheumatism in general. {See 
Rheumatism.) 

LUNACY. {See Insanity.) 

LUNAR CAUSTIC— A term applied to 
nitrate of silver, cast in sticks, and used by 
surgeons for cauterizing purposes. A great 
improvement has lately been made in its manu- 
facture by melting with it a certain proportion 
of chloride of silver, which has the effect of 
rendering the stick flexible instead of brittle. 

Lunar caustic is a deadly poison and should 
be kept out of the way, especially of children. 
In case of poisoning, give a teaspoonful of 
common salt in a glass of water, and repeat in 
ten minutes. Then a dose of castor oil, to be 
followed by a drink of linseed-tea or barley- 
water. 

LUNCH. — Where late dinners are the cus- 
tom it is necessary that something should be 
eaten in the long interval between breakfast 
and dinner, and this meal is called lunch. The 
best time for lunch is either twelve or one 
o'clock, according as the breakfast hour is 
early or late ; it should not be later than one 
o'clock or it may spoil the appetite for dinner. 
The hour, moreover, should always be the 
same ; and the meal should never be shirked, 
as it is too apt to be by business men, in favor 
of any of those miserable pretexts of the bar- 
room or confectionery-counter which are among 
the most fruitful causes of dyspepsia and its 
train of ills. Lunch should be made a regular 
repast, to which the guest may sit down, eating 
and enjoying his food deliberately. 

The very best mid-day refreshment for busy 
people, involving the least possible interruption 
to their pursuits, is a bowl of good soup ; such 
as conso77iine (with vermicelli or macaroni), 
mock-turtle, ox-tail, gumbo, or giblet. All these 
combine the advantage of being hot, of taking 
1 ittle time to eat, and of containing much nu- 
triment in small bulk. Bread may be soaked 
in any of these, or eaten as an accompaniment. 
If they cause thirst, it may be allayed with a 
wineglassful of toast-and-water, or a little cold 
tea. 



Claret. 



The three following Bills of Fare are given 
for entertainments, in order to show the man- 
ner of the serving. The plates are to be 
changed precisely as for dinner. Those dishes 
which are printed in italics may be omitted if 
desired. 

SPRING. 

LUNCHEON FOR TEN PERSONS. 

Consomme, with vermicelli. (Sherry.) 
j Boiled blue-fish, with lobster sauce. ) Haute- 
I Potato croquettes. \ Sauterne. 

\ Vol-au-vent of oysters. ) 
•< Quenelles of pa7'tridge. \ Chambertin. 
(Green peas. ) 

j Roast sirloin of beef a la Jardiniere. ) 
( Artichokes au gratin. \ 

Punch a la Ro7naine, 

k Woodcocks on toast. ) ^, 

•< ^, . , J • Champagne. 

( Chicoree salad. ) ^ " 

Plum pudding glace. 

Assorted cakes, crackers, bonbons, coffee. 

SUMMER. 

LUNCHEON FOR EIGHTEEN PERSONS. 

Oysters 4 la poulette. Rudesheimer, 
Sorrel soup aux croutons. Madeira, 
j Salmon cutlets, broiled, with ) r;i„„j. 
I green peas. \ 

Chickens, roasted, withl 

apple sauce. V Chateau Yquem. 

Macaroni, with cheese. ) 
{Fricandeati, with \ champagne. 
( puree of spi7tach. ) ^ ° 

j Lobster salad, 
j Crackers and cheese. 
Ice cream, milk punch, frappee. 
Cakes, bonbons, coffee. Maraschino. 



WINTER. 
LUNCHEON FOR SIX PERSONS. 

Mock turtle soup. Sherry. 

i Filets of flounders, saute,) 
caper sauce. \ Marcobrunner. 

Fried potatoes. ) 

\BoucUes of chicken. \ ^^^ Hermitage. 
I Cauliflower. S 

j Roast turkey, with 
\ stewed mushrooms (white), 
j Reed birds, •' au petit sale." \ po^mery. 
\ Fried oysters. ) 

Ice cream, cakes, etc. 
Cafe noir. 

LUNGS, Bleeding of the. {See Bleed- 
ing.) 

LUNGS, To test the state of the.— Those 
desirous of ascertaining the true state of their 
lungs may do so by drawing in as much breath 
as they conveniently can; they are then to 
count as many as possible in a slow audible 
voice, without drawing in more breath. The 
number of seconds they continue counting 
must be carefully observed. When the lungs 
are in a sound condition, the time will range as 



340 



LUPIN 



MACARONI 



high as from twenty to thirty-five seconds. In 
a consumptive the number does not exceed 
ten, and is often less than six seconds ; in 
pleurisy and pneumonia it ranges from nine to 
four seconds. The progress and even the 
commencement of consumption, or of any 
other pulmonary disease, can be traced in this 
way, if the capacity of the lungs in time of 
health is known by the same standard. 

LUPIN. — One of the prettiest of the half- 
hardy annuals. It will grow in any soil even in 
the poorest, but will repay a little attention in 
the way of manuring and watering. There are 
many varieties of the Lupin. They bloom from 
June to September, and throw out blue, white, 
yellow, and pink flowers. Sow the seeds where 
they are to bloom in May, or as soon as the sun 
begins to feel warm on the ground. They will 
spring up year after year. 



LUSTRING.— Often corruptly written Lute- 
string. A species of stout, glossy, bright silk 
stuff, used for ladies' dresses, etc. It is con- 
sidered more durable than ordinary silk, but is 
hardly so much used now as formerly. There 
are many qualities and colors. 

LYE. — Water impregnated with alkaline 
salt from wood-ashes. It is very useful in many 
domestic operations, particularly in the making 
of common soap. It can be very easily made 
by putting the ashes in a vat or box sloped 
gently forwards, with an aperture at the bottom 
in front for the escape of the lye into a vessel 
beneath. Pour water on the top every day — 
just enough of it to keep it dropping out at the 
bottom. Of course the lye will be strong in 
proportion to the length of time taken by the 
water in drainin^r through. 



M 



MACARONI. — An excellent quality of 
macaroni is now made in this country, at Phila- 
delphia and elsewhere, but those imported 
from Italy are the best. The Naples macaroni, 
of which the pipes are larger and somewhat 
thin, should be selected for the table in prefer- 
ence to the Genoa, which is less in size but 
more substantial and better suited for ti;nbales 
and similar fanciful dishes. Ribbon macaroni, 
though more delicate in flavor and more quick- 
ly boiled than pipe macaroni, is far less fre- 
quently seen at our tables ; yet it is extremely 
good in many simple forms and very whole- 
some, therefore especially suited to invalids and 
children. It may be boiled and eaten quite 
plain instead of vegetables or rice ; or with a 
compote of fruit ; or with sugar and cinnamon, 
or lemon-juice ; or it may be prepared in any 
of the ways indicated for the pipe macaroni. 

Macaroni should be quite fresh, as it con- 
tracts a most unpleasant flavor from being too 
long stored. The finest quality is yellowish in 
color, and does not burst or break up in boiling ; 
it should swell considerably and become quite 
soft, but if it does not retain its form when 
boiled, it has not been made of the right kind 
of wheat. 

A-la-Creme (Macaroni). — This is a very 
delicate mode of dressing macaroni. Boil eight 
ounces in the usual way, and by the time it is 
sufficiently tender dissolve ten ounces of any 
rich, well-flavored white cheese in three-quarters 
of a pint of fresh cream ; add a little salt, a 
rather full seasoning of cayenne, from a half to 
a whole saltspoonful of pounded mace, and two 
ounces of butter. The cheese should be sliced 
very thin, and the hard part adjoining the rind 
pared away ; it should be stirred into the cream 
without intermission until it is entirely dis- 
solved, and the whole is perfectly smooth. The 
macaroni, previously well drained, may then be 



tossed gently into it ; or, after it is dished, the 
cheese may be poured over the top. The whole, 
in either case, may be thickly covered before it 
is sent to the table with fine crumbs of bread 
fried to a light brown and dried perfectly, either 
before the fire or in an oven. Rich white sauce 
or bechamel, made not very thick, with an ad- 
ditional ounce or two of butter, may be used to 
vary and enrich this preparation. 

Baked Macaroni. — Tl^y^^ .--Half a pound of 
pipe macaroni, break it in pieces about an inch 
long, and put them into a sauce-pan of boiling 
water, slightly salted ; boil slowly for twenty 
minutes ; then drain well and put a layer in the 
bottom of a buttered pie or pudding-dish ; grate 
some rich cheese over the top, and scatter over 
it some bits of butter. Put in another layer of 
macaroni, and then the cheese again ; fill the 
dish in this order, having macaroni at the top, 
buttered well ; add a few spoonfuls of cream or 
milk and a pinch of salt. Cover over, and bake 
half an hour ; then brown nicely, and serve. 

Boiled Macaroni. — Most cooks soak maca- 
roni in milk and water for an hour or more be- 
fore boiling, that the pipes may be swollen to 
the utmost ; but this is apt to render it pulpy. 
The better way is to drop it lightly into a pan of 
fast-boiling water, into which a little salt and a 
teaspoonful of butter have been previously 
thrown, and of which the boiling should not be 
stopped by the addition of the macaroni. Boil 
gently from twenty minutes to three-quarters 
of an hour ; macaroni should always be perfect- 
ly cooked, for otherwise it will prove very in- 
digestible, but the pipes should remain entire. 
The Italian macaroni requires longer boiling 
than the American. Ribbon macaroni will 
generally cook in from fifteen to twenty min- 
utes. 

Richelieu, or Veal and Ham Macaroni. — 
Boil three ounces of macaroni tender; beat up 



MACAROONS 



MACKEREL 



341 



two eggs ; put about a pint of nicely flavored 
minced veal or ham into a sauce-pan, with a lit- 
tle grated lemon-peel ; add the macaroni and 
eggs ; mix well, and boil five minutes. Serve 
with good gravy. 

Side Dish of Macaroni. — Take .--A quarter 
of a pound of macaroni, and scald it till tender, 
but not so as to break or make it stick together ; 
when scalded, cut it in pieces about one-third 
of an inch in length, and a perfect pipe. Then 
make a mince of every kind of meat, game, and 
poultry you happen to have cooked, adding a 
little fat and lean of ham or bacon ; add a piece 
of onion, finely chopped, salt, pepper, a little 
cayenne, about a teaspoonful of catsup, the 
same of Worcestershire sauce, and a small 
quantity of gravy to moisten the whole. Butter 
a pie or pudding-dish thickly, and stick the 
macaroni closely into it, so as to give the ap- 
pearance of a honeycomb when turned out ; fill 
up with the mincemeat, laying the rest of the 
macaroni at the top. Cover tightly with a cloth, 
set it in a pan of water, and boil gently three- 
quarters of an hour, taking it out five minutes 
before turning it out of the dish. Serve with a 
tureen of gravy, putting a very little in the 
dish. 

Timbale of Macaroni. — ■ Simmer half a 
pound of macaroni in salted water till tender, 
but not too soft, and strain the water from it ; 
beat five yolks and the whites of two eggs, and 
mix with half a pint of cream ; mince the breast 
of a chicken and some ham {enough to make 
half a potind\ and mix with them three table- 
spoonfuls of grated Parmesan cheese, season- 
ing with pepper and salt; mix all the above 
with the macaroni, and put it into a well-but- 
tered mould. Let it steam in a stew-pan of 
boiling water about an hour, and serve hot with 
rich gravy. 

MACAROONS (Almond). — Take :- Al- 
monds, yi lb ; rose-water, i tablespoonful ; eggs, 
whites of 3 ; white sugar {powdered), ]/> lb. 

Soak the almonds in boiling-hot water till 
the skin will rub off easily ; then wipe them 
dry, removing the skins, and pound them to a 
paste with the rose-water. Beat the whites of 
the eggs to a stiff froth, then stir the sugar in 
gradually, and then add the almonds. When 
the almonds are well mixed in, drop the mix- 
ture by spoonfuls upon buttered baking plates 
or letter-paper, several inches apart, sift sugar 
on them, and bake to a light brown in a slow 
oven ; it will take fifteen to twenty minutes. 

The flavor of these macaroons is improved by 
substituting an ounce of bitter almonds for an 
ounce of the sweet; and they are sometimes 
made with an equal weight of each. 

Cocoa-nut Macaroons. — Rasp a fresh 
cocoa-nut, spread it on a dish or tin, and let it 
dry gradually for a couple of days ; add to it 
double its weight of fine sifted sugar, and the 
whites of eight eggs, beaten to a stiff froth, to 
the pound. Roll the mixture into small balls, 
place them on a buttered tin, and bake them in 
a very slow oven twenty minutes. Move them 
from the tin while they are warm, and store them 



in a perfectly dry canister as soon as they are 
cold. 

Filbert Macaroons. — Heat a quarter of a 
pound of filbert meats till the skin will rub off ; 
when cold, pound them to a paste with a little 
white of egg ; add a quarter of a pound of sifted 
white sugar and the white of one egg ; mix well, 
and bake on buttered tins or letter-paper. 

Flour Macaroons. — These are plain, and 
are nearly as good as any other. Work a pint 
of sifted white sugar with one beaten egg, till 
a smooth paste is formed ;then add a little sifted 
flour, so as to mould it with the hands. Flavor 
it with rose-water, essence of lemon, or any 
essence, and proceed as for almond maca- 
roons. 

Orange-flower Macaroons. — Take .--Pound- 
ed sugar, 2 lbs ; orange-blossoms, 2 oz ; whites 
of eggs, 7. 

The orange-blossoms must be freshly gath- 
ered ; cut them very small with a pair of scis- 
sors into the sugar ; mix together, add the whites 
of the eggs, and whisk the whole until the mix- 
ture looks like snow ; then drop by spoonfuls on 
buttered letter-paper, and bake about twenty 
minutes in a very slow oven. 

MACE. — The reddish membrane surround- 
ing the shell which contains the nutmeg. It is 
dried previous to being packed in tight bags. 
Its general qualities are the same as those of 
nutmeg, but it is considered the choicest of all 
the spices. It has an agreeable aromatic odor, 
and a hot, biting taste. It contains a very 
large proportion of essential oil, on account of 
which mace is never employed alone in medi- 
cine, though possessing the usual carminative 
properties of the other spices. Mace should 
be pounded fine, and corked tight in small glass 
bottles with mouths large enough for a junk- 
bottle cork, and kept in a tight tin box. Or it 
can be kept in small tin boxes with tight-fitting 
covers. To make essence of mace, see Es- 
sences. 

MACERATION. — The infusion of sub- 
stances in cold liquids. The term is usually 
employed with regard to vegetable substances, 
when they are reduced to powder and exposed 
to the action of water, or any other liquid, with- 
out the assistance of heat, in which last respect 
it differs from infusion and digestion. Mac- 
eration is useful either when it is required 
merely to soften the parts of the substance 
operated on — as when cinnamon and cloves are 
macerated in water before distillation; or in 
cases where heat would be injurious — as when 
volatile or aromatic substances are used. 

MACKEREL. — The common or spri7tg 
mackerel is one of the finest and most beauti- 




Mackerel. 

ful of fish. It is never found alive on the 
stands, and is seldom fat when fresh, at least 



342 



MACKEREL 



not so fat as formerly ; but it is a very choice 
table-fish. It generally weighs about a pound. 
In season, about the first of May, and found 
scattering through the summer. It may also 
be had either smoked or salted. The thimble- 
eyed ox fall mackerel are rather smaller than 
the preceding, and have very large, prominent 
eyes. When found in the markets, they are 
usually strung together, but are not much 
thought of for the table. In season from Sep- 
tember to November. The Spanish mackerel, 
perhaps the choicest of all fish, are usually 
plentiful in the months of June, July, August, 
and September. They resemble the spring 
mackerel in general appearance, but are a 
much larger fish, and without the dark lines on 
the sides. They are sold usually at high 
prices, and their weight ranges from tw^o to 
eight pounds. 

Baked Mackerel After the fish have been 

cleaned well and washed in cold water, fill the 
insides with stuffing ; sew them up ; arrange 
them with the roes close together on a coarse 
baking-dish ; flour them lightly ; strew a little 



water ; boil up again, and send to table in a 
sauce-boat. Fennel or gooseberry sauce is 
also very good ; and plain melted butter will 
answer. 

Boiled Mackerel {Salt). — Soak one night in 
lukewarm water, and change this to cold water 
about half an hour before cooking. Put on 
with just enough water to cover them, and boil 
gently for twenty or twenty-five minutes. 
Drain carefully, and pour melted butter on 
them before serving. 

Broiled Mackerel {Fresh). — Cleanse the 
fish as for boiling ; split it open so that when 
laid flat the back-bone will be in the middle ; 
dust lightly with salt, and lay on a buttered 
gridiron over a clear fire, with the inside down- 
wards, until it begins to brown ; then turn it 
over. When done, lay on a hot dish, butter 
plentifully, lay another hot dish over it, and let 
it stand two or three minutes before sending to 
table. 

Broiling whole is an excellent way of cook- 
ing mackerel. Cleanse the fish without open- 
ing it more than needful ; dry it well, either in 



fine salt over them ; and stick bits of butter I a cloth or by hanging it in a cool air till it is 



upon them ; or, melt the butter in a sauce-pan, 
and pour it equally on them. Half an hour in a 
moderate oven will bake them. Oyster stuff- 
ing is always appropriate for any kind of fish 
which is in season when the oysters are ; but 
mackerel are commonly served with one of the 
ordinary stuffings for which receipts are given 
in article on Stuffing. Lift them carefully 
into a hot dish after they are taken from the 
oven and send melted butter and a quartered 
lemon to table with them. 

Boiled Mackerel {Fresh). — Open the fish 
sufficiently for the insides to be perfectly 
cleansed, but not more than is necessary for 
this purpose ; empty them with care, and wash 
them delicately clean, afterwards wiping them 
dry. 




Mackerel Kettle. 



Then put them into a pot with enough salt- 
ed water to cover them, and boil gently from 
twenty minutes to half an hour; drain well 
before dishing. Serve with a sauce made by 
taking a teacupful of the water in which the 
fish were boiled and putting it into a sauce-pan 
with a tablespoonful of walnut catsup, the same 
quantity of anchovy sauce or paste, and the 
juice of half a lemon ; let this boil up well, 
and then add a tablespoonful of butter, and a 



stiff; make with a sharp knife a deep incision 
on either side of the back-bone, and about half 
an inch from it, and with a feather put in a 
little cayenne and fine salt mixed with a few 
drops of good salad oil or clarified butter. Lay 
the fish on a moderate fire upon a well-buttered 
gridiron ; loosen it gently should it stick, which 
it will do unless often moved ; and when it is 
equally done on both sides, turn the back to 
the fire. About half an hour will broil it well. 

Broiled Mackerel {Salt). — Soak over 
night in lukewarm water ; change this early in 
the morning for cold, and let the fish lie in it till 
time to cook ; then proceed as for fresh mack- 
erel. 

Fried Mackerel. — Cut off the head ; split 
the fish quite open all along the belly and 
below it ; lay it flat without removing the back- 
bone ; dust with flour and salt, and fry in 
butter. Serve garnished with fried fennel. 

Potted Mackerel. — Clean the fish without 
opening them ; draw the intestines, but leave 
the roes and the milts. Remove the heads and 
tails, and then cut the fish crosswise into three 
equal portions. Wash, drain, and wipe dry 
with a cloth. Take an oval plate-dish, with a 
close-fitting cover, or, in the absence of this, a 
round earthen or stone pot. If this latter has 
no cover, a wooden one may be made to fit it. 
Put at the bottom a layer of pieces of fish ; 
season them with salt, whole pepper, cloves, 
and allspice ; then another layer of fish, then 
another sprinkling of seasoning, and so on. 
Pour over all these, until they are well covered, 
a mixture of half vinegar and half water. Put 
on the lid, and simmer gently over a slow fire 
for about half an hour, or until the fish is 
thoroughly done. Let it cool with the lid on. 

Fish so potted will keep a long time, if always 
immersed in the liquor ; and the very bones 
become eatable. It affords a convenient re- 



tablespoonful of browned flour wet in cold source in an emergency ; for a few pieces of 



MADEIRA 



MAGNOLIA 



343 



the fish can be taken from the pot, laid on a 
small dish, a little of the liquor poured over 
them, and served garnished with sprigs of 
parsley. What is left can be returned to the 
pot. 

Stewed Fresh Mackerel. (With wine.) — 
Work smoothly together a large teaspoonful of 
flour and two ounces of butter, put them into a 
stew-pan, and stir or shake them round over the 
fire until the butter is dissolved ; add a quarter 
of a teaspoonful of pounded mace, half a tea- 
spoonful of salt, and a pinch of cayenne ; pour 
in by slow degrees three wineglassfuls of claret 
(or port wine and a little lemon-juice). When 
the sauce boils, lay in a couple of fine mackerel, 
well cleaned and wiped quite dry ; stew them 
very gently for fifteen or twenty minutes, and 
turn them when half done ; lift them out and 
dish them carefully; stir a teaspoonful of made 
mustard to the sauce, give it a boil and pour it 
over the fish. 

MADEIRA — A white wine made in the 
island of Madeira, which, when genuine, is one 
of the richest wines in the world, having great 
strength, dryness, and delicacy of flavor. It is 
extremely durable in all climates, and improves 
with age. Maderia, being a strong wine natur- 
ally, has, least of all, occasion for the addition 
of brandy ; yet it is the constant practice to add 
some of this spirit previous to exportation, 
which is incorporated in time. The inferior 
kinds are made up with almonds and various 
additions ; and, in fact, the adulterations are so 
numerous that the wine has lately fallen into 
comparative disrepute. The prejudice against 
Maderia has been considerably increased by 
the supposed discovery that it contains a little 
more acid than sherry, but this opinion has been 
disputed, and seems to have been derived from 
the inferior Madeiras. 

Several years ago, the vines failed in the 
island of Madeira, and the best Madeira is now 
very old. The new wine made from vines 
planted in the island within a few years is ex- 
cellent for its age and is of great promise. 

Madeira keeps best in demijohns in a moder- 
ately warm place, though it keeps quite well in 
bottles. Warmth seems to ripen it and bring 
out its best qualities. It should be drunk 
about the temperature of the room. 

MAGGOTS. — These disgusting larvas are 
generated in meat which has been imperfectly 
cured, which has been kept for too long a time, 
or which has been exposed to the attacks of 
the green fly. Cut away the part which they 
have penetrated, and the meat should be dipped 
anew in brine, and the outside rubbed with a 
mixture of dry ashes and salt. When they 
appear in vegetables, the vegetables must be 
thrown away. 

MAGNESIA. — The oxide of magnesium 
occurs in two forms, one more bulky than the 
other. It is obtained by burning the carbon- 
ate, and then appears as a white powder with 
hardly any taste, almost insoluble in water, and 
slightly alkaline in reaction. When introduced 
into the stomach, magnesia acts as an antacid, 



and its antacid properties are considerable. 
If not all neutralized, what remains passes on 
into the intestine where, if given incautiously, 
it is apt to accumulate. In the small intestine 
it acts as a gentle laxative, in very large doses 
having considerable power. It also passes 
into the blood and tends to render the urine 
clear if previously turbid from urates. It is 
given as an antacid in heartburn, and is still 
more useful for the acidity of the intestines 
which gripes, and so is useful along with rhu- 
barb in the early stages of diarrhoea. It is also 
useful when there is acidity with a tendency to 
constipation, as in gouty subjects. In these 
patients it does remarkably well. On account 
of alkalinity, too, magnesia is often given as an 
antidote to poisoning by mineral or vegetable 
acids, and for this it is well suited. It neutral- 
izes the acid and protects the stomach from 
injury. Many metals are also precipitated by 
it and rendered nearly insoluble. Magnesia 
has also been given as a remedy for vomit- 
ing when that has seemed to depend on 
excess of acid ; but other remedies are more 
powerful. 

The carbonate of magnesia also exists in 
two forms — heavy and light. It is prepared 
from the sulphate of magnesia by precipitating 
by carbonate of soda. The powder so thrown 
down is a white, almost tasteless substance, in- 
soluble in water, and nearly neutral in reaction. 
A solution of the bicarbonate of magnesia has 
long been in use under the title of fluid magne- 
sia ; it is an admirable preparation. This may 
effervesce slightly; when opened, the liquid is 
clear and is not bitter. Carbonate of magnesia 
acts in much the same way as magnesia itself, 
only when it is introduced into the stomach, and 
meets with an acid, it gives off its carbonic 
acid, which may be unpleasant. Sometime.s, 
however, the carbonic acid gas so set free is 
pleasant to the stomach. The great disadvan- 
tage these remedies labor under is their bulk, 
so much requires to be taken ; but the objec- 
tion does not apply to the fluid magnesia. 

Citrate of magnesia, the effervescent prep- 
aration popularly used as a laxative, contains, 
besides the magnesia, citrate or tartrate of 
sodium or potassium. It is pleasant to take, 
and mild in its operation. 

MAGNOLIA. — This is the most beautiful 
of all flowering trees, and in several of its 
varieties is unapproached. The inagtioUa 
grandifora is a native of the Southern States, 
where it grows wild in the low swamp lands of 
the coast in the greatest abundance. This is 
the noblest species of the genus; its great 
height (sometimes 80 feet), its shining, dark- 
green leaves, its fragrant white flowers, a foot 
in diameter and exquisitely fine, form a com- 
bination of rare magnificence. The French 
magnolia is the kind'usually cultivated in gar- 
dens, especially in the Northern States. It 
grows to the height of about twenty feet, and 
throws out a profusion of flowers of the utmost 
fragrance early in the Spring. It is perfectly 
^ardy, and will flourish in any good garden 



344 



MAHOGANY 



MALARIA 



soil, though a moist, rich spot, not too shady, 
is best. There are also one or two species of 
the magnolia which can be cultivated as parlor 
and greenhouse plants. They require the same 
treatment as other window plants. 

MAHOGANY. (See Furniture.) 

MAIZE. (See Indian Corn.) 

MAJOLICA.— A kind of Italian pottery, 
consisting of a common earthen-ware ground, 
covered with a fine glaze, and enamelled with 
painted designs. It is used chiefly for orna- 
mental purposes, and is usually found in the 
shape of large vases, urns, etc. The antique 
forms are very fine, and some of the designs 
equal the best Japanese painted pottery; but 
in general, the ware has a coarse, tawdry, 
inartistic look. It is not so much used now as 
formerly. 

MALARIA. — A term now generally used to 
designate a certain effluvium or emanation from 
decaying animal or vegetable substances — the 
word tniasm being used in the same sense, but 
generally with the adjunct of marsh. Marshes, 
whether salt or fresh, are prolific sources of 
malaria ; but it is the product also of different 
sorts of soil, as wet meadows, grounds alter- 
nately flooded and drained, the mud left by the 
retiring tide in seaport, and estuaries, land 
covered with low and dense brushwood, or 
with reeds and grass, or nearly cleared of its 
wood, — all these, particularly in warm climates, 
are prolific sources of malaria. It will also re- 
appear in districts and even cities from which 
apparently it had long since been banished on 
account of the digging of a well, or of any ex- 
cavation w^hich exposes new soil to the surface 
during hot weather. The concurrence of 
vegetable matter susceptible of decay, of mois- 
ture, either on the surface or a short dis- 
tance below it, and of a certain warmth of 
temperature, is necessary for its evolution ; and 
of these, long-continued heat has the greatest 
influence in increasing the intensity of the poi- 
son. It is not necessary that the amount of 
vegetable matter be great, or its growth recent, 
since malarious diseases are often caused by 
the draining of ponds and lakes ; neither does 
the quantity of water require to be large, 
just enough moisture to cause the vegetable 
matter to decay when exposed to the heat of 
the sun is more dangerous than a greater 
amount ; and it is only when this moisture is 
being dried up that it becomes pestilential. 

It is observable that malaria is more abund- 
ant and more powerful in Spring and Autumn 
than at any other time of the year, and for this 
reason : Towards the end of Summer trees and 
plants lose their foliage and flowers, and scatter 
their seeds ; an immense quantity of dead 
vegetable matter is thus distributed on the 
ground ; and if the requisite degree of mois- 
ture be present, the heats of Autumn soon 
cause decay and extricate the peculiar sub- 
stances which cause ague when disseminated 
through the air. Marshes again, towards the 
end of Summer, have lost much water by 
evaporation, and the water-plants which grow 



in most marshes in prodigious abundance are 
in a position the most favorable for decomposi- 
tion. The extrication goes on throughout the 
Autumn, but it is arrested by the frosts of Win- 
ter which congeal the water and render decay 
impossible. In the Spring, however, when the 
sun again acquires power, the remnants of 
vegetable matter which escaped decomposition 
during the previous autumn, and which have 
lain dormant all the winter, are speedily acted 
upon, and the evolution of malaria begins. 

As a general rule malaria is pernicious in 
proportion to the proximity to the source ; but 
to this rule there are numerous exceptions. 
Places at some distance, especially if situated 
upon an eminence, are sometimes affected with 
the same, or even greater intensity, than places 
nearer at hand. The distance to which the 
emanations may extend by gradual diffusion is 
estimated to be from 1400 to 1600 feet in eleva- 
iton, and from 600 to 1000 feet in a horizontal 
direction ; but when winds are blowing the dis- 
tance to which the poison may be transported is 
unknown — instances are recorded of its being 
conveyed three or four miles. Though malaria is 
principally owing to heat, it is not in the hottest 
part of the day that its influence is the most 
pernicious, but in the evening and at night. 
Malaria is more liable to attack new-comers, 
and those unused to it, than inhabitants of the 
malarious district. It will sometimes not ex- 
cite ague till the strength of the individual has 
been lowered by some cause or other ; but it 
is a most insidious foe, and every one exposed 
to it should be constantly on guard against its 
inroads. Besides the more familiar effects of 
malaria — remittent and intermittent fevers — 
there are a number of organic affections of the 
spleen, liver, stomach, intestines, and mesen- 
teric glands, also dropsy, palsy, apoplexy, and 
idiocy, which may be directly traced to its in- 
fluence ; while cholera, dysentery, and diarrhoea 
are among its most casual results. 

Touching the means of preventing the gene- 
ration of malaria, numberless methods have 
been tried ,• but there is no effectual remedy 
except thorough drainage, and attention to the 
principles laid down in the first part of the 
article on House. ■ Professor Mentegazza, of 
Italy, has lately made the most important of re- 
cent contributions to the subject in the discov- 
ery that vegetable perfumes exercise a healthful 
and purifying influence on the atmosphere by 
converting its oxygen into ozone, and thus in- 
creasing its oxydizing influence. The essences 
found to develop the largest quantity of ozone 
are those of cherr3'-laurel, cloves, lavender, 
mint, juniper, lemons, fennel, and bergamot ; 
those that give it in smaller quantity are anise, 
nutmeg, and thyme. The flowers of the nar- 
cissus, heliotrope, hyacinth, mignonette, and 
lily of the valley, develop ozone in closed ves- 
sels or in the open air. Flowers destitute of 
perfume do not, as a general thing, develop it ; 
though the large sun-flower is one of the most 
powerful generators of all. Reasoning from 
these facts the Professor recommends the cul- 



MALIC ACID 



MARJORAM 



345 



tivation of flowers in marshy districts, and in 
all places infested with animal emanations on 
account of the powerful oxidizing influence of 
ozone. The inhabitants of such districts, he 
says, should surround their houses with beds 
of the most odorous flowers. 

Malaria, as we have already said, is more 
powerful at night than in the day ; it will attack 
those sleeping on the ground floor, and exempt 
those at the top of the house ; sleeping on the 
ground in the open air is almost sure to bring 
on an attack. Those exposed to it should take 
the greatest precautions against the night 
air, especially while asleep ; the windows 
should be closed at dusk, and some perfume, 
mentioned above, kept in the bed-rooms. {See 
Ague.) 

MALIC ACID. {See AciDS.) 

MALT. {See BREWING.) 

MALT LIQUOR. {See ALE, BEER, LaGER 
Beer, Porter, and Stout.) 

MALT WINE.— L Take of pale malt, 
ground, one bushel, and of boiling water twelve 
gallons ; infuse or mash as for beer {see Brew- 
ing), and strain off the wort ; then add forty 
pounds of loaf sugar and ten pounds of sugar 
candy, dissolved in thirty-two gallons of hot 
water ; when cooled down to 55°, add one 
quart of yeast, and put it into a fifty-four gal- 
lon cask, to which add on the third day twenty 
pounds of raisins stoned. Let it work for 
three days ; then pour in half a gallon of 
brandy, bung it down, taking care to fill the 
cask up with warm but not boiling water, if 
not already full. In four months rack it off 
into another cask and add another half gallon 
of brandy. In a month it will be fit to drink 
from the wood, and in two more to bottle for 
keeping. 

II. (Inexpensive.) — To every gallon of 
water, put three pounds of brown sugar ; boil 
ten minutes and skim it well ; when the liquor 
is nearly cold put two ounces of yeast to it, 
and let it stand till the following day ; then 
put it into a perfectly clean cask, with one 
pint of strong new ale in a state of fer- 
mentation, and one pound of raisins to every 
gallon. Let it stand twelve months before 
bottling it. 

MANGE. — An eruptive disease which at- 
tacks several of the domestic animals, es- 
pecially dogs and pigs. It is said to be pro- 
duced by a minute worm which burrows under 
the skin, and produces a scaly pustule on the 
surface resembling the itch. It is caused by 
confinement, want of cleanliness, and bad air. 
It may be cured by anointing with an ointment 
composed of equal parts of lard and brim- 
stone. 

MARASCHINO. {See LIQUEURS.) 

MARBLE, To Clean.— L Brush a paste of 
chloride of lime and water over the entire 
surface, taking care to protect the adjacent 
wall-paper, or any kind of inferior gilding, 
which will be injured by the chlorine given 
off". 

To remove oil from marble, make a paste of 



equal parts of crude potash and whiting, and 
apply as above. 

Iron Stains may sometimes be removed 
from marble by wetting the spots with lemon 
juice, or oxalic acid and spirits of wine, and in 
a quarter of an hour rubbing the marble dry 
with a soft linen cloth. 

To remove ink-stains — see Ink. 
II. Rub on with a brush a paste com- 
posed of a gill of ox-gall or a gill of strong 
soap-suds, and half a gill of turpentine, all 
mixed together and thickened with finely pow- 
dered pipe-clay. Have a second brush, small 
enough to go into the carving, etc. Having 
applied either of these pastes, let it remain un- 
disturbed for two days, then wipe it off. If 
the marble is not then perfectly bright and 
clean, repeat the application a second or even 
a third time. 

Or, dip a stiff brush (a worn-down paint- 
brush is good) in Javelle water, then in pul- 
verized pumice stone ; clean thoroughly, and 
rinse with cold water. 

A hearth will be improved by rubbing oc- 
casionally with a flannel wet with linseed oil. 
Rub the oil in so as not to come off and grease 
other things. Next day go over it with a 
clean, dry cloth. 

MARIGOLD.- One of the prettiest of the 
garden annuals, easily grown, and bearing 
bright golden flowers throughout the summer. 
Sow the seed in the spring, when the days 
have become warm and the nights exhibit no 
frosts ; or they may be brought forward in 
pots so as to transplant to the open border in 
latter part of May. Sprinkle the seed lightly 
over the surface of the prepared soil, and rake 
them in, afterwards pressing them down with 
the palm of the hand. Water pretty freely, 
and when they come up, thin out and trans- 
plant to their proper places. The plants grow 
best when they are not crowded. Some of the 
new varieties of the Marigold are very attrac- 
tive, but any of them is worth a place in the 
garden. 

Marsh Marigold (called Cowslip in the 
Eastern States) is a common swamp or water- 
plant, which grows from eight to ten inches 
high, with quite a thick stem ; when young the 
leaves can be used as greens as well as a pot- 
herb. In England the flowers are used for 
flavoring soup, stews, etc. 

MARJORAM.— There are several species 
of Marjoram, but that which is preferred for 
cookery, and which is most frequently culti- 
vated in gardens for the purpose is the Sweet 
Marjoram, also called " Knotted Marjoram." 
Winter Sweet Marjoram and Pot-Marjoram 
are also cultivated. They have all the same 
qualities, though in varying degrees. The 
Common or Wild Marjoram is found growing 
in the open fields on calcareous soils. This 
has nearly the same flavor as the cultivated 
varieties, but is inferior, and is seldom used 
except when the others are not at hand. The 
tops and leaves of the Marjoram are used 
both in a green and dry state, and as a relish- 



346 



MARKING CLOTHES 



MATELOTE 



ing- herb in soups, stews, broths, stuffings, etc. 
The branches should be cut for drying- (for 
winter use) in July or August, before the 
flowers open. For Essence of Marjoram, see 
Essences. 

MARKING CLOTHES. See Ink. If in- 
delible ink cannot be had, mark in cross- 
stitch with colored thread. 

MARMALADE. — In making marmalade 
the same precautions must be observed as in 
making jam or jelly. Especial care must be 
taken not to scorch the fruit by placing it over 
too hot a fire and not to cook it too long. 

Apple Mjirmalade. — Pare seven pounds of 
apples, and put them on to stew with a pint 
of water ; when they are quite soft rub them 
through a strainer ; add the same weight of 
sugar as of apples, and the grated peel of four 
lemons ; boil nearly an hour, stirring all the 
time ; ten minutes before taking it off the fire, 
add three ounces of essence of ginger. This 
is very useful throughout the winter- 
Apricot Marmalade. — Remove the stones 
and hard portions of the skins of very ripe 
apricots, cut them in pieces, and set them on 
the fire in a preserving pan, with one pound 
of sugar to one pound of fruit. A quarter of 
an hour's boiling will be sufficient ; or to as- 
certain when the marmalade is done, put a 
little of it on the tip of your finger, and if by ap- 
plying the thumb and withdrawing it a small 
filament is formed, it has boiled enough. 
Stir the marmalade continually while it is 
boiling. If the flavor is liked, break half the 
stones, blanch their kernels in boiling water, 
and put them into the marmalade five minutes 
before it is removed from the fire ; rnix the 
whole well, that each pot may have an equal 
share of the kernels. 

Barberry Marmalade. — Wash the barber- 
ries, stone them, add a quarter of a pint of cold 
water to every pound of fruit ; and boil them 
till quite tender. Then prepare a syrup of a 
pint of water and a pound and a half of sugar to 
every pound of fruit ; boil till quite stiff Boil 
the barberries again till they become a jam : 
add them to the syrup and stir together over 
the fire, simmering it only for a few moments ; 
and then turn it into the pots. 

Lemon Marmalade. — Make same as 
Orange marmalade, allowing a pound and a 
quarter of sugar to a pound of the fruit. 

Orange Marmalade. — Take sour oranges, 12 
lbs ; granulated sugar, 12 lbs. Pare the 
oranges in the same manner as you do apples, 
cover the parings twice their depth with cold 
water ; boil until tender, then drain. Halve 
the oranges cross-wise, press ©ut the juice and 
soft pulp, cover the white skins with three quarts 
of cold water, and boil half an hour ; strain the 
water in the orange juice, and pound the skins 
through the colander until you have 2j lbs of 
pulp; add this also to the juice; cut the yellow 
rind, with scissors, in fine shreds; add to the 
juice, and boil ten minutes ; add the sugar, and 
boil until it thickens. 

Peach Marmalade. — Pare, stone, and 



weigh the fruit ; and allow three-quarters of 
a pound of sugar to every pound of fruit. Put 
the fruit on the fire and heat slowly to draw 
out the juice, stirring up frequently from the 
bottom ; after it is hot, boil quickly three 
quarters of an hour, stirring all the time". Then 
add the sugar, and boil five minutes, carefully 
removing the scum. Add the juice of a lemon 
for every three pounds of the fruit, and the 
water in which one-fourth of the peach kernels 
have been boiled and steeped. Stew all to- 
gether ten minutes, stirring to a smooth paste, 
and remove from the fire. This is one of the 
choicest of the marmalades. 

Pineapple Marmalade Select the largest, 

ripest, and most perfect pineapples that can 
be found ; pare them and cut out all the 
blemishes. Grate them on a large dish, 
using a coarse grater, and omitting the hard 
core which goes down to the centre of each ; 
or, in the absence of the grater, cut them 
into small bits. Add an equal weight of 
the best double-refined sugar (in lump), put 
them into a preserving-kettle, and mix well 
together : set over a moderate and very clear 
fire, and boil and skim well, stirring it after 
skimming ; after the scum has ceased to 
appear, stir the marmalade frequently until 
it is done, which will be in an hour or 
an hour and a half after it has come to 
a boil. But if it is not smooth, clear, and 
bright in that time, continue the boiling till it 
is. This is a delicious preparation of pine- 
apple. 

Quince Marmalade Pare, core, and quar- 
ter some of the inferior quinces, and boil 
them in as much water as will nearly cover 
them, until they begin to break ; strain the 
juice from them, and for the marmalade put 
half a pint of it to each pound of fresh quinces ; 
in preparing these, be careful to cut out the 
hard portions around the cores. Simmer 
them gently until they are very soft, then 
press them, with the juice, through a coarse 
sieve ; put them into a clean pan, and boil until 
they form a dry paste ; add for each pound 
of quinces and the half pint of juice, three- 
quarters of a pound of sugar finely powdered; 
and boil the marmalade for half an hour, 
stirring it constantly. It should be very firm, 
and bright in color. If made shortly after 
the fruit is gathered, a little more sugar will 
be required ; and when a richer and less 
dry marmalade is liked, it must be boiled 
a shorter time, and an equal weight of fruit 
and sugar used. 

Quince-and-Apple Marmalade — Boil toge- 
ther, from three-quarters of an hour to an 
hour, two pounds of apples, pared and cored, 
in an equal weight of quince-juice (^prepared as 
above) ; then take them from the hre, and mix 
with them a pound and a half of finely pow- 
dered sugar: when this is nearly dissolved, set 
the pan again over a brisk fire, and boil twenty 
minutes longer, stirring all the time. 

MATELOTE.— A sort of stew that may- 
be made of any variety of fishes, which 



MEAD 



MELT 



347 



all take the same time to cook. CaqD, tench, 
eels, and pike are very good. 

For a matelote of any or all of these fish, after 
thorough cleansing and washing, let them lie 
a few hours sprinkled with salt, and rinse them 
again before cooking ; if small, merely cut off 
the heads and tails — if large, divide the carp and 
tench into two or three pieces, and the pike 
and eels into convenient lengths. Put some 
button-onions into the stew-pan and brown 
them in butter ; when half done, add a bunch 
of sweet herbs, put in the fish with as much 
good broth as will just suffice to cook it ; add 
a little red or white wine, or good cider ; stew 
closely covered until done, taking care that it 
does not burn. Arrange the fish in a hot, hol- 
low dish ; let the gravy from which it was 
taken boil a minute or two to reduce it, thick- 
ening it with a dust of flour ; at the same 
time make what additions of seasoning you may 
think fit, such as a handful of shrimps, essence 
of anchovies, Harvey's or Worcestershire 
sauce, or Walnut catsup; pour this gravy over 
the fish, and serve with thin toasted bread. 

The matelote may be varied indefinitely, ac- 
cording to the cook's resources. , Cold lobster, 
shrimps, eggs, or oyster sauce, or simple 
melted butter, may be used as thickening. 
The seasoning may be cayenne or black pep- 
per merely, or small pieces of hot pickles. 
For fish matelotes, the gravy should always be 
based on the liquor in which the fish was 
cooked. Cold matelote of eels and tenches is 
excellent, forming a stiff jelly ; this requires a 
dash of vinegar, and a strong seasoning of 
pepper. 

Egg (Matelote of). — Put into a stew-pan a 
pint of vin ordinaire, or cheap claret, or of 
better wine diluted with water. Add pepper, 
salt, a bunch of sweet herbs, an onion sliced, 
and a clove of garlic split. Boil five minutes, 
remove the flavoring materials, and poach 
eight or ten eggs in the liquor, as in water. 
When done, arrange them on a dish; thicken 
the liquor by stirring in a tablespoonful of but- 
ter rolled in a tablespoonful of flour; let it just 
boil up, and pour it over the eggs by way of 
sauce. A few shrimps, shell-fish, or ready- 
cooked pieces of eel or other fish, may be ad- 
ded before serving. 

MATTRESS. {See Beds and Furniture.) 

MAYONNAISE. {See Salad and Sauce.) 

MEAD. — A fermented liquor prepared from 
honey. To make, put four pounds of honey to 
every gallon of water, and boil it three-quarters 
of an hour, skimming carefully. To every gallon 
of this add an ounce of hops ; then boil it half 
an hour and let it stand till next day, then put 
it into a cask, and to thirteen gallons of the 
liquor add a quart of brandy. Stop it up 
lightly until the fermentation is over, and then 
stop it very close. If a large cask is made, 
keep it a year before bottling; for a smaller 
casi<; in proportion. 

Sparkling Mead. — Boil fourteen pounds of 
honey in six gallons of water for half an hour, 
breaking into it three or four egg.s ; then add 



half an ounce each of cinnamon, cloves, mace, 
and bruised ginger, and small bunches of mar- 
joram, balm, and sweet-brier ; boil a quarter of 
an hour longer, and pour it out to cool ; then 
toast a large slice of brown bread, spread it 
over with fresh yeast, and put it into the 
liquor ; let it ferment for a day, and then put it 
into the cask, but keep it open till the fermen- 
tation is complete. Then stop closely. It may 
be bottled in a month, and the corks must be 
securely tied. 

MEASLES. — This disease is most common 
in infancy and early childhood, but may oc- 
cur at any age. It is infectious, but with 
ordinary care is not fatal as a general rule. 
The symptoms are a feverish cold in the head,, 
accompanied by a peculiar ringing coughj 
sneezing, running of the eyes and nose and 
itching of the face, while the eyes are red 
and very sensitive to the light. After some 
days of these symptoms small red crescent- 
shaped spots appear on the face, generally in 
clusters, and then spread over the rest of the 
body. The fever increases as the rash comes 
out. When it has been out three days, the 
spots turn brown, and the skin crumbles off 
like bran. The rash usually disappears in 
three or four days, or a week at farthest. 

Treatment. — Keep the patient in a moder- 
ately warm room, shaded from any strong light. 
Inflammation of the lungs is very liable to oc- 
cur in connection with measles, and should be 
guarded against by every precaution ; the chest 
in particular should be well protected from cold. 
The diet should consist only of milk and light 
farinaceous food ; and a sufficient amount of 
tepid drinks, such as lemonade (for older 
children), arrowroot, barley-water, etc., should 
be given. If the breathing is difficult, put on 
a mustard and oatmeal poultice to the chest, 
and keep the bowels open by injections if need- 
ful. In general this is all that is required, and 
the disorder will subside in from a week to ten 
days ; but if the disease is not running its 
usual course, especially if inflammation devel- 
ops itself, then medical aid should be sum- 
moned. After measles great care should be 
taken to keep the secretions in good order, and 
they should be rigidly watched for some time 
with that view. 

MEASURES. {See Weights and Meas- 
ures.) 

MEAT. {See Food and separate meats.) 

MEDICINES, For family use. {See 
Drugs.) 

MEDOC "WINES. {See Claret.) 

MELONS. {See MusK MELON and Water 
Melon.) 

MELT. — This small, dark, tongue-like piece 
attached to the lights of calves, lambs, sheep, 
and pigs, is not often used in this country, 
but can be made into a very wholesome and 
savory dish. The calves' melt is best, and 
next to this that of pigs. To cook: after 
soaking three or four hours in a little salt and 
water, and vinegar, wipe dry, pepper it well, 
and boil till tender ; or, wash it thoroughly, 



348 



MENSTRUATION 



season it strongly with salt, and boil it over a 
brisk fire. 

MENSTRUATION.— The function of men- 
struation generally begins when the female ar- 
rives at the age of puberty, which in this 
country is usually between the ages of fourteen 
and sixteen ; and terminates at the " critical 
period " or " change of life," which usually oc- 
curs between the forty-fifth and forty-eighth 
years. It consists of sanguineous fluid which is 
exuded from the vessels of the uterus, and es- 
capes through the vagina, the flow generally 
returning every twenty-eight days, and lasting 
from three to six days. About the first appear- 
ance of this discharge the constitution under- 
goes a very considerable change, usually indeed 
for the better, but sometimes for the worse; 
and the greatest care is then necessj\ry. It is 
the duty of mothers especially, and of those 
who are entrusted with the education of girls, 
to instruct them early in the conduct and man- 
agement of themselves at this most critical 
period of their lives. False modesty, inatten- 
tion, and ignorance of what is beneficial or 
hurtful at such times, are the source of many 
diseas-es and misfortunes in after life. The 
eating of improper food, violent affections of 
the mind, or catching cold at this period, are 
often sufficient permanently to injure the 
health, or even to render the woman ever after 
incapable of procreation. 

The first menstrual flow is nearly always 
preceded by symptoms which foretell its ap- 
proach ; as a sense of weight and pain in the 
loins, distention and hardness of the breasts, 
headache, loss of appetite, languor, chilliness, 
and sometimes a slight degree of fever. When 
these symptoms appear at the age at which the 
menses usually begin, everything should be 
carefully avoided which may obstruct the flow, 
and all means used to promote it, as rest from 
all unnecessary exercise, sitting frequently over 
steam from hot water, and drinking warm di- 
luted liquors, as tansy tea, etc. After the 
flow has actually begun, the greatest care 
should be taken to avoid everything that may 
tend to arrest it. Women should be extremely 
cautious of what they eat and drink at the 
time they are out of order. Everything 
that is cold or apt to sour on the stomach 
should be avoided ; as should fish, and all 
kinds of food that are difficult of digestion. 
Cold should be especially guarded against at 
these periods ; more of the sex date their dis- 
eases from catching cold while they are out of 
order than from all other causes combined, 
probably. A degree of cold that will not in the 
least hurt them at another time will at this 
period seriously endanger the health. Rest 
also, at least comparative rest, from all the 
usual avocations, even from study, should be 
obtained. German mothers, notably the health- 
iest women in Europe, compel their daughters 
during the first few years to remain in bed 
during the first day of the discharge, and to 
abstain from all except the most necessary ex- 
ercise until the discharge ceases. From the 



time the mcnseshe.g\n until about the twentieth 
year, this function is the main instrument in 
building up the most delicate, complex, and im- 
portant apparatus known to nature : and unless 
especial attention is paid during all this period 
to the conditions upon which health depends — 
exercise, wholesome and appropriate food, and 
healthful dress — the neglect is almost certain 
to be dearly paid for in after-life. The fact that 
the years embraced in this period are those in 
which girls are expected to get the most im- 
portant part of their education, greatly compli- 
cates the matter, and it is the conviction now 
of nearly every leading physiologist that the 
schools in which young women are trained 
must be organized on such elastic methods as 
to allow of a suspension of study, complete or 
partial, on the part of each pupil for four or 
five days in each month. When provision foi 
this is not made in the schools, their parents 
should take the responsibility upon themselves. 

When menstruation has once commenced, 
its regular occurrence is absolutely indispens- 
able to good health ; and from whatever cause 
it is obstructed (except from pregnancy) proper 
means should be used to restore it. For this 
purpose, exercise in the open air, wholesome 
diet, and, if the body be weak and languid, 
generous liquors will generally be sufficient ; 
but if these fail recourse must be had to medi- 
cine. When obstructions proceed from a 
weak state of health, such medicines as pro- 
mote digestion and give tone to the sys- 
tem must be used. The best of these are 
iron, Peruvian bark, and prepared steel. In- 
fuse two or three ounces of iron filings in a 
quart of ale, and after it has stood two weeks, 
filter it, and take half a wineglassful twice a 
day (fifteen drops of tincture of iron in a little 
water will do as well,) or prepared steel may 
be taken in doses of hali a drachm, mixed with 
a little honey or molasses, three or four times 
a day. The bark and other bitters may be 
taken either powdered or in infusion as most 
agreeable. When obstructions are caused by 
a bad state of the blood, or when they occur in 
women of a gross or full habit, mild purgatives, 
a spare diet, and attenuating drinks, accom- 
panied by frequent bathing of the feet in warm 
water effect a cure. A half-spoonful of the 
tincture of black hellebore may also be taken 
twice a day in a teacupful of warm water. 
When the flow is simply delayed beyond the 
usual time, by a cold for instance, the feet 
should be bathed twice a day in warm water, a 
warm bath should be taken, warm applications 
placed on the bowels and a copious draught of 
pennyroyal or tansy tea taken warm, with a. 
strong infusion of gin. An obstruction of the 
menses is often the result of other maladies. 
When this is the case, instead of trying to force 
that discharge (which might be dangerous), 
the treatment should be directed to restoring 
the patient's general health. When that is 
effected, the other will return of course, and 
without special treatment. 

The flow of the menses is to be considered 



MENSTRUATION 



MERINGUES 



349 



immoderate when it either returns more fre- 
quently than is natural, or continues longer or 
is more abundant than usual ; it is generally 
accompanied by pains in the back and belly, 
somewhat like those of childbirth. This is 
very weakening, and unless promptly arrested 
is apt to degenerate into dropsy or consump- 
tion. The most effective treatment here, as 
before, is in attention to the general health and 
the conditions which affect it. At the time of 
the flow, if it is very copious, the patient should 
lie on a rather hard mattress, with the head 
low ; confine herself to a cool and slender diet, 
as veal or chicken broth with bread ; drink 
lemonade or other cool acidulated liquors ; and 
take small and frequent doses of nitre (say half 
a teaspooniul every two hours). If these do 
not arrest the flux, take two drachms of alum 
and one of Japan-earth, pounded together, di- 
vide into eight or nine doses, and give one 
three times a day. Persons whose stomachs 
cannot bear alum may take two tablespoonfuls 
of infusion of roses, three or four times a day, 
to each dose of which ten drops of laudanum 
may be added. If these should fail, lialf a 
drachm of powdered Peruvian bark, and ten 
drops of ehxir of vitriol may be taken in a 
glass of red wine four times a day. 

Leucorrhoea. — The discharge may offend 
in quality as well as in quantity. What is 
called ivhites or fiiior albtis is a very common 
disease, and is very injurious to delicate women. 
This discharge is not always white, however, 
but may be either pale yellow, green, or black- 
ish ; sometimes it is acrid and corrosive ; some- 
times foul and foetid. It is attended by pain in 
the back, loss of appetite, swelling of the feet, 
and other signs of debility; and is generally 
the result of a relaxed state of the body, fre- 
quent childbearing, etc. It is obvious that 
hygienic measures adapted to improve the gen- 
eral condition of the body must play the chief 
part in the treatment of this disease ; the food 
should be solid and nourishing, but easy of 
digestion, and the drink generous, as port or 
good claret. Tea and coffee should be avoided, 
and strong broth drunk instead. Besides this 
regimen, Peruvian bark or some other astring- 
ent bitters, or the muriated tincture of ir©n 
in 20 drop doses, largely diluted with water, 
three times a day after meals may be taken ; 
and the loins and thighs may be sponged 
twice a day with cold water. The solution 
of acetate of lead, a teaspoonful to a half 
pint of water, may be employed as a wash or 
injection. 

Difiicult Menstruation {Dysmenorrhcea) 
is a disease in which the menses, though not 
entirely suppressed, are accompanied with sev- 
ere pains in the back, loins, and bottom of the 
belly. It is caused by weak action of the 
vessels of the uterus, or spasm of its extreme 
vessels ; and is to be removed by warm bathing, 
both topical and general, with the use of opiates 
(under a physician's advice), which should be 
employed on the first appearance of the sym.p- 
toms that denote its approach. Many cases of 



dysmenorrhcea are due to causes which require 
local surgical treatment. 

The cessation of the menses, commonly call- 
ed " the turn of life," is a very critical period, 
and requires the most careful attention to the 
conditions of good health. If they cease all 
of a sudden, which is very seldom the case, the 
treatment is by rather low diet, plenty of exer- 
cise, and keeping the bowels open. For this 
latter purpose a little rhubarb, or a dose of 
Rochelle salts may be taken twice a week. 
Ulcerous, cancerous, or other chronic diseases 
sometimes follow upon this cessation and acute 
diseases of a dangerous nature are not infre- 
quent ; but these are matters with which dom- 
estic medicines must not venture to deal, and 
the advice of a physician must be sought. The 
most dreaded accident, however, is too profuse 
menstruation, the popular idea that this con- 
dition is natural at the turn of life, is incorrect. 
It is probably due to some uterine disease 
requiring the physician's attention. 

MERINGUES.— Whisk to the firmest pos- 
sible froth the whites of six fresh eggs. Lay 
some squares or strips of writing-paper closely 
together upon a board or thick dish. When 
these are ready, mix the eggs with three- 
quarters of a pound of the finest sugar, well 
dried, and sifted ; stir them together thoroughly 
and then with a table or dessert-spoon lay the 
mixture quickly on the papers in the form of 
a half-egg, sift sugar over them without delay, 
blow off with a bellows all that does not adhere, 
and set the fneringnes into a moderate oven. 
The process must be quick, or th« sugar melt- 
ing will cause the cakes to spread, instead of 
retaining the shape of the spoon, as they ought. 
When they are colored to a light brown and 
are firm to the touch, draw them out, turn the 







Meringues. 

papers gently over, separating the meringues 
from them, and with a teaspoon scoop out 
enough of the insides to form a space for some 
whipped cream or preserves, and put them 
again into the oven, upon some clean sheets of 
paper, with the moist side uppermost, to dry. 
When they are crisp through, they are done. 
Let them become cold : fill "with the cream or 
preserves ; and then join together, two by two 
with a little white of t.gg, so as to give them the 
appearance shown in the engraving. 



350 



MERINO 



METER 



Italian Meringues. — Take the whites of six 
eggs and a pound of fine sugar, or half the 
quantity for a small number of meringues. 
Boil the sugar with a pint of water until it 
whitens, and begins to fall in flakes from the 
skimmer; in the mean time have the eggs whisk- 
ed to a perfectly solid froth, and when the 
sugar has stood for three minutes after the 
boiling, and been worked well from the sides 
of the pan, mix them gradually but very quick- 
ly with it, until the mass is quite smooth and 
firm enough to retain its shape when moulded 
by a teaspoon ; lay out the cakes on writing- 
paper, and set them in an oven so slow as to 
harden without coloring them. As they are 
not to be filled, but merely fastened together, 
they may be baked on tins. 

Part of them may be varied by the addition 
of three or four ounces of pounded almonds 
mixed thoroughly with half the eggs and sugar, 
when a portion of the meringues have been 
moulded ; these will require to be baked much 
longer than the others ; they should be lightly 
browned, and crisp quite through. 

Pears or other Fruit, (Meringues of.) — 
Fill a deep tart-dish nearly to the brim with 



stewed pears, and let them be about half cover- 
ed with their juice. Whisk to a solid froth the 
whites of five eggs ; stir to them five table- 
spoonfuls of sifted white sugar, and lay the 
mixture lightly and equally over the fruit ; set 
the dish immediately into a moderate oven and 
bake it fifteen minutes. Cherries, damsons, or 
common plums, first stewed as for compotes 
{See Compotes) answer as well as pears for 
this dish ; also apples, apricots, or peaches, 
boiled down to a marmalade with sufficient 
sugar to sweeten them moderately. The skins 
and stones of the peaches, apricots, and plums 
should be removed, but a few of the blanched 
kernels may be used to flavor the fruit. 

MERINO. — An extremely fine twilled stuff, 
made of the finest wool, and used for dresses 
or shawls. The French excel in the manu- 
facture of this article, and their best qualities, 
approximate to Cashmere ; but there are also 
very good merinoes of English and American 
make. Merino is found of all colors and quali- 
ties, and is usually either three-quarters or six- 
quarters wide. 

There are also merinoes made of a mixture 
of wool and silk. 




Vertical Section of Water Meter Drum. 

a, inlet ; g, exit pipe ; kkk. compartments of the drum ; e, slit for exit of ga^ from compartments ; b, c, direction of 

rotation of drum. 



METERS, for Gas.— These are of two kinds, 
the water-meter and the dry-meter. The dry- 
meter has the advantage that it does not aid in 
the deposit of the water in the tubes, which is 
always going on more or less, and which it is 
necessary to avoid as far as possible by taking 
care that the pipes all drain into the meter, 
without any depending portions except at the 
burners, where it is impossible to avoid it. 

A Water Meter consists of a drum divid- 
ed into four compartments by partitions so 



arranged that when the water is at the 
proper level — so as to immerse about three- 
fifths of the drum — gas may enter into or 
escape from some of the compartments, but 
cannot do both at the same time in the case of 
any one compartment. The drum is moved by 
the pressureof the gas against the partitions. 
The motion of the drum is communicated 
to wheel-work which turns the hands on the 
meter dial. The measuring space of the meter 
depends of course upon the level of the water in 



METER 



351 



the drum ; if this is too high the meter has to 
make more revolutions to pass a given amount of 
gas, and registers high or against the consumer. 



If the water is too low, fewer revolutions for the 
same amount are required, and it registers low 
or against the company. To prevent the for- 




FlG. 2. 

Vertical section of wet meter. G inlet, ^ outlet, h float, / valve, « overflow pipe, u plug to let oflE surplus water, 
wheel-work of dials ; V, plug for pouring water into meter. 



mer state of affairs so far as possible, the tube 
n (Figs. 2 and 3), is so arranged as to act as an 
overflow and stop the flow of gas completely if 




Vertical section of wet meter at right angles to that in Fig. 2. 
Lettering same as in Fig. 2. 

the water level is too high. To avoid other 
consequences of a low water level, the float h 
(Figs. 2 and 3) is applied which is attached to 
the valve i (Figs. 2 and 3) which shuts off the 
gas by falling upon its seat. 

The freezing of the water in the meter stops 



the motion of the drum, and consequently the 
flow of the gas. It may be thawed by pouring 
boiling water over the meter or into it. Gly- 
cerine solution of chloride of calcium, 4 lbs to 
the gallon, and similar liquids which neither 
freeze nor evaporate, are used to prevent this 
difficulty. 

Besides the stoppage caused by freezing of 
the water in the meter, the gas in a house sup- 
plied through a wet meter will sometimes re- 
fuse to burn on account of too much or too 
little water in the meter. In such a case the 
plug tt (Fig. 2) should be unscrewed to let out 
the excess from the overflow, or water should 
be poured in through V (Fig. 2) until it runs 
out at the overflow. Condensation of water in 
the pipes will often cause the lights to jump or 
extinguish them altogether. This is remedied 
by removing a burner and blowing strongly 
through the pipe will sometimes force the wa- 
ter out of the depression in the line of pipe 
where it has collected. 

Freezing of moisture in the service pipe may 
also cut off the supply of gas. This can only 
be remedied by excavation and applying heat 
outside the house. 

A dry meter consists of two chambers (some- 
times three), usually circular, resembling in ap- 
pearance a double bellows which are so connect- 
ed that when one side is expanded, the other side 
is contracted. The gas passing through the me^ 
ter fills and empties these chambers alternately, 
and by the reciprocating action thus produced, a 
train of wheel work attached to the hands of the 



352 



METER 



MILK 



dials, is made to move. The mode of action may 
be best understood from Figs. 4 and 5. The 




Fig. 4- 
Side view of dry meter. 

Description of Figs, 4 and 5. — A inlet, B outlet, rr, U 
and dd?iTS the rings, leather belts and disks forming the measur- 
ing bellows, held in place by the guides eg;, 2 and 3 in cut 4 and 
s in cut 5, attachment connecting with the arrangement for 
converting the reciprocating motion into rotary motion. The 
slide valves are so arranged that when one side of the bellows 
is full the flow of gas is turned into the other side which fills as 
the first one empties, the gas escaping through the pipe B, 




Fig. 5. 
Front view of dry meter. 

side valves sometimes stick, but may usually 
be started by suddenly turning on the gas at 
the service pipe. The flexible diaphragms of 
the bellows are apt after a time to grow stiff, 
when the lights become unsteady. Wet meters 
are simpler and less liable to get out of order 
than dry meters. The latter on the other hand 
are not subject to freezing, too much or too 
little water, or water in the house pipes. 

The index of the meter is quite simple. A 
small dial above Js not used except in testing 



the meter. The dials below are marked tens, 
hundreds, thousands, etc., according to what 
they record. The lowest figure when the hand 
is between two, should be taken ; thus : if the 
dial marked " loo thousand " has the hand be- 
tween 5 and 6, that marked " lo thousand " 
between o and 9, that marked " thousands " at 
8, the reading would be 598,000. If sometime 
after the " loo thousand " hand is between 7 
and 8, the " 10 thousand" at 2, and the "thou- 
sand" between o and i, the reading is 720,000, 
and the difference between these figures, or 
122,000 feet, have passed through the meter. 
Householders may easily verify the accuracy of 
their gas bills by consulting their meter at 
stated intervals. ' 

MICE. — A good cat is the best remedy for 
these nuisances, and will generally clean the 
house of them in a short time. A turtle in the 
cellar is said to keep it clear of mice and rats, 
probably by some odor disagreeable to them. 
We do not vouch for the statement. Many poi- 
sons for them are sold in the shops, the best of 
which is the phosphorus paste ; but equal 
quantities of hemlock and old cheese, or of arse- 
nic and meal, are as good as anything else. The 
objection to using poison is that it renders the 
house liable to a bad smell ; but this evil may 
be lessened by placing a dish containing oil of 
vitriol poured on saltpetre, or chloride of lime 
and water, where the smell is most annoying. 

MIGNONETTE. — One of the most popular 
of the hardy annuals. It will thrive in any 
good garden soil and requires no care ; 
and where this plant has once grown well it 
will come up year after year from self-sown 
seed. Sow late in the autumn and it will come 
up early the next spring and bloom profusely 
all summer. The flowers of the common vari- 
ety are a greenish white, and of exquisite 
fragrance. Parson's new white, and the crimson 
flowered, are choice novelties. 

MILDEW.— This is one of the most dif- 
ficult of stains to remove, and cannot be re- 
moved at all unless it is attacked early. Mix 
soft soap with powdered starch, half as much 
salt, and the juice of a lemon ; spread this mix- 
ture on both sides of the mildewed cloth. Let 
it lie on the grass day and night till the stain 
comes out, renewing the application two or 
three times a day. 

Salt wet with tomato-juice will sometimes 
extract the stain. Spread the cloth on the grass 
in the sun as before. 

MILK. — This is one of the most important 
foods which nature has supplied for the use of 
man, since it contains all the elements of 
nutrition within itself, and in the most digest- 
ible form ; and there is no other, perhaps, 
which is found in such universal use through- 
out the world. Cow's milk, which is the only 
kind of which we shall treat here, is the most 
agreeable of any ; and even for infants is supe- 
rior to any other except the human milk. {See 
Infants.) Its quality depends very largely 
upon the breed of the cow — some breeds give 
milk much richer in cream than others — and 



MILK-WEED 



MINCEMEAT 



353 



also upon the treatment which the cow receives. 
(See Cow.) Scarcely less important is the 
management of the milk itself, after it is drawn 
from the cow, and too much care cannot be be- 
stowed upon this point. (See Dairy.) 

Milk from a farm where typhoid fever exists 
is one of the most prolific sources of the 
spread of that disease. In hot weather milk may 
be kept sweet by scalding it very gently, with- 
out boiling; also by putting a spoonful of' 
scraped horse-radish into each pan of milk, 
which will keep it sweet for several days. 
Cream may be kept for twenty-four hours by 
scalding it ; and, if sweetened with pounded 
loaf-sugar, it may be kept two days. Certain 
kinds of food affect the flavor of milk; turnips, 
for instance, impart a flavor which is very dis- 
agreeable. This flavor may be removed by 
dissolving a pound of saltpetre in a gallon of 
boiling water, and adding a half pint of this 
solution to every four gallons of milk as it comes 
from the cow. 

The adulteration of milk, as sold in the cities, 
has always been considered to be very great — 
that is, it has been believed that not only water, 
but various other ingredients are added in 
great quantities. Recent analyses in several of 
the cities seem to prove that this is a fallacy ; 
and that while water is added in numerous in- 
stances, it is extremely seldom that even chalk 
or starch has been used for adulteration, 
v/hile of other substances there are practically 
none. Starch is said to be sometimes added to 
conceal the blue color produced by the addition 
of water ; it is easily detected by the violet-blue 
color formed when the milk is brought in con- 
tact with a drop of tincture of iodine. Chalk 
is added occasionally to neutralize the acidity 
in sour milk, and also to give it thickness and 
body. When this is the case, the deposit left 
by the milk, after standing some time, if washed 
and dissolved in acetic acid {vifiegar) will effer- 
vesce. A more common fraud than any, prob- 
ably, consists in removing the cream ; but this 
can usually be told merely by tasting. 

Condensed Milk is simply milk boiled till 
all the water is extracted from the other ingredi- 
ents, with the addition of a certain proportion of 
sugar. Dilution with water brings it back near- 
ly to its original condition. This milk has 
several advantages over the fresh in cities, — 
one of which is that it is certainly pure. {See 
Butter, Buttermilk, Cheese, Cream, and 
Dairy.) 

MILKING. {See Cow.) 

MILK-WEED. — An extensive family of 
plants, known also as " milk-vetch," growing 
wild in many portions of the country, the young 
shoots of which, when about four to six inches 
high, make excellent and tender greens. Even 
after the young leaves become detached from 
the stalk and begin to mature, they are good. 
When sold in the market, the young milk-weed 
is usually tied up like asparagus, in bunches ; 
but the stalks are shorter, and of a lighter 
color. It is best in May, and that which grows 
in the shade is most tender and sweet. Cook 
23 



and stew like any other vegetable used for 
greens. 

MILLET. — The smallest seeded of the corn 
plants, being a true grass, but the number of 
seeds in an ear makes up for the diminutive 
size. There are numerous varieties of the mil-» 
let which are cultivated as food in different 
parts of the world. The cojitmon millet is the 
kind usually grown here (when it is cultivated 
at all), and of this there are two kinds, the 
brown and the yellow. The first is sometimes 
used as a substitute for sago and rice, and it 
makes very good puddings. A yellow variety 
of the Ilaliatt millet, called " golden-cloud mil- 
let," is sold in the grocers' shops for making pud- 
dings, and is very delicate and wholesome. 

MINCEMEAT.— L T^/iv .--Beef-tongue, or 
inside of roasted sirloin, i lb ; beef kidney-suet, 
2 lbs ; stoned raisins and minced apples, each 
2 lbs ; currants, 2^ lbs ; fine sugar, z]^, lbs ; 
candied orange, lemon, or citron peel, 8 to 16 
oz ; lemons, 2 ; peel of 2 others grated ; salt, % 
oz ; nutmegs, 2 ; pounded mace, i teaspoonful ; 
ground ginger, rather more than i teaspoonful ; 
sherry or Madeira, Yz pt ; brandy, yi pt. 

Boil the tongue {withotit salt) until quite ten- 
der and cut free from the rind ; or if the sirloin 
be used cut it from the inside of a well-roasted 
joint. Boil the two lemons whole until quite 
tender, and then chop them up entirely, with 
the exception of the pips. Mince each of the 
above ingredients separately, and all well to- 
gether before the wine and brandy are added. 

After the mincemeat is mixed thoroughly, 
press it into a jar or jars, and keep it closely 
covered ; it should be stored for a few days be- 
fore it is used, and will remain good all winter. 
Some persons like a slight flavoring of cloves 
in addition to the other spices ; others add the 
juice of two lemons, and a larger quantity of 
brandy. Minor changes such as these can be 
made to suit individual tastes 

II. 7"«/fi? .--Lean beef {boiled), 2 lbs; beef- 
suet, I lb ; apples, 5 lbs ; seeded raisins, 2 lbs ; 
sultana raisins, i lb ; currants, 2 lbs ; citron, }( 
lb ; pounded mace, 2 tablespoonfuls ; pounded 
cinnamon, 2 tablespoonfuls ; nutmeg, grated, 
I ; cloves, and allspice, i tablespoonful each ; 
brown sugar, 2% lbs; sherry, i qt; brandy, i 

Wash the currants and raisins and pick them 
out carefully ; pare and core the apples ; mince 
these, together with the beef and suet, separ- 
ately ; and mix all together thoroughly before 
adding the sherry and brandy. This may be 
kept, as in preceding recipe, all winter. 

III. Take .--Beef-suet, 2 lbs; currants, 2 lbs; 
raisins, seeded, i lb; bread, 2 oz; brown sugar, 
1% lbs ; red and white wine, mixed, 3: gills ; 
lemons, peel of 2 and juice of i; candied 
orange-peel, 4 oz; cinnamon, mace, nutmeg, 
and salt, to taste. 

Prepare and mix as above. If preferred^ two 
biscuits may be substituted for the two ounces 
of bread. 

Mock Mincemeat. — Take .--Raisins, i tea- 
cupful ; currants, i teacupf ul ; molasses, brown 



354 



MINT 



sugar, and sour cider each, i teacupful ; cold 
water, 2 teacupfuls ; melted butter, i yi teacup- 
fuls ; eggs, beaten, 2 ; soda-crackers, rolled 
fine, 6; cinnamon and allspice mixed, i table- 
spoonful ; salt, pepper, nutmeg, and cloves, 
each, I tablespoonful : brandy, i wineglassful. 

Prepare and mix as above. Boiled cider or 
the syrup from sweet pickles may be used for 
mince pies, instead of wine or brandy. 

MINT. — The common mint, sometimes 
called " spearmint" or "green mint," is what 
is generally meant by mint, though pennyroyal 
and peppe'rmint are members of the same 
family. The young leaves of from one to six 
inches in length are the parts used. Mint will 
grow in any sort of garden soil and in any situ- 
ation, but a warm, sunny spot will bring it for- 
ward earlier. It is very prolific, and a bed six 
feet long and two feet wide will produce a large 
quantity. It is best propagated by cuttings, or 
by dividing the roots of an old plant. Early 
spring is the best time for this ; though it may 
be done at any time by shading and watering 
during the first few days. Those who have 
conservatories or frames should keep a root or 
twig of mint in pots, as it is in demand for lamb 
very early in the year, before it puts forth its 
leaves in the open air. In drying mint, cut 
the stalks just before the plant is in full flower, 
and spread them out thinly in some dry, shady 
place, where they can dry slowly. When of 
sufficient crispness, put it in paper bags (this is 
better than laying up in bunches), and keep in 
a dry place till wanted. {See Sauces.) 

MINT JULEP. {See Julep.) 

MIRRORS. (To Clean.)— Remove the fly 
stains and other spots with a damp rag ; then 
ipolish with a dry woollen cloth and powder- 
'blue. Or, take a clean piece of sponge, well 
■washed out in water, and dip it into methylated 
;spirits of wine ; rub it rapidly over the glass ; 
put over it powder-blue, or the finest sifted 
whiting ; rub it off with a clean linen cloth, and 
polish with soft leather or an old silk hand- 
Ikerchief. 

MOCKING-BIRD. — This bird takes its 
mame from its remarkable powers of voice, 
being able to imitate the notes of nearly every 
•other species of bird, and of many animals, as 
well as noises that are artificially produced. 
Nor are its notes entirely imitative ; its own 
song is bold, full, and exceedingly varied ; and 
in confinement it loses little of its energy. It 
is a native of the Southern States, whence 
those found in our bird-fanciers' shops are 
brought. Only the males sing, and these may 
be distinguished by the markings of the wings. 
When these are opened, if the bird be a male, 
two distinct bands of white may be traced en- 
tirely across them, and the central feather in 
each wing is nearly or quite white. These 
markings are absent in the females. 

Mocking-birds require much larger cages than 
the canary, and in a northern climate must be 
carefully sheltered in winter and at night. The 
best food for them is a mixture of boiled white 
potatoes and boiled yolk of egg (two parts of 



MOREEN 

potato to one of egg) mashed together. They 
also require a liberal supply of earth worms, 
grasshoppers, and an occasional sprig of green 
vegetables, together with berries in their sea- 
son. The care of the cage is described in 
article on Bird-Cage. 

The mocking-bird is much superior to the 
canary as a songster, with a greater variety of 
notes, and a more brilliant execution ; and can 
be taught to whistle a variety of tunes per- 
fectly, even when these are of considerable 
length. In buying, select a young bird, as it 
can be taught more easily, and is less likely to 
suffer from change of residence and diet. 

MODERATEUR LAMP. {See Carcel.) 

MOHAIR.— A kind of cloth made of the 
hair of the Angora goat, and suitable for pal- 
etots, etc. Mohair dresses were much worn 
by ladies a few years ago, but they have been 
superseded lately by alpaca cloths and other 
similar materials. Mohair is manufactured in 
France, England, and Scotland ; the French is 
the best. It comes in pieces three-quarters of 
a yard, a yard, and a yard and a half wide. 

MOLASSES. — This term is commonly af>- 
plied to all the syrups produced in the manu- 
facture of sugar, but properly speaking it 
means only that brown viscid syrup which in- 
cludes those portions of the saccharine juice 
that are uncrystallizable, either naturally, or 
rendered so by defects in the process of boil- 
ing. It contains a large proportion of the 
sweet or saccharine principle of the sugar-cane 
juice, and this, combined with its cheapness, 
renders it a useful article of domestic economy. 
It is considered very wholesome, and children 
are generally fond of it. Molasses may be de- 
prived of its peculiar rank taste by boiling it 
for half an hour with a little pulverized char- 
coal ; after straining it from the charcoal the 
flavor of the liquor will be found equal to that 
of sugar. The syrups which remain after the 
sugar has passed through the process of refin- 
ing are generally known as treacle. In buy- 
ing molasses, reject the very dark, and 
choose that which is clear and smooth. 

MOLASSES CANDY. {See Candy.) 

MOOSE. — This animal is also known as the 
"moose-deer," and its flesh may properly be 
called moose-venison. It is very scarce, but 
is sometimes found in the winter time in New 
York and Boston, and the more northern mar- 
kets. The meat is not so inviting to the eye 
as the common venison, being coarse, dry, dark, 
and tough-looking ; but sportsmen say it is ex- 
cfellent food, and more nutritious than any 
other. The tongue is considered a delicacy, 
and so is the moufle (the large, gristly extremity 
of the nose). Prepare, cook and serve like 
Venison. 

MOREEN. — A very stout woollen stuff, 
made for furniture and chiefly for window-cur- 
tains. It is manufactured either plain or 
watered. Some moreen is of a very nice qual- 
ity, resembling silk damask in appearance ; 
but it mav also be had at very low prices. 
Usual width, % yard. 



MORPHINE 



MOULD 



355 



MORPHINE. — Poison. Treatment, see 
Opium. A vegetable alkaloid made from opium. 
It is a powerful anodyne and sedative, and is 
much used in medicine, either in the form of 
hydrochlorate, acetate, sulphate, or citrate ; the 
first-named being used most frequently. The 
best preparation of it is what is known as Magen- 
die's Solution. Morphine is a deadly poison 
when taken in overdoses, and its use is attended 
with such danger under any circumstances 
that it should never be taken except by and 
in accordance with medical advice. In sub- 
cutaneous injections of morphine, be sure to 
have Magendie' s Solution without acid, fresh 
and clear, or an abscess will result. There 
is danger of forming a morphine or an opium 
habit, as bad as the alcohol habit. Moreover 
the patient may be under the influence of opium 
so as to be really irresponsible, and yet his con- 
dition not apparent to companions. In such a 
state, there is great danger of his seeking the 
drug and taking a poisonous dose ; it should 
therefore be kept out of his reach. In the so-call- 
ed " reaction " from excessive doses of opium, 
the suicidal mania is apt to come, so the patient 
should be watched, even for three or four days 
after the effects of the drug appear to be entire- 
ly gone. After it has been necessary to give 
heavy doses of opium, it should not be stopped 
off suddenly, but the dose should be continued 
though gradually but inexorably lessened at 
the rate of about one-third per day. Opium is 
probably the most powerful stimulant known, 
and the effects of its sudden withdrawal are 
more painful than those of even alcohol. 

MORTAR. (^See Wedgewood mortar.) 

MOSELLE "WINES.— These wines are 
made in the valley of the Moselle (Germany), 
and are usually classified with the Rhine wines, 
though they are much inferior to the better 
qualities of the latter. They are also lighter 
and less spirituous, and of rather thin body ; 
but they are noted for an agreeable aromatic 
flavor, which, however, is said to be generally 
imparted to the wine by mixing with it tincture 
of elder-flowers. The better sorts of Moselle 
are highly esteemed in Germany for their sup- 
posed medicinal properties ; they are believed 
to be not only generous and stimulating but 
slightly laxative. 

The most celebrated brands are the Branne- 
berger, and Scharzberger j and scarcely less 
esteemed are the Zeltigner, Graachen, Dun, 
yosephshoff, Berncastle, Grtinhaitsen, Scharg- 
hoffberger, and Piesporter Auslese. By a pro- 
cess similar to that by which champagne is 
made, large quantities of sparkling Moselle 
are manufactured, which resembles champagne 
in taste, and by means of false labels is sold as 
such. It is never a pure and good wine. 

Moselle is essentially a summer wine, and 
should be drunk cooled. 

MOSQUITOES. — The only sure protection 
against these troublesome little insects is to 
have nets at the windows, so as to keep them 
out of the room, or, failing this, to have close 
nets around the bed. The fumes of camphor 



are supposed to be disagreeable to them, and 
in the absence of the nets may be applied to 
the face ; but whatever effect it has is only tem- 
porary. Spirits of ammonia (hartshorn) is the 
best antidote for their bites ; salt and water is 
good. 

MOSS, ICELAND. {See Lichens.) 

MOTHS. — Many persons suppose that moths 
are produced in clothes that are laid by, merely 
by their being shut up in closed places ; but 
this is an error. The moths themselves are quite 
harmless, and it is only in their larva or maggot 
state that they feed upon the woollen fabric. 
None of these larvae ever appear among clothes 
or articles of any kind, provided none of the 
winged moths can have access to them to lay 
their eggs ; therefore, by preventing the winged 
moths from obtaining access to what you wish 
to preserve, no injury by moths can possibly 
happen to them. By tying up any article that 
is free from moths in paper, calico, or linen so 
tightly that the winged moths cannot penetrate 
it, it may be kept secure. But it is to be 
observed that the moth is very cunning, and 
unless the enfolding has been very careful they 
will effect an entrance. Camphor, cedar-wood, 
pepper and Russia-leather will, to a certain 
extent, repel their advances ; but neither of 
them can be relied on, and the above precau- 
tion is all that is necessary. 

Should any woollen articles appear to be 
attacked by moths, beating and brushing, and 
exposure to the sun should be resorted to at 
once. They should then be hung in a closet 
or wardrobe in which an open vessel containing 
spirits of turpentine has been placed ; this will 
effectually destroy all the larvae. (6V^ Carpets.) 

MOULD. — Mouldiness is caused by the 
growth of minute vegetation. Ink, paste, 
leather, and seeds most frequently suffer from it. 
A clove, or a few drops of any essential oil, 
will preserve ink. Leather may be preserved 
by the same substances ; thus, Russia-leather, 
which is perfumed with tar of birch, not only 
never becomes mouldy but prevents its occur- 
ring in other bodies. A few drops of essential 
oil put in the box in which they are packed 
will keep books entirely free from mould. For 
harness, oil of turpentine is good. Alum and 
resin are used to preserve bookbinders'-paste, 
but ineffectually; oil of turpentine (three or 
four drops to a quart) succeeds better, but by 
small quantities of oil of peppermint, anise, 
or cassia, paste has been preserved for several 
years. Seeds may also be preserved by putting 
a few drops of any of the essential oils on the 
paper or cloth in which they are enclosed ; and 
this is of great consequence when they are 
sent to a distance. Of course moisture must 
be excluded as much as possible, as the oils 
prevent the bad effects of mould only. 

Iron-mould is in reality a stain from r.ust, 
and is as nearly ineradicable as stain can be. 
By moistening the part with ink, and, while 
this is wet, rubbing it with muriatic acid diluted 
with five times its weight of water, both stains , 
may sometimes be removed together. 



I 



356 



MUCILAGE 



MULLET 



MUCILAGE. — A solution of gum in water, 
used in medicine, and as a paste in many 
household processes. Mucilage of gum-arabic 
is best for these latter purposes. Dissolve 
gum-arabic (the best is nearly colorless) in 
either hot or cold water till the whole is of the 
consistency of cream, and keep it as much as 
possible from contact with the air. Add a few 
drops of any essential oil, to prevent its sour- 
ing. About 30 drops of syrupy glycerine to a 
pint of mucilage will prevent its cracking when 
dry, or making labels curl. 

MUFFINS.— Tfl^^. --Flour, 3 pts ; milk, i>^ 
pts ; yeast, yi teacupful ; eggs, 2 ; melted but- 
ter, 4 tablespoonfuls ; salt, i teaspoonful. 

Heat the milk till lukewarm, and then mix 
in the flour ; beat the eggs, and add them with 
the other ingredients. Set the batter to rise 
in a warm place ; when light, butter the mufhn 
rings, turn in the mixture, and bake on a grid- 
dle not too hot, till the muffins are of a light 
brown. Serve hot. 

Bread Muffins. — Take .--Raised bread, 4 
thick slices ; flour, two tablespoonfuls ; milk, 
yi pt ; eggs, 3. 

Cut all the crust off the slices of bread, put 
them in a pan and pour enough boiling water 
over them to soak them well ; cover it over 
and let it stand an hour. 

Then drain off the water, and stir the soaked 
bread till it is a smooth paste ; stir in the flour 
and the milk ; and add the eggs, after having 
beaten them very light. Butter the muffin- 
rings, fill them with the mixture, and bake 
brown. These muffins, if properly made, are 
very light and nice. 

Hominy Muffins. — Tia^^ .--Small hominy, 
boiled, two cupfuls ; milk, two cupfuls ; melted 
butter, ^ cupful ; salt, 2 even teaspoonfuls ; 
sugar, two tablespoonfuls ; flour, i y^ cupfuls ; 
baking powder, 2 teaspoonfuls; eggs 3. 

Sift the baking powder with the flour ; and 
beat in a little of the milk, and all the eggs, 
butter, salt, sugar and hominy, which should 
be warm to mix well ; add the rest of the milk ; 
bake in a quick oven in muffin rings placed 
in a dripping-pan. 

Rice Muffins. — 7",^^^ .--Boiled rice, ^ pt; 
flour, I >^ pts ; milk, i pt ; butter (or lard), i gill ; 
salt, I teaspoonful ; baking powder, 4 even 
teaspoonfuls. 

Beat the butter, salt and eggs into the warm 
nee ; add the flour, with which the baking 
powder has been sifted, and the milk; bake 
as above. 

Corn Muffins. — Pour a pint of scalding 
milk on three gills of corn meal ; add two 
tablespoonfuls of melted butter and half a tea- 
spoonful of salt ; stir in two well beaten eggs, 
and one pint and one tablespoonful of flour, 
• which has been sifted with two even table- 
spoonfuls of baking-powder. Bake about an 
hour. 

Graham Muffins may be made by substitut- 
ing unbolted flour or Indian meal in the above 
receipt. Use cold milk. 

MULBERRY.— The red mulberry is the 



best. It has an agreeable acid, sugary taste. 
Black mulberries are larger and sweeter, but 
are slightly insipid. The white variety is 
smaller than either, and in flavor resembles 
the black. Mulberries begin to ripen about 
the 1st of August. When used for dessert, 
they should be freshly gathered, and so ripe 
as to fall from the trees when slightly shaken. 
Boiling black mulberries in a little water till of 
the consistency of cream makes a syrup which 
is good for sore throat. 

Cider (Mulberry). — Press the juice from 
ripe mulberries ; mix it with an equal quantity 
of apple-juice ; and proceed as in making 
cider. 

MULCH. — Half-rotten matting, straw, 
leaves, etc., strewn around the roots of plants 
to protect them from unfavorable weather. 
When completely rotted, it makes an excellent 
manure. 

MULLED DRINKS (Cider).— Take of 
bruised stick cinnamon about "%. oz; half a 
grated nutmeg; 10 or 12 bruised cloves; infuse 
in half a pint of boiling water for an hour ; 
strain the liquid, add sugar to the taste, and 
pour it into a pint of hot cider. 

Claret. — Boil the sugar and spice as above 
for a few minutes in just enough wine for the 
purpose ; then add the remainder and boil as 
above for a second or two. 

Port. — Boil any of the spices (cloves, cinna- 
mon, nutmeg or mace) in half a pint of water, 
with three ounces of sugar ; after it has boiled 
five minutes or so, add from six to twelve 
wineglassfuls of rich port wine ; let it boil 
up once and pour out into the vessel in which 
it is to be served. If desired, the water can 
be drained off from the spices before the 
wine is added to it ; and lemon or orange juice 
added. 

Any other wine, and either ale or porter, 
may be " mulled " like claret in the same way ; 
it is a very pleasant drink for winter. 

MULLET.— -There are several varieties of 
the mullet, among which the striped mullet is 
most plentiful. It is in season from Septem- 
ber to May, and is usually very fat ; but it has 
a rather unpleasant flavor, and is not much 
esteemed for the table. The golden mullet, 
or mullet-sucker, is a beautiful fresh water fish, 
in season during the winter and spring months. 
The flesh is sweet, but rather dry, and quite 
full of small bones. The plain 7'ed mullet is 
abundant in summer, and may be had through- 
out the year. The white ox gray mullet is also 
very fine. 




Prepare, cook, and serve white mullet as 
directed for fresh mackerel. 
Baked, Broiled, or Roast Red Mullet — 



MULLIGATAWNEY 



MUSHROOM 



357 



First wash and then dry the fish thoroughly in 
a cloth ; neither scale nor open it, but take out 
the gills gently and carefully with the small 
intestine which will adhere to them ; wrap it 
closely in a sheet of thickly buttered paper, tie 
this securely at the ends and over the mullet 
with pack-thread, and bake it in a moderate 
oven; broil it over a clear but not too hot fire, 




Red Mullet. 

or roast it in a Dutch oven: from twenty to 
twenty-five minutes will generally be sufficient 
to dress it in either way. For sauce, add a 
little melted butter to the liquor which has 
flowed from the fish, a dessert-spoonful of 
essence of anchovies, some cayenne, a little 
lemon-juice, and (if desired) a wineglassful of 
port or claret. Remove the pack-thread and 
send the mullet to table in the paper wrapping ; 
or remove the paper and dish with the sauce. 

MULLAGATAWNY — Disjoint a rabbit, 
cut the back into 6 pieces ; slice i i lbs beef, thin. 
Place in a sautoir 6 onions sliced, and 3 ozs 
butter; when brown remove into a stew-pan; 
in the butter brown the rabbit and beef; put 
into the bottom of a soup-pot 4 slices of raw 
ham; lay in the rabbit and beef, the onions, 2 
sour apples grated, and rind of + lemon. Now 
in the sautoir ^vX 2 ozs butter, 2 ozs flour, 3 ta- 
blespoonfuls of curry-powder, i large teaspoon- 
ful salt; stir with a wooden spoon 2 minutes; 
add 2 qts of boiling stock with which the sautoir 
has been rinsed out, and + pint white wine ; 
simmer li hours, skim clean ; when ready pour 
into tureen ; serve with rice. {See under Soup.) 

MUMPS. — A swelling of the glands about 
the throat. This curious disease makes its ap- 
pearance usually in the spring, and young 
persons of both sexes are much more liable to 
be attacked by it than those farther advanced 
in life. It commences with a feeling of pain 
and tension beneath the ear, swelling soon de- 
velops, and as the disease progresses the least 
motion of the jaw becomes extremely painful. 
Sometimes only one side is affected, sometimes 
both at once, more commonly one after the 
other. The disease is accompanied by fever, 
usually very slight, but occasioRally more se- 
rious. About the fourth day from the com- 
mencement of the swelling, the disease is at its 
height. A gentle moisture then begins to 
exude from the surface of the swelling, accom- 
panied with a general perspiration of the whole 
body, which, if it be encouraged by keeping 
warm in bed and drinking diluent fluids, seems 
to form the natural crisis of the disease, which 
begins to decline and usually disappears about 
the eighth day. 

If, however, by exposure to cold or impru- 



dent management, this natural process of the 
disease is interrupted, the tumors about the 
throat suddenly subside and are followed by 
swellings of the testicles in males and of the 
breasts in females, accompanied with increased 
fever. 

Treatment. — In ordinary cases very little 
treatment is required beyond the administering 
of a mild laxative and the application of warm 
poultices to the parts affected. But great pre- 
cautions must be taken against taking cold, 
especially if the swelling is transferred from the 
throat to the testicles or breast. During the 
first day or two of the disease it is well to en- 
courage the swelling by rubbing the parts gen- 
tly with some volatile liniment ; and for the same 
reason, the parts may be covered with soft flan- 
nel. Should the swelling suddenly subside 
and any tendency to delirium manifest itself, a 
physician should be sum,poned at once. 

Mumps are epidemic, iand are generally be- 
lieved to be contagious. 

MUSCADINE. — A very large, sweet, and 
spicy grape, which grows in great abundance 
throughout several of the Southern States. The 
skin is very thick and tough, and the pulp has 
a spicy flavor which is extremely pleasant. No 
cultivated grape approaches the muscadine in 
size ; it is generally twice as large as the largest 
Delaware or Concord. Muscadines ripen in 
August. Wine is made from them in the same 
way as from other grapes. 

MUSH. — Take a pint of Indian meal, wet it 
up with cold water, and stir it into two quarts 
of cold water, salting to taste. Boil two hours 
stirring often with a wooden spoon or stick, 
and then remove from the fire. This may be 
eaten with butter simply, or with milk and 
sugar, and is very good for the sickroom or the 
nursery. Graham meal may be substituted for 
the Indian if liked. 

MUSHROOM. — The mushroom is consid- 
ered by many one of the greatest delicacies 
known to our tables, and its richness in nitro- 
genous elements renders it one of the most 
nutritious of all the edible vegetables ; but 
there are a variety of poisonous fungi which so 
closely resemble mushrooms in appearance 
that no one should venture to eat of the latter 
without knowing with certainty how to select 
the proper kind. Edible mushrooms are most 
plentiful in August and September, and spring 
up in the open fields after low-lying fogs or 
heavy dews ; in looking for them avoid low, 
damp, shady spots. The young button (as it 
is generally called) has the top or cap quite 
white, while the gills or under part are loose, 
and of a light red or flesh color ; as it increases 
in size and age, the top changes to a tawny or 
brown color, and looks scurvy, and the gills 
change to a darker red or black. The stem is 
also white and round, and turns dark with age. 
The upper skin of the mushroom peels off 
readily ; that of the poisonous fungus does not. 
The button is sometimes found perfectly round, 
and when smooth and white is the best kind of 
mushroom. Every edible mushroom has a 



358 



MUSHROOM 



MUSK 



decidedly pleasant odor, and is never shiny; 
while those which are dangerous either have a 
bad odor or none at all. By those however who 
are not already skilled in detecting the charac- 
teristics of mushrooms still further tests should 
be applied. For instance, sprinkle salt on the 
spongy part or gill of the mushrooms to be 
tried ; if they turn yellow they are poisonous ; 
but if they turn black they are good. Allow 
the salt to act a little time before deciding as 
to the color produced. Another simple and 
efficient test is to cook a peeled white onion in 
the pot with the mushrooms ; if it turns black, 
the mushrooms are poisonous and should be 
thrown away. It is also deemed prudent to 
reject mushrooms when a silver spoon used in 
stirring them turns black. 

In case of suspected poisoning by spurious 
mushrooms, take a liberal dose of the emetic 
nearest to hand. After the stomach has settled, 
take from one to three tablespoonfuls of castor- 
oil. 

Baked Mushrooms. — Select large ones ; trim 
the stalks, remove skins with a damp cloth. 
Place them on oval croutons; put them into a 
baking-pan; season with salt, white pepper, 
lemon juice, and chopped parsley. Cook in a 
hot oven 5 or 6 minutes, basting them often 
with rich hot gravy in which a lump of butter 
has been melted. Arrange the croutons on 
their dish, and pour over them the gravy. 
Serve sauce a la Maitre cf Hotel in a tureen. 

Broiled Mushrooms. — Large ones are best 
for this purpose. Peel off the upper skin, and 
lay them, with the gills upward, on the gridiron ; 
sprinkle them with salt and pepper, and drop 
little bits of butter over them here and there. 
Broil them over a hot, clear fire, turning them 
over when browned on one side ; serve hot. 

Catsup (Mushroom.) {See Catsup.) 

Dried Mushrooms.— Peel small, sound, fresh- 
ly-gathered mushrooms, cut off the stems, and 
scrape off the fur entirely ; then arrange them 
singly on tins or dishes, and dry them as grad- 
ually as possible in a gentle oven. When they 
are dry, put them into tin canisters, and store 
them where they will be secure from damp. 
When wanted for table, they should be put into 
cold gravy, slowly heated, and gently simmered 
until they are tender. 

Pickled Mushrooms. — Select the smallest 
buttons of the 7iieadow mushrooms, and let 
them be as freshly gathered as possible. Cut 
the stems off quite close, and clean them with 
a bit of new flannel slightly moistened, and 
dipped into fine salt ; throw them as they are 
done into plenty of spring-water, mixed with a 
large spoonful of salt, but drain them from it 
quickly afterwards, and lay them into a soft 
cloth to dry, or the moisture which hangs about 
them will too much weaken the pickle. For 
each quart of the mushrooms thus prepared, 
take nearly a quart of the palest white wine 
vinegar (this is far superior to the distilled 
vinegar generally used for the purpose, and the 
variation in the color of the mushrooms will be 
slight), and add to it a heaped teaspoonful of 



salt, half an ounce of whole white pepper, an 
ounce of ginger, sliced or slightly bruised, 
about the fourth of a saltspoonful of cayenne 
tied in a small bit of muslin, and two large 
blades of mace : to these may be added half a 
small nutmeg, sliced, but too much spice will 
entirely overpower the fine natural flavor of the 
mushrooms. When the pickle boils, throw 
them in, and boil them in it over a clear fire 
moderately fast from six to nine minutes, or 
somewhat longer, should they 7wt be very small. 
When they are much disproportioned in size, 
the larger ones should have two minutes boil 
before the others are thrown into the vinegar. 
As soon as they are tolerably tender, put them 
at once into small stone jars, or into warm 
wide-necked bottles, and divide the spice equally 
amongst them. The following day, or as soon 
as they are perfectly cold, secure them from 
the air with large corks, or tie skins and paper 
over them. They should be stored in a dry 
place, and guarded from severe frost. When 
the color of the mushrooms is more considered 
than the excellence of the pickle, the distilled 
vinegar can be used for it. 

Sweetbreads and Mushrooms. — Take equal 
quantities of sweetbreads and mushrooms; 
put into a sauce-pan and barely cover the mush- 
rooms with water; cover the sauce-pan, and 
stew half an hour; take them from the water, 
lay in the sweetbreads and stew fifteen min- 
utes. When both are cool, cut them into 
pieces the size of grains of mocha coffee; 
stew a few minutes in a little cream; season 
with white pepper, salt, and mace, if liked; 
dredge in a little flour, to make the cream 
barely thick enough to keep the whole together 
in a soft mass. Serve hot, in paper cases, on 
a napkin. 

Powder (Mushroom). — Take dried mush- 
rooms (prepared as above) and pound them to 
a very fine powder ; sift it, and put it immedi- 
ately into small and perfectly dry bottles ; cork 
and seal them without delay, for if the powder 
be long exposed to the air so as to imbibe any 
humidity, or if it be not well secured from it in 
the bottles, it will become putrid. This is an 
excellent addition to many dishes and sauces. 
A teaspoonful of it, with a quarter of a pint of 
strong veal gravy, as much cream, and a small 
dessert spoonful of flour, will made a good 
bechamel or white sauce. 

Stewed Mushrooms. — I. Peel, and trim the 
stalks; place in a stew-pan with half the juice 
of a lemon, white pepper and salt to taste, a 
very little scraped garlic, and i oz of butter; 
cover close, and stew for 5 minutes, add 
bechamel, allemande, or veloute sauce to just 
cover; boil up once and serve. 

II Peel, trim the stalks, and cut through and 

down the stalkinto3or 4 slices. Place in a stew- 
pan in which asmallshallothas been minced and 
fried in 2 oz of butter, with white pepper and salt 
to taste. Pass over the fire a few minutes, then 
addenoughEspagnoleorcullis to cover; simmer 
I minute, addasmallglassof red wine, and serve. 

MUSK. — A highly odorous substance found 



MUSK-MELON 



MUSTARD 



359 



in the musk-deer, an animal which is a native 
of Thibet, China, and Siberia. A variety of 
musk is also found in the musk-rat of Canada. 
Musk is of a bitter taste, and has a more 
powerful scent than any substance known ; 
other substances in its neighborhood become 
strongly infected by it, and when once per- 
fumed retain the scent for a long time. It also 
has the property, when employed in very small 
quantities, of augmenting the scent of other 
substances without imparting its own. The 
best musk comes from China ; and to have it 
genuine it should be purchased in the natural 
bag, or pod, as it is very often adulterated. 
The Bengal musk is inferior, and that from 
Russia the worst of all. The hair on the pod 
of the best musk is a fawn color, and on the in- 
ferior a dirty white. When musk is bought 
otherwise than in the pod, draw a silken thread 
two or three times through a clove of moist 
garlic, and then through the musk ; the latter, 
if genuine, will instantly overcome the odor of 
the garlic. To preserve musk well, keep it 
perfectly dry ; and when it is to be used as a 
perfume, moisten it. 

MUSK-MELON. — The varieties of this 
melon are very numerous, some of them being 
distinguished by a thick and warty rind, some 
by a rind cracked in a net-like manner, some 
by ribs and furrows, and others by a perfectly 
smooth and thin rind. They differ also in the 
color of the Jlesh of the fruit, which is green, 
yellow, and red ; and in size, which varies from 
three or four inches to a foot in diameter. The 
choicest varieties are the cttro7i, cantaloupe, 
nutmeg, and pijieapple. Of these, the citron 
is most valued for its sweetness, richness, and 
high flavor. They appear in the Southern 
markets (whence they are shipped North) about 
the first of August, and are distinguished by 
their small size and comparatively smooth rind. 
The mit/neg is preferred by most people for 
its high musky flavor and large size, and the 
skin appears as if covered with a net, ribbed 
or crossed like the nutmeg spice. They are in 
season in July and August, and are among the 
most extensively cultivated of the varieties. 
The cantaloupe is the first ripe musk-melon 
but is less cultivated than the former. It has 
a sweet and pleasant flavor. Most musk- 
melons when ripe have a decided yellowish 
tinge, but this test is not always conclusive. 

MUSK-RAT. — This animal is sometimes 
seen in the Northern markets, but is not often 
eaten, more on account of its name probably 
than anything else, for its flesh is both tender 
and well flavored. If it can be hung and frozen 
a few days it is considered still better. Pre- 
pare, cook, and serve like Rabbit. 

MUSLIN. — A fine, thin, flimsy sort of 
cotton cloth, which has a fine warp on its 
surface. There are numberless varieties of 
muslin, it being manufactured in nearly every 
country of the world. The best is the Indian 
muslin, which has a special reputation for dura- 
bility, and for retaining its whiteness ; and the 
Swiss muslin ranks next. But the English and 



American muslins are scarcely inferior, and 
serve admirably for all purposes for which 
the cloth can be used. Muslin comes of differ- 
ent widths, but the customary one is a yard ; it 
should be carefully shrunk before being cut 
into garments. 

MUSSELS.— These shell-fish are not highly 
esteemed as food, being tough of texture, hard 
to digest, and consequently not agreeing with 
many stomachs. They may be obtained in 
the markets, however, though not in great 
quantities, and are best during the fall and 
winter months. Boiling and pickling them are 
the best methods of preparing them. Choose 
such as are large in the shell, plump in the 
flesh, and brilliant orange in hue. 

Boiled Mussels. — Put the mussels into a 
large tin sauce-pan without water, and with the 
lid on. Set it over a brisk fire ; the mussels 
at the bottom will immediately let out enough 
liquor to keep them from burning. As soon as 
they begin to warm shake or " hustle " the 
sauce-pan so as to bring the bottom over the 
top ; and so on till all the mussels have felt the 
influence of the heat. When they open they 
are done ; too much cooked they are spoiled. 
Pour them, with their hot liquor over them, 
into a bowl or deep dish, and serve imme- 
diately. 

Pickled Mussels. — Boil them as above, and 
when done, pick out the mussels with a fork 
and put them into a common preserve-jar, dust- 
ing pepper over them from time to time. When 
the liquor which comes from them has settled, 
pour over the mussels a mixture of half liquor 
and half vinegar. They will then keep several 
days. If not for early use, they should be 
pickled in pure vinegar with plenty of spice. 
Tie them down close with bladder or thick 
paper. 

MUSTARD. — The pulverized seed of the 
mustard-plant. There are two varieties of 
mustard, the black and the white, both of 
which are cultivated in our gardens. The 
seeds should be sown in the early spring, in 
rows about two feet apart ; they grow very 
rapidly, and flower in June, shortly after which 
the seeds appear. The leaves of the young, 
white, hood-leafed mustard are excellent for 
salad, or to boil with meat as greens ; they 
may be had at any time in a few days by sow- 
ing the seed in a box and keeping it in a warm 
place. The seed-vessels of the black mustard 
are smooth, those of the white rough and hairy.- 
The seeds of the former are small, of a dark 
brown color, inodorous when whole, but when 
powdered and mixed with water have a strong, 
penetrating odor, and a sharp, burning taste ; 
those of the latter are larger, of a yellow color, 
and less pungent taste. The flavor of mustard 
is obtained by crushing and sifting both kinds 
of seeds, which are usually mixed for this pur- 
pose. 

The adulteration of mustard is well-nigh uni- 
versal, wheaten flour being added and turmeric 
to give the proper color to the mixture. The 
adulterations, however, are only of importance 



360 



MUTTON 



as far as the money-value is concerned, as the 
turmeric is innocent of any mischievous qual- 
ities. In purchasing mustard there is no guide 
short of the microscope but the palate, as the 
full strength is not developed until the flour is 
mixed with hot water. Most people can judge 
of the strength when used, and this will serve 
as a guide in future purchases. 

The art of mixing mustard is to have it per- 
fectly smooth and of the proper consistency. 
The liquid with which it is moistened should 
be added to it in small quantities, and the mus- 
tard should be well rubbed and beaten with a 
spoon. Mix half a teaspoonful of salt with 
Vno ounces of the flour of mustard, and stir 
to them by degrees sufficient water to reduce 
the whole to the consistency of a thick bat- 
ter; do not put it into the mustard-glass 
until cold. It ought always to be sufficiently 
diluted to drop easily from the spoon. Some 
persons like half a teaspoonful of sugar in the 
finest powder added to the above mixture. 

Mustard for instant use should be mixed 
with milk, to which a spoonful or two of very 
thin cream should be added. 

Tartar Mustard. — Rub four ounces of mus- 
tard very smooth with a teaspoonful of salt, 
and wet it by degrees with strong horseradish 
vinegar, a dessert spoonful of cayenne, or of 
Chili vinegar, and one or two of tarragon vin- 
egar. A quarter of a pint of vinegar poured 
boiling upon an ounce of scraped horseradish, 
and left for one night, closely covered, will be 
ready to use for this mustard, but it will be 
better for standing two or three days. 

MUTTON. — The name given to the flesh of 
sheep when slaughtered and dressed. The age 
of the animal producing the best mutton ap- 
pears to be between three and five years. 
When younger than three years, it is usually 
tender ; but has not so much flavor and juici- 
ness as that which is older and more fully de- 
veloped. The quality of mutton depends also 
to a great extent on breeds and feeding. A 
large-framed, coarse-woolled, fat sheep produces 
a coarse-grained, dry, and poorly-flavored mut- 
ton ; while the short-woolled, round, plump, 
and thick sheep (such as the Southdown, Leices- 
ter, Cotswold, etc.) yield the close-grained, 
tender, juicy, and highly-flavored mutton — 
especially when allowed to graze on the short, 
sweet grass of hills and mountains, with the 
addition of proper stall-feeding afterwards. 

The sheep is usually butchered as shown in 
the accompanying cut ; and the following are 
the names of the principal pieces : — 

The joint which contains the least propor- 
tion of fat is the leg, and next to that the 
shoulder, whilst the loin, neck and breast have 
the largest proportion. The least proportion 
of bone to meat is found in the leg, and on this 
account as well as the comparative absence of 
fat, it must be regarded as the most useful 
joint in the sheep and justifies the higher price 
demanded for it. The neck has the greatest 
proportion of bone, with a large proportion of I 
fat, and is not so economical as its price would I 



seem to indicate. The most solid meat is the 
leg, and the least the shoulder and breast. 
The latter has the further disadvantage of hav- 
ing more fat than lean, whilst the lean is not 
easily masticated and has but little flavor. It 
is sold at a lower price, however, than any 
other joint of mutton, and may be made into a 
variety of economical and serviceable dishes. 




Carcass of Sheep. 

1. Leg of mutton. 

2. Shoulder of mutton, 

3. Loin of " 

4 and 6. Neck of mutton. 

5. Breast of mutton. 

6. Scrag of mutton (end of neck). 

7. Flank of " 

To secure the best mutton, choose that in 
which the lean is firm, juicy, of a darkish red 
color, and finely-grained ; and the fat white, 
clear, and hard. When the latter is yellow, the 
meat is rank and of a bad quality. If the ani- 
mal is diseased, or has been driven a long way, 
the flesh will be flabby, the kidney-fat small, 
with a stringy appearance, and the lean seen 
through the skin on the back of a dark, bluish 
hue. 

It is maintained by some that mutton is best 
immediately after being killed, or before the 
animal heat has been lost ; but this seems to be 
a mistake, and butchers themselves agree that 
it is much improved by standing a day or two. 
When the weather will permit, the tenderness 
and sweetness of a joint of mutton may be 
greatly increased by " hanging " it for a week 
or even more. In England, the Christmas 
mutton is frequently "hung" six weeks before 
using. A light, cool, airy place must be chosen 
for this purpose. 

As regards the nutritive value of mutton, it 
is popularly considered a lighter food than 
beef; and it doubtless has a more delicate 
flavor, less red-blood juices, a looser texture, 
and a larger proportion of fat. Dr. Smith ob- 
serves that " although an agreeable and valu- ■ 
able food for all classes, it is not so well fitted 
as beef to sustain great exertion, but is rather 
a food for those of sedentary and quiet habits, 
including women and the sick." The time re- 
quired for the digestion of mutton is three to 
three and a quarter hours. 

Mutton is in season throughout the year, but 
in the Autumn is not so good as at other sea- 



MUTTON 



361 



sons, the meat being dry, and "woolly-fla- 
vored. " 

Baked Mutton. — Either a loin, saddle, leg, 
shoulder or breast, may be baked. Put the 
meat into a baking-pan with a little butter 
spread over it ; pour in enough cold water to 
cover the bottom of the pan, and then set it in 
aquick oven. After it has been in the oven 
about fifteen minutes, baste and place a piece 
of buttered paper on the top of the meat ; if the 
bottom of the pan is getting dry, add a little 
more water. If too much fat accumulates in the 
pan, take the pan out, pour the fat off, adding 
cold water instead, and set back into the oven 
to finish cooking. If the paper scorches, sub- 
stitute another piece, but by basting over the 
paper it will last a good while. Cook until a 
skewer or small knife can be run into the joint 
easily (about twenty minutes to a pound), and 
then dish. Serve with its own gravy. 

Boiled Mutton. — Either the leg, shoulder, 
or neck may be used for this purpose. Of 
these the leg is much the choicest ; but the 
neck, being smaller, is convenient for small 
families, and may be further diminished by 
taking a few chops from its best end. It also 
takes less time to cook — another convenience. 
Wash the joint, but do not soak it, and wipe 
dry. Put it into a pot as near its size as con- 
venient, cover it with hot water, and add a 
small tablespoonful of salt ; skim off the scum 
as fast as it rises, boil till you find by probing 
that it is tender in its thickest part (it will take 
twelve or fifteen minutes to a pound). Remove 
from the fire, drain perfectly dry, and serve 
with melted butter, caper sauce, or with either 
brown cucumber or oyster sauce. Or carrots 
and turnips may be boiled with it and after- 
wards dished with the meat. 

Broiled Mutton. — Either chops or cutlets 
— the latter taken from the neck — may be 
broiled. Trim off the skin and superfluous 
fat, sprinkle a little salt and pepper on each 
chop, and broil on a gridiron over a bright fire. 
It will take about eight minutes if they are not 
more than %, inch thick. Butter them before 
sending to table. 

Broth (Mutton). — 1. Take a pound of meat, 
free from bone, and put it on the fire with a 
quart of water; when it boils skim off every 
particle of the scum and then add a little cold 
water to make the scum rise afresh ; add a 
parsley-root about the size of two fingers, and 
a tablespoonful of rice or barley (previously 
soaked) ; boil it an hour and a half at least, or 
until the meat falls to pieces ; then strain it and 
serve. Either mutton, beef, or veal may be 
used in this receipt or the three combined. 

2. (With the meat in). — Cut a neck of mut- 
ton into chops, taking off every particle of fat ; 
put it into a stew-pan and pour in enough boil- 
ing water to cover it ; slice four carrots and six 
turnips, and put in the pan at the same time ; 
add a little salt, and as the scum rises skim it 
off Simmer slowly about four hours. An 
ounce or two of rice may be added with the 
vegetables, if desired. 



Fried Mutton Chops — Prepare the chops 
as for broiling ; dip them in beaten eggs and 
roll them in pounded crackers ; fry in hot lard 
or dripping ; drain them as they are dished, 
and serve hot. 

Ham of Mutton. — Select a plump, solid-look- 
ing leg of mutton. Mix a quarter of a pound 
of brown sugar, an ounce of saltpetre, and an 
ounce of black pepper ; rub this mixture into 
the meat for some minutes until the outer part 
is well saturated with it ; then put the mutton 
into a large earthen-ware vessel, cover it with 
about a pound and a half of salt, and let it 
stand three weeks, turning it every day and 
basting with the brine; after the first week add 
a teacup of vinegar. At the expiration of the 
three weeks, remove the ham from the pickle, 
wash first with cold water and then with vine- 
gar, and hang it up in a cool place for a week 
before it is used. Soak an hour in cold water 
before boiling, and cook like an ordinary ham. 

Haricot (Mutton). — Slice a carrot, a turnip, 
and a head of celery, and soak an hour and a 
half in salt and water, or boil tender in broth, 
adding a dozen small onions. Then take a 
neck of mutton cut into chops, trim off most of 
the fat, flour them and fry them brown, season- 
ing them with a sliced onion, salt, black pepper, 
and cayenne. Next fry the vegetables, and 
put them with the meat into a stew-pan with all 
the gravy, a little sugar, and a little catsup, and 
simmer the whole very gently for two hours. 
Strain off the gravy, thicken it with butter 
and flour, and pour it over the meat on the 
dish. 

Hash (Mutton). — Cut cold mutton up into 
small squares, leaving out most of the fat, and 
prepare same as beef hash ; add, however, a 
small onion (grated), to give a slight flavor of 
onions and thus hide the strong mutton taste. 

Irish Stew. — Procure 3 lbs of thick mutton 
chops; blanch them; return to the fire neatly 
arranged in the bottom of a clean stew-pan, a 
little more than covered with cold water; bring 
slowly to boil, adding i teaspoonful of salt. 
When skimmed clean, add a large garnished 
bouquet of parsley, a blade of mace, and 8 
pepper-corns. Simmer 20 minutes; then add 
12 small onions whole, and 2 tablespoonfuls of 
flour dissolved in a little cold water. Set it by 
the side of the fire, where it will gently sim- 
mer for an hour; then add 12 small potatoes, 
pared neatly round, the size of the onions. As 
soon as the potatoes are tender, remove from 
the fire; dish the chops in close circular order; 
take out the potatoes and onions whole into the 
center; strain the sauce, add 3 tablespoonfuls 
of chopped parsley, and pour over the stew. 

Minced Mutton (browned) Take cold 

roast mutton, and cut away all the skin and fat; 
chop it up very small and season with pepper 
and salt; mince a little parsley and onion, and 
mix all together with a quarter of a pound of 
grated bread-crumbs. Moisten the mixture 
with a tablespoonful of vinegar and a teacupful 
of gravy; put it into a pie-dish; lay an ounce 
of butter in small bits over the top, and grate 



362 



MUTTON 



NANKEEN 



bread crumbs over it. Add a little butter, and 
brown in the oven or before the fire. 

Pie (Mutton). — I. Trim the fat from cold 
roast mutton ; cut in thin slices and place in a 
baking-dish, seasoning with pepper, salt, and a 
grated onion (or Chili sauce) ; dredge a little 
flour over every layer, and add, in small bits, 
a piece of butter the size of an eo;g ; cover 
with well-seasoned mashed potatoes, or with 
boiled rice, and bake three-quarters of an hour. 

II. Put thin slices of cold boiled mutton in 
a baking dish, with the remains of drawn but- 
ter, and capers, a little pepper, salt, and a cup 
of white stock. Cover with potato, rice, or 
pastry, and bake three-quarters of an hour. 

III. Cover the bottom of a buttered baking- 
dish with bread crumbs, then a layer of cold mut- 
ton in thin small slices, a layer of peeled sliced 
tomatoes, thin bread, and so on, having the last 
layer of tomatoes covered with breadcrumbs. 
Season every layer with pepper, salt, and 
small bits of butter. Bake slowly for one 
hour. 

Roast Mutton. — The joints for this pur- 
pose are the leg, the shoulder and the saddle, 
or chine. The leg is seldom good roasted 
unless the mutton is very tender. Wash the 
meat well in cold water, and dry it with a 
cloth. Have the fire clear and hot, and put 
the meat on with a little water in the dripping- 
pan. Allow about twelve minutes to the 
pound. Baste often, at first with salt and 
water, and afterwards with the gravy. If it 
browns too fast, cover with a sheet of but- 
tered letter-paper. Skim the fat off the gravy 
and thicken with browned flour. Serve with 
gravy or currant jelly. 

Ste>Ared Mutton (like Venison). — Skin 
and bone a loin of mutton and lay it into a 
stew-pan, with a pint of water, a large onion 
stuck with six cloves, half a pint of port wine, 
and a spoonful of vinegar; when it boils, add 
a small bundle of thyme and parsley, and 
some pepper and salt; let it stew two hours, 
turning it often. Make some gravy with the 
bones, and add it at intervals to the stew. 
This makes a very handsome and savory dish. 

11. (A Good Family Stew.)— Take three 
or four pounds of mutton, remove all the fat, 



and cut the .ean into squares ; crack the bones 
and add them ; put the whole into a pot with 
enough cold water to cover well, cover it over, 
heat gradually, and boil for an hour ; then add 
half a pound of salt pork cut into strips, a 
minced onion and some black pepper ; cover 
and stew an hour longer, or until the meat is 
quite tender. Make out a little paste, as for 
pie-crust, cut into squares and drop into the 
stew ; boil ten minutes, and season with a lit- 
tle parsley and thyme ; thicken with two table- 
spoonfuls of flour stirred into a teacupful of 
■cold milk- Boil up once and serve hot. 

MYRRH. — A fragrant, bitter, aromatic 
gum-resin which exudes from a tree that grows 
in various parts of Asia and Africa. It is one 
of the ingredients in most tooth powders and 
mouth-washes, and has a very soothing and 
healing effect upon irritated gums. It is also 
useful in disordered conditions of the diges- 
tive organs, as an expectorant, and as a gargle 
for the throat. Internally it is used chiefly in 
the form of the Compound Iron Mixture, which 
is composed of myrrh, carbonate of potash, and 
sulphate of iron. The dose is two tablespoon- 
fuls three times a day. Externally usethe 
tincture in from eight to sixteen times its bulk 
of water. 

MYRTLE. — A hard-wooded, evergreen 
shrub, possessing a peculiar and highly agree- 
able fragrance. It is a universal favorite for 
indoor culture. The myrtle does not require 
large pots, and the proper soil is three parts 
loam, with one part each of sand and leaf mould. 
It will flourish well in almost any situation, 
but requires plenty of light and air during the 
summer, which is its season of growth ; it 
should then be put out of doors in a shady 
place. It requires moderate washing and 
watering. The flowers are usually white, and 
are produced in profusion in midsummer. M. 
Communis is the plant commonly cultivated, 
and of this there are many varieties, with 
small and large leaves, variegated foliage, and 
flowers of single or double. M. tejunfoHa is 
a new species, and a fine plant ; and M. 
tomefttosa is a fine Chinese species, with pur- 
ple flowers changing to white. This latter 
should be of tener cultivated. 



N 



NAILS. {See Finger Nails and Toe 
Nails.) 

NAINSOOK. — A kind of jaconet muslin 
which is still thicker than ordinary jaconet. It 
is woven plain or in striped figures, the stripe 
running the way of the warp. It is very dura- 
ble ; and must be shrunk before cutting into 
garments. Generally a yard wide. 

NANKEEN. — A kind of cloth which was 
originally manufactured in China only, and, it 



is said, derived its agreeable pale salmon-col- < 
ored tint from the natural color of a kind of 
cotton grown near Nankin. An English imi- 
tation is now made in Manchester, which looks 
equally well at first, and even better, as it is 
more evenly woven ; but it gradually loses its 
color, which is obtained from a dye. The Chi- 
nese nankeen is rather expensive, and seldom 
seen in this country : the English is plentiful 
and cheap. 



NARCISSUS 



NERINE 



363 



NARCISSUS.— A large family of hardy 
bulbs, belonging to the same family as the daf- 
fodil and jonquil. There are many varieties of 
the narcissus of which the principal are the 
Roman and Polyanthus, the latter being the 
loveHest bulbs of the class. They bloom in 
clusters of six to twelve flowers on a single 
stem, and the flowers are of every shade from 
purest white to deepest orange. The cup of 
the white varieties is always yellow, while that 
of the yellow is a deep orange. The double 
narcissus is desirable for its perfect flower and 
exquisite fragrance. All the varieties succeed 
finely either indoors or in the open border. 
They require the same treatment as hyacinths 
{See Hyacinths), and should be planted three 
inches deep, in clusters ten inches apart. 

The best varieties of the Polyanthus Narcis- 
sus are : Bazehnaii Major, white and yellow ; 
Grand Monarque, white and citron ; Grand 
Prinio, white and citron ; Grand Prince, white 
and lemon ; and Soleil d'Or, yellow and 
orange. 

NARCOTICS: — Substances which intro- 
duced into the stomach have in the first place a 
stimulating influence on the nervous system 
(differing in this respect from sedatives), soon 
followed by a depression of those powers accom- 
panied by sleep, or by coma if given in sufiicient 
quantities. To this class of medicines belong 
opium, hemlock, henbane, belladonna, aconite, 
camphor, stramonium, alcohol, ether, and a 
variety of other substances. A full dose of a 
narcotic introduced into the stomach will, if the 
stomach be empty, destroy the desire for food, 
while if it contain food, the digestive process is 
suspended or rendered slower. Their contin- 
ued or frequent use is injurious to the nutrition 
of the body, besides being attended with im- 
mediate danger to life. They should never be 
used by any one except under medical advice, 
and then only in strict accordance with the 
doctor's directions. {See Morphine.) 

NASTURTIUM. — The name properly given 
to Indian cress, a very useful and showy garden 
plant. It grows abundantly and is easy of 
cultivation, flourishing without attention in any 
moderately rich soil. The young leaves are ex- 
cellent in salads, being in this respect scarcely 
inferior to winter-cress to which it is related. 
The flowers serve as a garnish for dishes of 
cooked meats ; and the scarcely formed buds, 
and the green seed (pods or fruit) when pre- 
served in vinegar make an excellent small 
pickle, which is used like capers and which 
many prefer to the latter. These pods should 
be gathered in August. 

Pickled Nasturtiums. — Gather the pods 
quite young, and a portion of the buds, when 
very small, should be mixed with them. Pre- 
pare a pickle by dissolving an ounce and a half 
of salt in a quart of pale vinegar, and throw in 
the pods as they become fit, from day to day. 
Use them instead of capers for sauce. When 
the pods are purchased for pickling, put them 
at once into a jar and cover them well with 
vinegar. 



NECK, Dislocation of. (See Disloca- 
tions.) 

NECK, Stiff. — This is nothing more than a 
cramp, or rheumatic affection of the muscles of 
the neck, and is caused by sitting in a draught ; 
but its persistence, and the delicacy of the part 
affected make it necessary to treat it with care. 
Relief may generally be obtained by warm 
fomentations and the warm bath ; warmth 
should also be applied by means of hot flannels 
wrapped round the neck. This will usually be 
effective in a few hours at furthest, and in the 
mean time it is best to keep quiet and especial- 
ly to avoid any sudden starts or wrenches to 
the neck. Any attempt to place the neck in its 
preper position by manual force is attended 
with danger. 

NECTAR. — Take .-Raisins (chopped), 2 lbs ; 
honey, 4 lbs ; juice of 2 lemons strained, and 
the peel of the same rubbed on sugar ; boiling 
water, 2 galls ; 3 bottles of sherry, or 3 pints of 
rum, or brandy, or gin. 

Mix all the ingredients together and let them 
stand two weeks ; then strain ; and afterwards 
filter clean and bottle. 

NECTARINE. — A variety of the peach, dis- 
tinguished by its perfectly smooth skin and the 
pulpiness of its flesh. As in the peach, there 
are two sorts of nectarines : the freestone, with 
/the flesh parting from the stone ; and the cling- 
stone, with the flesh adhering to the stone. 
Among the choice varieties are the early violet, 
the Roman, the French white, the Boston, and 
\h^ late yellow. Nectarines can rarely be grown 
in the northern parts of the United States, with- 
out the protection of glass and the forcing of 
artificial heat, and consequently but few of them 
are found in our markets. They begin to 
ripen about August ist, and continue good 
until October. 

NEGUS. — In order to make good negus it is 
necessary to use good wine and not as some 
suppose any sort of stuff in any condition. 
Port nes;ns is delicious if made as follows :- 
Pour boiling water upon a sufficient quantity of 
sugar to sweeten the whole, stir it well ; heat 
some good Port (making the mixture strong or 
mild according to taste) and pour it to the water ; 
stir together briskly, and add a httle grated 
nutmeg. A slice of lemon put in with the 
sugar and a little of the yellow peel scraped 
with it improves the negus ; but it is very good 
without. 

Barley Negus. — To one pint of barley water, 
put half a pint of wine, a tablespoonful of 
lemon-juice, with grated nutmeg and sugar to 
taste. This is a very agreeable and refreshing 
drink. 

NERINE.— The Nerine is one of the finest 
of the Cape Bulbs, making beautiful plants 
either for parlor or garden. For indoor culture 
the soil should be very rich loam, peat, and 
sand, in equal proportions, and water should be 
plentifully supplied during the flowering and 
growth. The flowers have a peculiar lustre, 
and glitter like jewels in the sun ; they are pro- 
duced in showy umbels in September or Octo- 



364 



NETTLE RASH 



NIGHT-DRESS 



ber. After the period of flowering is over, dry 
off the plants gradually and set them aside in 
a cool dark place for a season of rest. In 
growing them in the garden the treatment 
should be the same as for Hyacinths. 

N. coruscans is the most common species ; 
it has large umbels of shining, salmon-colored 
flowers. N. curvifolia is a fine species with 
glittering scarlet flowers. N. sarnensis is the 
far-famed Guernsey Lily. All these varieties 
may be procured of any large dealer at a trifling 
cost. 

NETrLBRASH. — A disease which takes its 
name from being attended by an eruption sim- 
ilar to that produced by the stinging of nettles. 
It is caused by the use of certain articles of 
food, shell-fish, fruit etc. In some persons, 
these produce, after a few hours, tingling of the 
skin, and then itching and burning ; soon after 
the itching has commenced wheals appear on 
the skin ; these are of whitish color and the skin 
around is often very red ; the face is swelled,^ the 
eyes closed, and often with all this there is a 
feeling of nausea and weight at the pit of the 
stomach. 

Treatment. — The best treatment is to dis- 
lodge the offending matter by an emetic of 
ipecacuanha (eighteen grains or one scruple of 
the powder, or one teaspoonful of the syrup, 
for an adult), and afterwards a brisk aperient 
should be taken. The warm bath often gives 
much relief. To allay the irritation, dust 
starch-powder over the eruptions ; or use a lo- 
tion of elder-flower water or rose-water, in half 
a pint of which has been dissolved one drachm 
of carbonate of ammonia and half a drachm of 
sugar of lead. In severe cases, seek medical 
advice. 

NEURALGIA. — An increased and pervert- 
ed sensation in a nerve, arising from some 
disease affecting the function or structure of a 
nerve or its centres. It is thus of two kinds : 
functional (when unconnected with organic 
lesion at any part of the nervous course or at 
the nerve centres) ; or, as is more frequently 
the case, structural (connected with some or- 
ganic change, acute or chronic, more frequently 
the latter, at some part of the nerve's course or 
at the nervous centres). The causes of neural- 
gia are various and often obscure. They may 
be either constitutional or local ; the former aris- 
ing from an enfeebled state of the body or an 
impoverished condition of the blood, the latter 
from inflammation of the enveloping sheath of 
the nerves, or the development of tumors along 
or near their course. It may be caused by the 
circulation of poisonous secretions, such as 
corea, bile, etc., in the blood, or by the miasma 
of marshy regions. The pain is intense, but 
intermittent ; sudden in its ojiset, and abrupt in 
its departure, shooting or plunging in its char- 
acter, and often quite excruciating ; readily ex- 
cited by the slightest external impression, but 
seldom aggravated by firm pressure on the 
part — on the contrary, often relieved thereby. 

Treatment. — The treatment of neuralgia de- 
pends of course upon the causes that produce 



it. When it arises from constitutional causes 
it generally yields to treatment. The neuralgia, 
for instance, that depends on an impoverished 
condition of the blood can be cured by iron 
tonics, good diet, and outdoor exercise ; that 
which arises from the effects of niiasmatic 
poisoning disappears rapidly under the use of 
quinine ; and that of rheumatic origin can be 
controlled by preparations of colchicum, the 
alkalies, and alkaline and sulphur baths. The 
neuralgia which sometimes occurs in hysteria 
yields in some cases to the mineral tonics, 
electricity, shower-baths, and exercise in the 
open air. When neuralgia is caused by a 
tumor near the origin of the nerves, in the brain 
or spinal cord, its radical cure is generally im- 
practicable ; where it depends on the pressure 
of tumors that can be removed, the pain will 
generally disappear with the removal of the 
cause. In inflammation of the nerve-sheath — 
a frequent cause of neuralgia — local counter- 
irritation by cups, blisters, setons, issues, etc. ; 
always gives relief and usually effects a cure. 
Temporary relief may be secured in all forms 
of neuralgia by the administration of powerful 
anodynes. Those most commonly used are 
morphine and aconitine, they may be used 
either internally or externally, but otily tinder 
the advice of a physician. 

The following can be recommended as an 
excellent nerve tonic in neuralgia : — 

Iron reduced by hydrogen, 2 drachms. 
Arsenic, i grain. 

Divide into 40 pills. 

A pill after meals, 3 times a day. 

NIGELLA. — The Nigella Hispanica and N. 
Damascena (Love in a Mist) are very desirable 
hardy annuals, growing well in any good garden 
soil. Sow the seed in May when the days be- 
some warm. The plants flower very freely 
from June to October, and have curious seed- 
vessels. The covers of the flowers are white, 
blue, purple, and yellow. 

NIGHT-DRESS. — This garment is made 
after the pattern of the Sacque {See Sacque, 
figs. I and 2) , or else after that of the yoke, as 
explained under the head of blouse-waists {See 
Waists.) 

Three yards and five-eighths of a yard-wide 
material is a sufficient quantity for either pat- 
tern, for a person of medium size. In cutting out 
the fronts of the sacque night-dress we follow 
the pattern, Fig. i {See Sacque), as far as the 
waist line. We begin by cutting off the five- 
eighths destined for the sleeves ; then we fold 
the three yards so as to give two breadths of 
equal length. Separate them, double one length- 
wise in the middle, and cut out the fronts. If de- 
sired to have the garment open all the way, cut 
the breadth apart in the middle, otherwise cut 
the fronts apart with a slit twenty inches long. 
From the upper part of this breadth theve will 
remain outside the breadth of the shoulders 
enough material to make gores for the fronts ; 
cut them as wide as possible, sew them on to 
the breadth, selvage to selvage, and even the 
slope of the whole. Cut the pattern for the 



NITRIC ACID 



NURSES AND NURSING 



365 



back in the same way by Fig. 2 {See SacQUE), 
and add gores. To strengthen the garment it 
is usual to line the shoulders, cutting the lining 
in shape like a yoke. 

The sleeves for a sacque night-dress should 
be cut after the plain coat-sleeve pattern {See 
Waist, page 569.) 

The fronts and back should be stitched to- 
gether on the shoulders and under the arms, 
and the seams felled down. The edge should 
be hemmed up about an inch. The front is 
finished off with a narrow hem on one side for 
the buttons, and a wide one on the other for 
the button-holes. The neck should have a nar- 
row binding and a collar, and the sleeves may 
be simply hemmed up, or may be finished off 
with a cuff. 

For a night-dress cut with a yoke, we take off 
the breadths from six to eight inches shorter 
than for the sacque pattern. The yoke is cut 
from the plain waist pattern {See Waist), allow- 
ing two inches more breadth to the chest 
measure. A yoke can also be cut without seams 
on the shoulders, from the pattern for capes. 
Figs. I and 2 {See Capes). The breadths for 
the night-dress are gored in the same way as 
for the chemise {See Undergarments), and a 
short slit is made in the front breadth, or it 
is cut down the whole length. The breadths 
are then gathered across the top, leaving two or 
three inches plain near the arm-size, as ex- 
plained for the back of the shirt {See Shirt), 
and the yoke sewed on. 

The sleeve of the yoked night-dress should 
be the gathered sleeve, and the garment will be 
finished off in the same way as the sacque night- 
dress. 

NITRIC ACID.— Aqua Fortis. Poison. 
(For symptoms and treatment see SULPHURIC 
Acid.) Extremely corrosive. Readily dis- 
solves metals. The "strong" is about 70 per 
cent, pure acid ; the " dilute " is " strong," with 
five or six times its bulk of water, and is used 
as a tonic. That sold as " double aqua fortis " 
contains 60 per cent, pure acid, and " single 
aqua fortis " half that. 

NITROUS OXIDE.— Known as Laughing 
Gas. Sir H. Davy discovered that it was respir- 
able and produced in toxicant effects. Small quan- 
tities may produce uncontrollable laughter; 
hence the name. It was found that it would pro- 
duce anaesthesia. After discovery of ether and 
chloroform itwasalmost discarded ; it acts more 
quickly than these, and is claimed to be less fatal 
in effects, and has again come into use. Should 
be used only under medical advice. 

NOSEBLEED. {See Bleeding.) 

NOTE. {See Promissory Note.) 

NOYEAU. {See Liqueurs.) 

NURSES AND NURSING.— In any case 
of sickness, whether serious or otherwise, noth- 
ing — not even skilful medical advice — is more 
important than good nursing. Only doctors 
know how many valuable lives are saved by 
good nursing, and on the other hand how many 
are actually thrown away by the want of it ; 



but fortunately its importance is beginning to be 
better appreciated by the people at large. In 
cases of ordinary sickness the members of the 
family usually do the nursing, and in such cases 
their zeal and affection make up to a great ex- 
tent for other deficiencies ; but when a disease 
is lingering, or from its character requires 
bodily strength in those employed as nurses, 
the services of a professional sick mirse should 
be obtained. Such a nurse knows, or ought to 
know, how to perform many important duties of 
which those less accustomed to sickness are 
ignorant. She will also be quick to notice 
changes in the patient's symptoms which the 
relatives, from inexperience, would overlook, 
and which it may be important for the doctor to 
be informed of. But most sick nurses will re- 
quire to be superintended by those most in- 
terested in the invalid's recovery. They 
are often inattentive to the needful ven- 
tilation of sick-rooms, and to the regulation of 
their temperature, keeping up the fires, and 
especially at night; this fault frequently in- 
creases the patient's fever in a way which puz- 
zles the physicians to account for. Sometimes 
also they are careless in administering the medi- 
cines at the precise hours ordered, and are not 
always to be relied upon to give the right quan- 
tity. In the convalescent stages of fever, they 
also require to be cautioned in respect to the 
diet of their patients, which in quantity they 
are disposed to over-do. 

Qualifications of a Nurse. — Not every one 
is fitted for a nurse ; not because of wilful 
wrong-doing, btit because they are not " cut out 
for it." Talent for nursing is in a great meas- 
ure a natural gift, either in man or in woman ; 
and, contrary to the general opinion, it is found 
as frequently in man as in woman. The abso- 
lutely indispensable qualifications of a good 
nurse are healthfulness ; strength enough to 
lift the patient when necessary ; activity, use- 
fulness, cheerfulness, yet with the power of 
being quiet — a noisy nurse being utterly out of 
place in a sick-room. She should be free from 
any habitual cough, or any habit which might 
annoy a patient, such as snuff-taking, and the 
like. She should be scrupulously cleanly in per- 
son and habits, and in particular should have 
pure breath. She should be able to read wri- 
ting readily, or she may be led by the resem- 
blance of drugs and vials to make dreadful 
mistakes. She ought to have her five senses 
— sight, hearing, feeling, smell, taste — in a 
healthy, active condition. Sight, that she 
may be able to read directions or read aloud 
to the patient, and watch the change of 
countenance. A quick-sighted nurse will not 
need to wait till the sufferer has asked 
for anything in words. She will from the 
motion of an eye, or the lips, or a finger, see in 
a moment what is wanted. Hearing, that she 
may catch the faintest whisper, and not oblige 
a weak patient to exert the voice, and to repeat 
every request. Feeling, that she may detect 
any change in the heat or dryness of the skin 
of the patient, and not use any application 



366 



NURSERY 



which will either scald with heat, or cause a 
chill with cold. Smell, that she may detect 
the least impurity in the atmosphere of the 
room, or in giving medicine, notice if there 
be any mistake. Taste, that she may not 
offer food unfit to be used, or good in itself, 
but cooked in such a way as to be disgusting 
to the patient. She should be an experienced 
cook, so as to prepare such food as the patient 
requires. This is often of great importance where 
the food of the sick-room is different from that 
of the rest of the household, and must be pre- 
pared at irregular and frequent intervals. In 
selecting a sick nurse it is well to take the 
attendant physician's advice, as it is with him that 
she has to co-operate and to him that she should 
be chiefly responsible. {See Wet Nurse.) 

NURSERY. {See Children, Furniture 
and Infants. 

NUTMEG. — The true nutmeg is a native of 
the Moluccas or Spice Islands, but is prin- 
cipally confined to the island of Banda, under 
the equator, where it bears blossoms and fruit 
all the year round. The latter is gathered at 
different periods — namely, in July, Novem- 
ber and April. The mace is good in July, 
when the nuts are most abundant ; in Novem- 
ber it is superior, but in April both the nutmeg 
and the mace are in greatest perfection, the sea- 
son then being driest. The outer pulpy coat is 
first removed, and then the mace ; the nuts are 
then placed over a slow fire when the inner 
shell becomes brittle and the seeds, or nutmegs 
of commerce, are easily taken out. They are 
then soaked in sea-water and impregnated with 
lime, a process which answers the double pur- 
pose of securing the fruit from the attacks of in- 
sects and of destroying the vegetating property. 

There are two sorts of nutmeg — one wild, 
which is long or oval shaped and much inferior ; 
the cultivated nutmeg is nearly round. The 
best nutmegs are firm, hard, and of an unctuous 
consistence, the odor strong, aromatic, and 
agreeable ; the taste hot and acrid. When cut 
across, they appear full of small veins, which 
are full of volatile oil. This oil is yielded by 
distillation, and it possesses the flavor of the 
nutmeg in perfection, two drops being equal to 
a pound of the powder. It is employed in 
medicine. 



OATMEAL 

The nutmeg is much used as a condiment, 
and is one of the most wholesome of the spices ; 
but it has been observed that when taken in 
large quantity it has narcotic effects, and pro- 
duces symptoms indicating great tendency to 
the head, on which account it should be cau- 
tiously used by persons of an apoplectic or 
paralytic habit. 

NUTS. — These are a species of fruit much 
enjoyed by most persons, but though they are 
nutritive, they are less digestible than any other 
vegetable substance used as a food. Boiled 
chestnuts are floury and soft, and consequently 
unobjectionable, but raw nuts are hard, dense, 
and full of oil, and are apt to lie for a long time 
on the stomach undigested. The different 
kinds of nuts used as food in this country, as 
well as those imported, are described in their 
proper places. 

Nuts of any kind may be preserved during 
the winter by placing them in a large earthen- 
ware pan, which when filled is to be placed in 
a deep hole dug in the ground ; the top of the 
pan should be covered with a board on which 
a heavy weight is to be placed, the hole then 
being filled with earth. By this method nuts 
may be kept in a fresh state till the season of 
their maturity returns. 

NUX VOMICA.— Poison. — Symptoms : 
Tetanic convulsions, difficult breathing, finally 
asphyxia. Treatment: In case of poisoning by 
Nux Vomica, the poison must be promptly 
removed either by the stomach-pump or by 
emetics; but when the paroxysms have set in, 
an attempt to use either generally brings on 
convulsions. Then it is best to trust to the 
inhalation of chloroform. 

The fruit o{ Strychnus Niix Vomica, which 
grows in the East Indian Archipelago. The 
seeds, which contain the active principle, are 
extremely bitter, and contain a considerable 
quantity oi strychnia, one of the deadly pois- 
ons. , A sixth of a grain is sufficient to kill a 
dog. Nux Vomica is extensively employed in 
medicine as a tonic for the digestion and in 
some derangements of the nerves; and the 
seeds, rasped or filed, are often used to destroy 
noxious animals and vermin. But it should 
be used vvith extreme care, and never placed 
where children can possibly get at it. 






O 



O ATMEAL.'=- The flour or meal which 
results from grinding the kernel of oats. The 
oats of this country, while superior to that pro- 
duced in southern England and on the continent, 
is inferior to that of Scotland, whose climate is 
better adapted for it and where much more, 
attention is paid to its cultivation. Scotch oat- 
meal, therefore, is superior to any other for 
table use, and as it is prepared in such a way 



as to improve rather than otherwise by keeping, 
no damage is done to it by importation. " Oat- 
meal," says Dr. Smith in his book on Foods, 
"is known as a strong food and one that 
requires much cooking in order to break its 
starch cells ; but when it is well cooked it 
thickens milk or water more than the same 
weight of wheaten flour. It also yields a jelly 
or blanc-mange of a finer quality than that 



OATMEAL 



OIL-CLOTH 



367 



derived from wheaten flour, and is doubtless 
the stronger and better food." In Scotland it 
is used more extensively as food for man than 
anywhere else in the world, and in certain 
sections forms almost the exclusive diet of an 
exceptionally hardy and robust peasantry. The 
flavor, although sweet, is rough, and to be 
thoroughly approved must be eaten in early 
life ; which accounts, perhaps, for the fact that 
in this country where wheat and Indian corn 
are so cheap and abundant, it has never come 
into general or extended use. 

When oats are ground in the ordinary way a 
portion of the husk is left in the meal, but 
less in meal made by mill-stones than by crush- 
ing corn-mills. The meal is ground in two 
forms, namely, in somewhat large grains, as in 
the Scotch oatmeal, and in fine powder like 
flour, but either may be obtained from the 
same grain. The Scotch always prefer the 
large grain and boil it for a long time ; by 
which they obtain a thicker and sweeter por- 
ridge than can be obtained from the finer meal. 
The longer it is boiled, the more digestible is 
the food produced. Oatmeal is cooked in two 
principal ways, namely, as porridge and cakes. 
The word " porridge," in Scotland, means oat- 
meal boiled well in water, in which state it is 
known in England as " hasty-pudding ; " but it 
is more usual in England to boil a smaller por- 
tion of it with milk and water in the preparation 
of milk porridge. The former kind is eaten as 
a thick pudding with cold milk, or it is sweet- 
ened with molasses, or sugar and butter, as in 
eating hominy. Oat-cakes are made by mixing 
the meal with water and kneading it into a 
dough, which is baked on iron plates, producing 
a bread much enjoyed by those accustomed to 
it, and extremely nourishing. One advantage 
possessed by bread made of oats is that it will 
keep sweet as long as it is kept dry. 

Groats (or grits), are the whole kernels of 
the oats when freed from the husk. They are 
not eaten in the form of bread or cake, but are 
boiled in water or milk in the preparation of 
gruel. When thoroughly cooked with milk, 
they make a very nutritious pudding ; but as the 
flavor is far less delicate than that of rice they 
are rarely used for that purpose. The groats 
require to be cooked much longer than ordinary 
oatmeal before they can be digested easily. 

Gruel (Oatmeal). See Gruel. 

Mush (Oatmeal). — Make same as the mush 
of Indian meal, but boil at least twice as long. 

Porridge (Oatmeal). — Put as much water 
into a sauce-pan as will make the desired 
quantity of porridge ; let it boil, and then take 
a handful of oatmeal in the left hand and let it 
fall by degrees into the water, stirring the water 
and meal quickly around with the right with a 
wooden spoon or ladle ; do this till it is of the 
consistency of thick gruel, then salt to taste ; 
let it boil for ten minutes ; add a little more 
boiling water, and boil it five minutes longer ; 
it will then be quite smooth and very digestible 
(boiling it well is the secret of making it diges- 
tible and nourishing for invalids). 



Pudding (Oatmeal). — Pour a quart of boiling 
milk over a pint of oatmeal, and let it soak all 
night ; next day beat two eggs into it, and add 
a little salt ; butter a bowl that will just hold it, 
cover it tight with a floured cloth, and boil it 
an hour and a half. Eat it with butter and saU, 
When cold, sHce and toast it, and eat it as oai- 
cake buttered. 

OIL-NUTS. {See Butternuts.) 

OIL-CLOTH. — This name is applied to a 
kind of floor-covering made of cloth painted over 
with oil colors, so as to be impenetrable to wa- 
ter ; and also a lighter kind of cloth used as a 
covering for tables, etc., made in the same way. 
For the former a stout hemp canvas is chosen, 
and after being well sized and rubbed down 
with pumice-stone, is covered with four coats 
of stiff oil paint. It is then printed in the same 
manner as calico, the colors employed being 
always white lead mixed with ochre, umber, 
and the usual earthy pigment ground in linseed 
oil and mixed with a little turpentine. In the 
cheaper kinds of oil-cloth whiting is mixed with 
the white lead, but such cloth cracks and does 
not wear well. It is reckoned that every square 
yard of oil-cloth should weigh 3^^ to 4^ lbs., and 
hence the quality of the cloth may in part be 
estimated by the weight. There is a great va- 
riety of styles in the patterns of oil-cloth. Some 
are made to imitate marble, some wainscots, 
and some carpets of various kinds. Those are 
best which have several colors and a rather small 
pattern. When the pattern is large, defects 
are sooner perceived ; but on the other hand, 
those which have the pattern large to imitate 
marble can be repainted by any house painter. 
In buying an oil-cloth, select one that has been 
manufactured for at least two years ; the longer 
it has stood previous to use, the better it will 
wear, as the paint will have become hard and 
durable. An oil-cloth that has been made with- 
in the year is scarcely worth buying, as the 
paint will be defaced in a very little time. Age 
of course adds to the cost, and, consequently, 
the cheaper oil-cloths are very apt to be both 
flimsy and newly-made. 

Oil-clothfor covering tables, etc., is made on 
fine canvas ; one side after having received 
the proper number of coats of paint, is printed 
with blocks ; and the other side, next the table, 
receives only one coat of paint, which, while 
wet, is strewed over with flock made of cut 
wool, so as to resemble baize. 

In cleaning oil-cloths never use either hot 
water or soap, as the latter will cause the paint 
to Gome off by dissolving the oil with which it 
was made. If not too much dirtied, oil-cloth 
may be kept clean by wiping with a damp cloth 
and rubbing well with a dry cloth and then with 
a dry brush till it shines. If much soiled, rub 
briskly with lukewarm water and a soft cloth. 

To Make Oil-Cloth.— A very good and dur- 
able oil-cloth can be made as follows :— Place 
some good rosin or gum-lac over the fire in dry- 
ing linseed oil till the rosin is thoroughly dis- 
solved, and the oil brought to the thickness of 
cream. Spread this upon canvas, or any linen 



368 



OINTMENTS 



cloth, so as fully and entirely to glaze it over ; 
suffer it to dry perfectly ; and it will be found 
impenetrable to wet of every description. To 
give a color to this varnish, grind the blue, 
green, etc., with the last coat that you lay on. 

A better method than the above is first to 
cover the canvas with a liquid paste, made 
with drying oil in the following manner -.—Take 
Spanish white or tobacco-pipe clay, which has 
been completely cleaned by washing and sift- 
ing it from all impurities, and mix it up with 
boiled oil, to which a drying quality has been 
given by adding a proportion of Htharge one- 
fourth the weight of the oil. This mixture, 
being brought to the consistence of thin paste, 
is spread over the cloth, etc. ; when the first 
coating is dry, a second is applied. The un- 
evenness occasioned by the coarseness of the 
canvas or the unequal distribution of the paste, 
is smoothed down with pumice-stone reduced to 
powder and rubbed over the canvas with a bit 
of soft serge or cork dipped in water. When 
the last coating is dry, the canvas must be well 
washed in water, to clean it ; and when dry, a 
varnish composed of gum-lac dissolved in lin- 
seed oil boiled with turpentine, is applied, and 
the process is complete. The color of the 
varnished canvas thus produced is yellow. 

A cheap and serviceable oil-cloth for the kitch- 
en or other room may be made thus : — Buy a 
cheap tow-cloth, and fit it to the size and shape 
of the room. Then stretch and nail it on the 
sunny side of an outbuilding, and, with a brush, 
cover it with a coat of thin rye paste. When 
this is dry, put on a coat of yellow paint, and 
let it dry for a fortnight ; then put on a second 
coat, and at the end of another fortnight a third 
coat. Then let it hang two months to " season," 
and it will last for many years. The longer 
the paint is left to dry the better; and if 
varnished it will last much longer. 

OINTMENTS. (See DRUGS, Glycerine, 
and under the special disorders to be treated.) 

OKRA. — A plant whose unripe pods are much 
used in some parts of the United States, alone, 
or in soups and stews. It is the basis of the 
favorite Gumbo soup of the South. It is raised 
by sowing the seeds from April till June in 
drills an inch deep, dropping the seeds about 
eight inches from one another, and earthing up 
the plants two or three times during the season. 
It grows on a smooth stem four or five feet high, 
and the pods may be used from August till the 
end of November. By slicing the pods into 
rings and drying them on strings, they can be 
preserved for winter use, and are then espe- 
cially useful for soups, stews, etc. Okra is a 
wholesome and highly nutritious vegetable ; 
but when eaten alone the pods should be young 
and tender. 

Boiled Okra. — Place the pods in enough 
salt and water to cover them and boil till quite 
tender. Drain thoroughly, dish, pepper and 
salt to taste, and pour over the top three or 
four tablespoonfuls of melted butter. 

OLEANDER. — A very showy plant well 
adapted for cultivation, both in the parlor and 



OLIVE-OIL 

in the garden. To bloom in perfection, they 
need a stove, but they do well out of doors in 
any moderately rich soil. They flower freely 
when scarcely a foot high, but will grow to the 
height of ten or fifteen feet, forming beautiful 
trees covered with long, willow-like, leathery 
leaves, and terminal clusters of large rose-col- 
ored, white, or variegated flowers. Their nat- 
ural season for blooming is July, but that may 
be changed and bloom produced at any season. 
In indoor culture give them plenty of pot room 
in soil made of two parts loam, two parts peat, 
and one part well-rotted manure. During the 
growing and blooming seasons water should be 
abundantly supplied ; and as the plants are 
subject to white scale, frequent washings of the 
leaves and stems are desirable. They may be 
wintered in a hght cellar, and then water should 
be given sparingly. 

The principal varieties are the double rose 
{N'eereunt oleander sple7tdens) ; striata pleno, 
with double striped flowers ; and piirpiirea, 
dark red. There are many other varieties, and 
any of them will repay the care bestowed upon 
their cultivation. 

OLIVES. — The fruit of the olive-tree, which 
is extensively cultivated in Italy, Spain, and the 
South of France, partly for the green fruit and 
partly for the oil which it yields when mature. 
Olives are oval in shape, with a smooth rind, 
and closely resemble a small half-ripe plum. 
For the purposes of the table they are gath- 
ered when immature, and are then pickled in 
salt and water and barrelled for exportation. 
The Italian olives are the best, then the 
French, and lastly the Spanish, which, though 
large, are not so well flavored. In choosing, 
select the light-colored and bright-looking 
ones ; those which have a blackish cast are un- 
fit to eat. 

Pickled Olives are supposed to have peculiar- 
ly appetizing properties, but they are eaten 
chiefly with a view to remove the taste of food 
from the mouth previously to enjoying the 
flavor of wine. They should be passed round 
after the soup. 

OLIVE-OIL. — This oil, sometimes called 
salad oil, is expressed from ripe olives. It is 
largely used in the more delicate kinds of 
cookery, instead of butter, and is a useful ad- 
dition to salads, preventing them from ferment- 
ing and from causing flatulency. When it is 
fresh and pure it has only a very slight yel- 
lowish-green color, and but little smell or 
flavor, so that it may even be drunk by those 
who hke oil ; and it cannot be doubted that it is 
one of the most easily digested fats in food. 
Its use in cookery might properly be extended 
in this country, notwithstanding our excellent 
animal fats. 

The best quality of oil is that produced by 
the first gentle pressure of the olives, and this 
is at once bottled in the flasks peculiar to the 
article. Stronger pressure on the fruit breaks 
the kernels and produces an inferior grade of 
oil, which is exported in jars and barrels. 
Italian oil is superior to either French or Span- 



I 



OMELETTE 



ONION 



369 



ish, and is distinguished as Florence, Lucca, | 
and Gallipoli oil. The first is most desirable. 

OMELETTE. — Put an ounce of butter in a 
frying-pan the size of a breakfast plate ; when 
hot, pour in three eggs that have been beaten 
for a moment, with a little salt and chopped 
parsley ; as the omelette cooks, lift the edge 
with a knife and press it toward the centre. 
The instant it is set (it need not be brown) 
fold one side over the other, and serve imme- 
diately. A spoonful or two of rich cream add- 
ed with the parsley is an improvement. Beat 
the eggs but very little, to avoid making them 
too thin. The fact that in the best omelettes 
we often see spots and streaks of white, proves 
the beating to have been very slight. 

Aux Fins Herbs (Omelette).— -Beat the 
eggs and prepare the batter exactly as for plain 
omelette, but when the pepper and salt are put 
in add a strong seasoning of parsley and onion 
(minced), or of parsley, thyme, and sweet 
marjoram ; mix together well, and fry at once. 
This is a very savory dish. 

Cheese Omelette. — Prepare the batter as 
before, but before putting into the frying-pan 
stir in some nice old cheese (grated) and sea- 
son with parsley and green thyme. Cook as 
soon as the ingredients are well mixed. 

Friar's or Apple Omelette. — Prepare twelve 
medium sized apples as for sauce, and stir in a 
quarter of a pound of sugar and a quarter of a 
pound of butter ; when cold, add four eggs well 
beaten ; fry in butter or lard made very hot. 

Ham Omelette. — Prepare the batter as for 
plain omelette, and then stir in some ham 
minced very fine. Cook at once and serve as 
soon as done. Or, cook the omelette plain, 
and when it is done scatter the minced ham 
thickly over the surface and double the omelette 
over it. Chicken, tongue, or veal may be used 
instead of the ham, in the same way. 

Savory Omelette. — Same as Omelette aux 
fins herbs. 

Souffle. — I. Beat the yolks of six eggs first 
by themselves and then with four tablespoon- 
fuls of sifted white sugar and the rind of half 
a lemon grated on a fine grater. Whisk the 
whites to a solid froth, and just before the 
omelette is poured into the pan, mix them 
well but lightly with the yolks. Put four 
ounces of fresh butter into a small frying-pan, 
and as soon as it is melted, add the eggs and 
stir them round until they absorb it entirely ; 
when the under side is just set, turn the ome- 
lette into a well-buttered dish (hot) and put it 
into a tolerably brisk oven. From five to ten 
minutes will bake it : and it must be served 
the instant it is taken out. It will have risen 
to a great height, but will sink and become 
heavy in a very short time. 

n. Take a pint of milk and add as much flour 
as will come to a thick paste on the fire ; keep 
stirring it all the time, and add the yolks of six 
eggs, a pinch of salt, and enough sugar to 
sweeten to taste ; then stir in the whites of 
eight eggs beaten to a stiff froth. Put into a 
quick oven and bake a quarter of an hour ; 
24 



then glaze with white sugar and send quickly 
to table. Ground rice may be used instead of 
flour. The rind of a lemon grated, or lemon- 
juice, gives the omelette an agreeable flavor. 

Strawberry Omelette. — Beat up a dozen 
eggs as before directed, but mix with the yolks 
instead of pepper and salt a heaping table- 
spoonful of pounded lump sugar ; mix well and 
fry in butter. When done, put in the centre of 
it four tablespoonfuls of strawberry jam, let 
the jam lie long enough to get well warmed 
through, then double the whole into a half- 
moon keeping the jam in a mass inside. Dish 
it, and dust the top thickly with white sugar. 

Sweet Omelette. — Beat four eggs together 
as for plain omelette, omitting the salt and 
pepper and sweetening to taste with fine white 
sugar. Fry, and when well set, lay on currant 
jelly, raspberry jam, preserved apricots, or any 
other sweetmeat that may be convenient; a 
large tablespoonful will be sufficient for an 
omelette of this size. It should be laid on in a 
lump rather than spread about. Fold one half 
of the omelette over the other, enclosing the 
fruit, dust sugar over the top, and send to table 
on a napkin. 

ONION. — The varieties of the common 
onion are not so numerous as might have been 
anticipated, considering that it is raised from 
seed. They vary, however, in very sensible 
qualities, such as hardness, pungency of taste, 
shape, size, and the color of the skin. The 
common onion succeeds well in any rich, moist, 
sandy soil, using old manures, mixed with 
ashes and soot, or thoroughly decomposed 
meadow muck, mixed with well-rotted horse or 
cow manure. The seed should be sown in 
May, in drill rows about a foot apart. As the 
plants appear they should be kept free of 
weeds, and will need four or five hoeings be- 
fore the tops arrive at their full growth. The 
onion requires a full exposure to the sun's rays 
and all the warmth it can get ; so that weeds, if 
suffered to grow, would impede the progress of 
the crop by shading it, as well as robbing it of 
its supply of food. At the end of the season 
the leaves dry away, when the bulbs should be 
pulled up and spread upon the ground to ripen 
and harden. The best way to store them is to 
string them and hang them up in a cool, dry 
place ; if they are small, they may be kept in 
nets. The thick-necked, spongy ones should be 
used first, or the germ may be taken out, and 
the onions then hung up or kiln-dried. Among 
the principal and best varieties are the white, 
or silver-skinned, the yellow, and the red, and 
they have also various names according to their 
size, shape, season, and flavor. The very 
small of the white kind are much used for pick- 
ling ; the other and larger kinds are applied to 
various uses. 

The first new onions are received from the 
South, usually from the Bermudas, about the 
I St of May ; they are large, flat, and red-colored, 
but sweet and excellent. Then they follow 
from New Orleans about June ist, and from 
New England from the i Sth to the 20th of July. 



370 



ONIONS 



OPIUM 



Baked Onions. — The large Spanish or Ber- 
muda onions are best for this purpose. Wash 
the outside clean, put into a sauce-pan with 
slightly salted water, and boil an hour, replen- 
ishing the water with more (boiling hot) as it 
boils away. Then turn off the water ; take 
out the onions and lay upon a cloth that all the 
moisture may be absorbed ; roll each in a press 
of buttered tissue-paper, twisting it at the top 
to keep it closed, and bake in a slow oven 
nearly an hour, or until tender all through. Peel 
them, put them in a deep dish, and brown 
slightly, basting freely with butter; this will 
take fifteen minutes more. Season with pepper 
and salt, and pour melted butter over the top. 

Boiled Onions. — Peel and blanch i6 small on- 
ions. Prepare a sauce of 2i oz butter and 2 oz 
floiir in a stew-pan ; pour on it one pint of milk 
and veal broth, or water boiling. Add to it the 
onions, with 6 pepper-corns, a bouquet of pars- 
ley, a blade of mace, and a teaspoonful of salt. 
A lump of sugar much improves. When tender, 
remove, strain the sauce, and serve. 

Pickled Onions. — Select the smallest ones 
that can be had, and peel off the outer skin ; 
they are best when newly harvested. To a 
quart of the onions allow a quart of the best 
white vinegar, a tablespoonful of salt, and an 
ounce of whole black pepper; bring these 
quickly to a boil, take off the scum and throw 
in the onions ; simmer them for three or four 
minutes, and when they begin to look clear, 
put them into jars and pour the pickle on 
them. Any favorite spices can be added to 
the vinegar. 

Roast Onions. — They should be roasted 
with all the skin on till tender throughout ; they 
may be served alone, with only salt and cold 
butter, or with roast potatoes or beet-roots. 

Stewed Onions. — Strip the outer skin from 
four or five large Spanish or Bermuda onions, 
and trim the ends, but without cutting into the 
vegetable ; arrange them in a sauce-pan of suffi- 
cient size to contain them all in one layer ; just 
cover these with good beef or veal gravy, and 
stew them gently for a couple of hours ; they 
should be tender quite through, but should not 
be allowed to fall to pieces. When common 
onions are used, they should be first boiled for 
half an hour in plenty of water, then drained 
from it, and put into boiling gravy or broth. 
The savor of this dish is heightened by flour- 
ing lightly and frying the onions of a pale 
brown before they are stewed. 

Stuffed Onions. — Choose the largest on- 
ions ; peel and boil them in plenty of water 
until done enough. Then take out their in- 
sides, leaving a few of the outer coats remain- 
ing. Drain well the portion extracted, and 
chop it small. Mix this with a good piece of 
butter, a few raw eggs, and bread-crumbs 
soaked in milk. Stuff with it the hollowed 
onions. Lay them in a tart-pan which has been 
previously greased with butter and lined with 
paper. Bake them, if possible, with fire over 
as well as under them. 

For sauce, take broth, butter, chopped pars- 



ley, mace, and stir together over the fire in a 
sauce-pan with the yolks of a few eggs. Pour 
it hot over the onions when ready to serve. 

OPIUM. — Poison — Sy?npt07ns : Excessive 
drowsiness apt to sink into death. Treat fuent : 
If the drug has been swallowed, empty the 
stomach by the stomach-pump or an emetic of 
two glasses of hot water, each with a half-tea- 
spoonful of mustard. Try to rouse the pa- 
tient, and keep him roused, by shaking, tickling 
the soles of the feet, etc. Use artificial respira- 
tion as in Drowning, which see. After vom- 
iting occurs, strong black coffee should be 
freely administered from time to time until the 
patient gets well. 

A drug prepared from the juice of the 
capsules of the poppy, the white variety of the 
latter being generally used. The preparations 
from it used in medicine are various, in- 
cluding a confection, a plaster, an enema, an 
extract, a liniment, a pill (commonly called com- 
pound soap pill), a lead and opium pill (aro- 
matic chalk powdered with opium), laudanum 
(tincture of opium), compound ipecacuanha 
powder (Dover's powder), compound kino pow- 
der, compound powder of opium, compound 
tincture of camphor (also known as paregoric 
elixir); opium lozenges, an ammoniated tincture 
of opium, ointment of galls and opium, and wine 
of opium. Of course the doses of these vary 
according to the effect desired to be produced, 
but supposing it is intended to give rise to an 
effect comparable to that produced by a grain 
of opium (which is an ordinary full dose), they 
would be as follows : of confection of opium 
(U. S. Pharmacopoeoa), 30 grs ; of the extract, 
about a grain ; of the liquid extract, 25 drops ; 
of laudanum, 25 to 30 drops ; of compound tinc- 
ture of camphor (paregoric elixir), two teaspoon- 
fuls ; of acetated tincture of opium, 1 5 drops ; 
of opium wine, about 20 drops ; of chalk and 
opium powder, 10 to 20 grains ; of compound 
ipecacuanha powder (known as Dover's Pow- 
der), 10 grains; of compound kino powder, 5 
to 1 5 grains ; of compound soap pill, 4 to 5 
grains ; of lead and opium pill, 4 grains. 

In order for opium to exercise its free influ- 
ence it is necessary that it should be absorbed 
into the blood, but it does not greatly matter 
how it is introduced, whether by the stomach, 
by a raw surface, or, as is now extensively 
practised, by sub-cutaneous injections. If in 
any of these ways an ordinary dose of opium, 
or of its alkaloid morphine, be introduced it 
acts as a narcotic and has a surprisingly sooth- 
ing influence upon pain or nervous excitement. 
Should a large dose be given the effects are 
more marked ; sleep of a heavy kind speedily 
comes on, the breathing is often stertorous, 
and the pulse is slow. After a poisonous dose, 
there is a craving for sleep which can hardly be 
overcome, and sleep if permitted soon passes 
into complete insensibility and death gradually 
ensues. 

Opium should rarely be used in any form 
except under medical advice, then the physi- 
cian's directions should be rigidly adhered 



OPHTHALMIA 



OPOSSUM 



371 



to. The danger of poisoning is not the worst 
danger to which the habitual or ignorant user 
exposes himself. {See Morphine.) 

OPHTHALMIA. — This term is applied to in- 
flammation of the thin mucous membrane which 
covers the front of the eyeball and lines the 
inner surface of the lids. In some forms of 
ophthalmia, however, there is inflammation of 
the cornea and of the anterior part of the strong 
fibrous coat of the eye, called sclerotic. Ophthal- 
mia is a very frequent affection, presents many 
forms, and originates from one or more of a 
great number of local and constitutional causes. 
Among the principal of these causes are the 
presence between the lids and the surface of 
the eye of foreign substances, such as particles 
of dust, sand, etc ; particles of steel and iron, 
when impelled with much force, adhere to or 
are imbedded in the tissue of the cornea or eye- 
ball, and so long as they remain keep up inflam- 
mation ; an inverted eyelash has the same ef- 
fect ; exposure of the eyes to a strong draught 
and the prolonged action of a heated atmos- 
phere are also common causes of opthalmia, as 
is long-continued exercise of the eyes on min- 
ute objects, especially under artificial light and 
in close badly ventilated rooms. Constitutional 
diseases, such as gout, rheumatism, scrofula, 
and inherited syphilis, render their subjects 
liable to attacks of ophthalmia. 

Simple or Common Ophthalmia is pro- 
duced by slight injury or by exposure to a 
draught. The symptoms are redness of the eye- 
ball, " watering " of the eye, and a feeling of 
smarting and stiffness. These in mpst cases 
soon pass away after the application of a cool- 
ing lotion ; but care must be taken to protect 
the eye both from light and the action of cold. 

Catarrhal Ophthalmia, like catarrh of the 
nasal passages, is an inflammation of the 
mucous membrane, attended by the produc- 
tion of mucous or pus. This form of oph- 
thalmia is met with in patients attacked by 
measles, and occurs in some cases of scar- 
let fever, and of erysipelas. The symptoms re- 
semble those of simple ophthalmia much aggra- 
vated. The eyelids feel stiff, and the patient 
has a feeling as if sand were in the eye ; and 
the eyeball is of a bright scarlet redness, dis- 
posed not regularly over the entire surface, but 
in irregularly-formed patches. There is a dis- 
charge from the eye, which at first is clear and 
thin, but afterwards yellow, and thick, and 
viscid ; during sleep this discharge collects at 
the edges of the lid and dries there, gluing 
together the eyelashes. The lids become red 
and swollen ; the general health gradually be- 
comes disordered ; and there is headache, fever, 
and loss of appetite. In ordinary cases the 
affection generally lasts for ten days or two 
weeks, but when the inflammation has been 
allowed to proceed without treatment, it often 
passes into an obstinate chronic condition. 
Where there is not very much local irritation, 
frequent bathing of the eyes with cold water, 
and the application of alum lotion (one grain to 
one ounce of water), or of one or two drops of 



a solution of lunar caustic (one grain to two 
ounces of distilled water) will generally be 
found effectual. The application of the lotion 
should be made thrice (the drops once) daily. 
When there is severe pain, however, and the 
eyelids are red and inflamed, a leech may be 
applied to each temple. The edges of the lids 
should be anointed every night at bedtime with 
simple cerate. The patient should be kept on 
a light diet, and the bowels kept open if neces- 
sary by administration of cathartics. The eyes 
should be protected by a dark green shade. 

Purulent Ophthalmia, or Epythalmia, is the 
most malignant form of the disease. It some- 
times attacks individuals who have been col- 
lected together in large numbers under faulty 
hygienic conditions, and breaks out occasion- 
ally in large schools of young children. The 
symptoms in the earlier stages resemble those of 
catarrhal ophthalmia, but they rapidly increase 
in severity, and in the course of twenty-four or 
thirty hours the eyelids become of a deei>red 
color, and swollen to such an extent that the 
patient cannot obtain a glimpse of any object, 
or even tell whether it be day or night, and 
believes that he is blind. There is acute pain, 
which shoots from the eye to the corresponding 
cheek, forehead, and temple ; and from be- 
tween the swollen lids there is a constant dis- 
charge of thick, purulent fluid, which, if applied 
even in minute quantity to a healthy eye will 
cause purulent inflammation. There is also gen- 
erally considerable constitutional disturbance. 
The affection, if unchecked by treatment, causes 
ulceration with perforation of the cornea, and, 
in some cases, sloughing of the whole of the 
transparent membrane. In the latter case, 
there will, of course, be complete loss of vision ; 
with slight ulceration even, the sight, though 
not destroyed, will in most cases be seriously 
impaired. 

The subjects of purulent ophthalmia are 
usually pallid and weak, and should not be 
treated on any lowering system ; the strength 
ought to be kept up by good, but easily digest- 
ible food. Beer, wine, and in very bad cases 
brandy may be given in moderate quantities. 
The most useful medicinal agents are quinine 
and opium. The local treatment consists in 
incising the mass of swollen membrane, and 
applying some strong astringent, as lunar caus- 
tic. The eyes are then to be frequently 
syringed with a solution of alum. Early and 
skilful medical attendance is very necessary 
in purulent ophthalmia ; but much also depends 
upon the nursing. The eyes must be frequently 
bathed, the face kept clean, and above all great 
care must be taken to wipe away at once the pur- 
ulent discharge, as it will communicate the dis- 
ease to any healthy eye with which it happens 
to come in contact. The affected eye should 
be covered by a layer of cotton-wool fixed by 
a bandage ; this covering should be frequently 
renewed, and when removed should at once be 
burnt. 

OPOSSUM. — An animal, about the size of 
a large cat, which is seldom found in the 



372 



ORANGE 



Eastern markets but is much liked and much 
sought after in the South and South-west. 
Hunting it is a favorite amusement at the South, 
especially with the negroes, who are extremely 
fond of its flesh in the Autumn, when it is fat, 
tender, and flavored like that of a sucking-pig ; 
the sport begins after dark, and is prosecuted 
with the assistance of a few dogs, torches, and 
axes for felling the trees in which the animal 
takes refuge. It is in best condition after the 
first frost has ripened the persimmons, and 
about that time it is found occasionally in the 
markets. The full grown opossum is about as 
large as a ten-pound pig. It should be dressed 
as soon after having been killed as possible, 
and never purchased when at all stale. 

Prepare, cook, and serve like Rabbit or 
Roast Pig. A good stuffing for it is made by 
pounding the liver and heart with about the 
same quantity of bacon and mixing with it two 
©r three teaspoonfuls of chopped parsley, a 
piece of grated nutmeg, salt and pepper, and 
six small onions fried in butter. 

ORANGE. — There are many varieties of 
this most delicious, wholesome, and refreshing 
fruit. The largest and beSt are from Florida, 
and sell at the highest prices. The Havana 
oranges are equal in flavor, but have a thick 
and rough rind ; the pulp of either is very juicy 
and delicious. The Maltese oranges have also 
a very thick and spongy rind, and are some- 
times almost juiceless. The Sicilian fruit, com- 
monly called Messina oranges, have a thin 
rind and a sour taste, but are usually most 
abundant and cheap. The Florida and West 
India oranges are in market from October till 
April, and those from the Mediterranean from 
January until May, after which periods they 
lose flavor and become dry and spongy. 

The Seville or bitter orange is of the same 
variety as the sweet, but it cannot be eaten raw, 
and is used only in marmalades, candy, etc., 
and for the same purpose as the lemon. It is 
not brought to this country to any considerable 
extent. 

Essence of Orange-Peel. {See Essence.) 

Fool (Orange). — Mix the juice of three 
Seville oranges, three eggs well beaten, a pint 
of cream, and a little nutmeg and cinnamon ; 
sweeten to taste. Set the whole over a slow 
fire, and stir it till it becomes as thick as 
cream, but do not let it boil ; then pour it into 
a dish and set it by till cold. This is an ex- 
cellent dessert dish. 

Fritters (Orange).— After having stripped the 
outer rind from the oranges, remove carefully 
the white inner skin, and in sHcing them take 
out the seed ; dip the slices into batter pre- 
pared as for ordinary fritters, and fry them in 
hot lard or butter to a pale brown ; let them be 
very dry. Serve them heaped high upon a 
folded napkin, and strew sifted sugar over them. 

Ice-Cream (Orange). (^See Ice-Cream.) 

Oranges Filled with Jelly. — This is one of 
the fanciful dishes which make a pretty ap- 
pearance on a supper table, and are acceptable 
when much variety is desired. Take some very 



fine juicy oranges, and with the point of a 
small knife cut out from the top of each a round 
about the size of a shilling; then with the small 
end of a tea or tgg spoon, empty them entire- 
ly, taking great care not to break the rinds. 




Oranges Filled with Jelly. 

Throw these into cold water, and make jelly of 
the juice, which must be well pressed from the 
pulp, and strained as clear as possible. Color 
one-half a fine rose color with prepared cochi- 
neal, and leave the other very pale ; when it is 
nearly cold, drain and wipe the orange rinds, 
and fill them with alternate stripes of the two 
jellies ; when they are perfectly cold cut them 
into quarters, and dispose them tastefully in a 
dish with a few light branches of myrtle between 
them. Calf's feet or any other variety of jelly, 
or different blanc-manges, maybe used at choice 
to fill tjje rinds ; the colors, however, should 
contrast as much as possible. 

Salad (Orange). — Take off the outer rinds, 
and then strip away entirely the white inner 
skin from some fine oranges ; slice them thin, 
removing the seeds and thick skin of the cores ; 
strew over them plenty of white sifted sugar, 
and pour on them a glass of rum or brandy ; 
when the sugar is dissolved serve the oranges. 
Powdered sugar candy used instead of sugar is 
an improvement to this salad ; and the substi- 
tution of port, sherry, or Madeira for the 
brandy is often considered so. 

Syrup (Orange). — Select ripe and thin- 
skinned oranges ; squeeze the juice through a 
sieve, and to every pint add a pound and a half 
of powdered loaf-sugar ; boil it slowly and skim 
as long as any scum rises ; then take it off, and 
when it becomes cold, bottle it and secure the 
corks well. Two tablespoonfuls of this syrup 
mixed in melted butter make a good sauce for 
plum or batter pudding. It also imparts a fine 
flavor, especially to punch ; and is so useful 
and so easily made that no housekeeper should 
be without it. 

Tincture of Orange-peel. {See Essence.) 

Wine (Orange). — To each gallon of water 
allow three and a half pounds of loaf-sugar; 
boil them together, and take off the scum. 
When cold add (for each gallon of water) the 
juice of twelve or fourteen good oranges, and 
one-third of the peel cut thin. Let it stand for 
twenty-four hours. Then work it with a piece 



ORANGEADE 



OXALIS 



373 



of toast spread with yeast. Let it stand two 
days, and take out the peel before putting it 
into the cask. The addition of the juice and 
rind of three or four lemons is considered by 
some a great improvement. 

ORANGEADE. — This is made in precisely 
the same way as lemonade, simply substituting 
oranges for lemons, and using less sugar. It 
is very useful in a sick-room, as affording a 
variety in the beverages of feverish patients. 

ORGANDIE. — A species of muslin or cot- 
ton fabric extremely light and nearly transpa- 
rent. It is used only for ladies' dresses, etc. 
The French is the best. 

ORGEAT. — A beverage made of syrup of 
almonds mixed with water that has boiled and 
become cold, in the quantity most agreeable to 
the palate ; a tablespoonful of the syrup in a 
tumbler of water makes a very agreeable drink. 
Syrup of almonds may be made thus : — Blanch 
and pound in a Wedgewood mortar a pound of 
Jordan almonds and one ounce of bitter 
almonds ; add a tablespoonful or two of orange- 
flower water. Mix a pint of rose-water with a 
pint of clear water, add this to the almonds, 
and pass the whole through a lawn sieve. 
Then boil three pints of clarified syrup, and 
when it boils pour in the almond-mixture and 
let the whole boil one minute ; when cold, put 
it into bottles and cork tightly. To make it 
quickly for immediate use, pound the almonds 
as above ; mix them with a quart of water, one 
of milk, and one of clarified syrup or capillaire ; 
pass through a sieve. 

ORMOLU. — A name given to an alloy of 
52 parts zinc and 48 copper, so colored as to 
represent burnished gold. Furniture orna- 
mented with it came into fashion in the reign 
of Louis XV, and until lately attained a prodig- 
ious popularity. At present it is sought after 
only by the rich virtuosi. 

ORTOLAN. — The little bird which is called 
ortolan in this country is commonly known as 
the snow-bunting, or white snow-bird. It is 
delicious eating, but bears only a slight resem- 
blance to the ortolans which are so famous in 
European gastronomy and which are fattened 
in great numbers by a peculiar process espe- 
cially for the table. The season for the Ameri- 
can ortolan begins in December, but it is much 
better and fatter in January and February. It 
may either be broiled or roasted. 

Broiled Ortolans. — Clean and wash thor- 
oughly in cold water ; spread some butter over 
them inside and out ; put on a gridiron over a 
clear fire with the inner side down, and broil 
till done, turning it over when one side is brown ; 
when done, season with salt and pepper, and 
serve on toast. It will take about ten minutes 
to broil them. 

Roast Ortolans.-Dip some oysters in melted 
butter and then roll them in bread-crumbs sea- 
soned with pepper and salt, and put one in each 
bird after it has been cleansed and washed in 
cold water. Roast them about twelve minutes 
before a good fire, basting with butter and water ; 
dish on toast, and baste freely with melted butter. 



OTTER. — This animal is now scarce except 
in the far north and west, and is seldom offered 
in the market, especially for food. The flesh, 
however, is quite good eating and should not be 
rejected when it can be obtained ; the only ob- 
jection to it is that it has a somewhat fishy 
flavor. But this is not rank enough to be 
disagreeable except in a very old otter. Prepare, 
cook, and serve in the same way as Rabbit. 

OVERSHOES. — This is perhaps the most 
common of the numerous terms applied to the 
india-rubber shoes designed for wearing over 
the ordinary ones in wet weather. Where the 
ordinary slioes are of proper stoutness it is 
best to wear no overshoes at all ; but when 
these latter are worn they should be worn only 
out of doors and left off immediately on enter- 
ing the house. Never wear overshoes in two 
widely -differ etit temperatures on the same day. 
Carelessness in this respect is one of the most 
fruitful causes of winter colds and their long 
train of ills. Another objection to overshoes is 
that if worn long at a time they " draw " the 
feet to an extent which is often painful and 
sometimes productive of frost-bite. 

OXALIC ACID. — Poison. — Sytnptoms : 
Great distress of the stomach. Treatment : 
give a tablespoonful or two of pulverized chalk 
or magnesia, in a little water or milk. If not 
at hand, give slacked lime, even plaster from 
the walls ground fine, will help. Vomiting 
usually takes place. If it does not, produce it 
by giving warm water. Do not use the stomach 
pump or give alkalis. 

An organic acid found present in many 
plants ; it gives the acidity to sorrel and rhu- 
barb, hence these plants are used as articles of 
diet. The oxalic acid of commerce is drawn 
from these and other plants, and having great 
cleansing properties is in almost constant use 
in the household for removing stains from 
clothing, for cleansing marbles, polishing 
brass, etc. It is one of the most deadly of 
poisons if taken in any quantity, and as it bears 
a close resemblance to Epsom salts care should 
be taken to have it kept where no mistake can 
occur. 

OXALIS. — A beautiful winter and spring 
flowering bulb belonging to the family of Cape 
Bulbs. They flourish either in pots in the 
window or out of doors. The culture is the 
same as that of Ixia (which see). In pots the 
soil should be sandy peat and leaf-mould, and 
the pots should be well drained. 

Among the choice varieties are : O. Boweana, 
which should be potted in September ; it pro- 
duces large clusters of bright red flowers for 
several months. O. Carnosa, should be allowed 
to dry off during the winter and bedded out m 
summer, when it will bloom profusely (flowers 
pink) for about four months. O. Floribunda, 
should be treated in the same way. O. Captum 
(yellow flowers) ; pot in October. O. Deppti, 
summer-bloomer, lilac-rose flowers ; does well 
bedded out. O. Luxula (pink) and O. Luxula 
alba (white), are very pretty varieties ; pot m 
September. So are : O. A Iba, Cupea, Elegans 



374 



OYSTER 



Elongata, Flabefolia, Hirta, Hiriella, Lesi- 
andra, Multijlora, Pabnata, and Speciosa. 
The O. Versicolor is the finest of all ; it has 
flowers white, with yellow eye, and rosy pink 
or crimson outside. Plant six or eight large 
bulbs (the largest do not exceed a pea in size) 
in a five inch pot. The plants are a mass of 
bloom from January to April. 

OYSTER. — When spawning, oysters are 
milky, watery, and poor ; and are unwholesome 
food. The months of spawning are May, 
June and July; but they require a month 
longer to fatten, and are seldom in good con- 
dition before September. 

Wholesale dealers usually have four quali- 
ties or sizes of oysters for sale. The best are 
known as extras^ the second best as box, and 
then follow cullings and btisJiels. Retail deal- 
ers usually open them and sell them by the 
hundred, gallon, or quart, in any quantity de- 
sired. Other dealers make a large business 
of pickling them for home and foreign con- 
sumption, and packing them for inland places. 

The largest oysters are not always the best, 
especially for eating raw and for stewing; 
those of medium size are generally preferred 
by epicures. Nor are those found in clusters 
as good as the single oysters. Oysters are 
not good when dead. To ascertain whether 
they are or not, as soon as opened and when 
one of the shells is removed, touch the edge 
of the oyster gently, and, if alive, it will con- 
tract. 

Broiled Oysters. — Wipe them dry, sprinkle 
them with salt and pepper, and broil them on 
a wire gridiron over a clear, hot fire. In dish- 
ing, put a small piece of butter on each. The 
oysters are often dredged with flour, or bread- 
crumbed, after being seasoned ; this forms a 
crust, and is thought to preserve the juices. 

Catsup (Oyster). — Open one hundred oys- 
ters and preserve all their liquor; add to them 
one pound of anchovies, three pints of white 
wine, and one lemon sliced with half the peel ; 
let this boil gently half an hour ; then strain it 
through muslin, add to it cloves and mace, a 
quarter of an ounce each, and one grated nut- 
meg ; let it boil a quarter of an hour more, 
then add to it two ounces of eschalots. When 
cold, bottle it with the spice and eschalots. 
This is rather expensive, but it gives a deli- 
cious flavor to white gravies and sauces, and 
is an excellent condiment for cold meats. 

Curried Oysters. — Drain the liquor from a 
quart of oysters, and put it into a saucepan ; 
mix a quarter of a pound of butter with two 
tablespoonfuls of flour, and stir this into the 
liquor ; add one tablespoonful of curry pow- 
der. Let the whole come to a boil ; put in the 
oysters ; boil up once, and serve hot. 

Fried Oysters. — Select the largest and 
fattest oysters to be had ; place them in a col- 
ander and let them drain half an hour, and 
then wipe them dry; dip them one by one in 
beaten ^gg, and roll in bread crumbs ; fry to a 
crisp brown in plenty of hot lard. Serve with 
tomato catsup. The oysters are greatly im- 



proved if dipped a second time in the egg and 
bread-crumbs after an interval of half an hour. 

Omelette (Oyster). — Chop into small pieces 
half a dozen large oysters. Throw a pinch of 
salt upon them and let them stand in their own 
liquor for half an hour. Beat six eggs, the 
yolks and whites separately ; the former to a 
smooth thick paste ; the latter to a stiff froth. 
Add to the yolks a tablespoonful of rich stock, 
pepper and salt to taste, and then lightly stir 
in the whites. 

Drop into a hot pan a lump of fresh butter 
the size of a hen's egg. When it is thoroughly 
melted, and begins to fry, pour in your egg 
mixture, and add, as quickly as possible, the 
oysters . Do not stir ; but with a broad-bladed 
omelette-knife, lift, as the eggs set, the ome- 
lette from the bottom of the pan, to prevent it 
from scorching. In six minutes, it will be done. 

Place a hot dish, bottom upwards, over the 
omelette, and dexterously turn the .pan over, 
bringing the omelette with the brown side up- 
permost upon the dish. Eat without delay. 

Patties (Oyster). — Line some small patty- 
pans with rich puff-paste, and make covers of 
the same ; pinch and trim the edges, and bake 
in a brisk oven. Drain a quart of small oys- 
ters from their liquor ; put into a sauce-pan an 
ounce of butter and a teaspoonful of flour ; 
shake them round over a gentle fire, and let 
them simmer two or three minutes ; throw in a 
little salt, pepper, and half a teaspoonful of 
pounded mace, then add by degrees two or 
three tablespoonfuls of rich cream ; let these 
boil, and pour in the strained liquor of the 
oysters ; next add the oysters and keep at the 
boiling-point for a couple of minutes. Raise 
the covers from the patties and fill them with 
the oysters and their sauce ; replace the covers 
and serve at once before the juice has had 
time to soak through the crust. 

Another way is to prepare the oysters, etc., 
as above ; let them just come to the boiling- 
point and fill the patties (not baked) ; then put 
irf a quick oven and bake twenty minutes. 

Pickled Oysters. — Take out the oysters, 
and for every quart of the liquor add a tea- 
spoonful of black pepper, a pod of red pepper 
broken into bits, two blades of mace, a teaspoon- 
ful of salt, two dozen cloves, three tablespoon- 
fuls of white wine, and half a pint of white 
vinegar. Simmer the oysters gently in this 
five minutes, then take them out and put them 
into jars ; then boil the pickle, skim it, and 
pour it over them. Keep them in a dark, cool 
place, and when a jar is opened use up its con- 
tents as quickly as possible. Oysters pickled 
in this way will keep three or fourweeks. 

Pie (Oyster). — I, Line the pie-dish half 
way up with good pie-crust ; fill the dish witli 
pieces of stale bread, place a cover of paste 
over this, and bake about fifteen or twenty 
minutes in a brisk oven. Take off the crust ; 
have ready some oysters prepared as for pat- 
ties, fill the pie with them, and put on the 
crust. Serve at once. 

II. Line a pie-dish (a deep soup-plate will 



OYSTER 



OYSTER-PLANT 



375 



answer as well) with a good puff-paste _; lay an 
extra layer around the edge of the dish, and 
bake in a brisk oven. When done, fill the dish 
with oysters ; season with pepper, salt, and an 
ounce or so of butter ; dust over a little flour, 
and cover with a thin crust of puff-paste. Bake 
quickly; when the top crust is done the oysters 
should be. Serve promptly, as the crust 
quickly absorbs the gravy. This pie is excel- 
lent cold, and and is an admirable dish for pic- 
nics or for travelling. 

Pouletle (Oysters a la). — Prepare a sauce 
by working together butter and flour, and 
thinning it with warm chicken broth to the 
consistency of thick cream. To each tureen, 
add the yolk of an egg, stirred in. Season 
to taste with salt and lemon juice. Keep this 
warm. 

Wash the oysters, stew them till the beards 
curl, in equal parts of any light white wine and 
water, remove them and serve in the sauce 
prepared as above. 

Raw Oysters. — The best way to serve raw 
oysters is on the " half-shell." Wash the out 
sides of the oysters ; open them, detaching the 
flat shell; then detach them from the deep 
shell, but leave them on it. Serve five or six 
on a plate with quarter of a lemon in the centre. 
Eat with salt, pepper and lemon-juice, or vin- 
egar. 

In serving them without the shells, the most 
attractive way is in a dish of ice made by freez- 
ing water in a tin form shaped like a salad 
bowl. 

Roast Oysters. — Wash and wipe the oysters 
(in the shell) ; lay them in a quick oven, on the 
top of the stove, or in the coals ; when they 
open they are done. Pile in a dish or in a pan 
and send to table, or take them out and lay 
them on toast, pouring over all the liquor that 
accumulates while opening them, with a little 
butter melted in it, and seasoned to taste. 

Scalloped Oysters. — Separate two quarts 
of oysters from their liquor; pound very fine 
eight crisp crackers, or grate a loaf of stale 
bread butter a deep pie dish, put in a layer 
of crumbs, and then a layer of oysters, and so 
on till the dish is filled ; have the top layer of 
bread-crumbs thicker than the others, and stick 
bits of butter over it. Pour over it a teacup- 
ful of the oyster liquor, or oyster liquor and 
milk mixed in equal quantities. Bake in a 
moderate oven thirty or forty minutes. Pour 
in a glass of champagne before cooking, if you 
care to. 

Steamed Oysters. — Lay some oysters in the 
shell in some air-tight vessel, placing the upper 
shell downwards so the liquor will not run out 
when they open. Set them over a pot of boil- 
ing water (where they will get the steam), and 
boil hard for twenty minutes ; if the oysters are 
open then they are done, if not, steam till they 
do open. Serve at once and eat hot, with salt 
and a bit of butter. 

Stewed Oysters. — Separte a quart of oys- 
ters from their liquor, and set the latter in a 
sauce-pan over the fire, seasoning with a little 



salt and pepper ; let it just come to a boil, and 
add a teacupful of milk. Stir together, boil up 
once, and then put in the oysters, with a large 
tablespoonful of butter, rubbed smoothly with 
the same quantity of flour. Stew gently a few 
minutes : tastes vary regarding the time. Serve 
at once, with oyster crackers or crisp cream 
crackers. 

OYSTER-PLANT (Salsify).— A vegetable 
with a grassy top, and a long, tapering, white 
root, somewhat like a carrot, which, when 
cooked, has a flavor very similar to that of the 
oyster. The tops, when young, are sometimes 
used as greens, but the root is the best portion 
of the plant, and furnishes an excellent dish 
throughout the winter. In the cultivation of 
the oyster plant, a good, deep, mellow soil 
is needed, as the roots extend deep into the 
ground. The beds should be in an open sit- 
uation, and the seed sown in the spring in 
drills about six inches apart and half an inch 
deep ; after planting, smooth the bed nicely 
with the back of the spade or with a light roller. 
On coming up, if the plants are too thick, they 
should be thinned to three or four inches in- 
tervals. In the autumn, when the roots are 
dug, let them be exposed to the air for a few 
hours, and then pack them separately in dry 
sand, whence they may be taken for use during 
the winter. As sold in the markets they are 
usually bound up in bundles of half a dozen 
roots together. 

Boiled Oyster-plant. — Wash the roots, 
scrape off the outside skin, and throw them 
immediately into cold water to prevent them 
from turning black : cut them into lengths of 
three or four inches, and when all are ready 
put them into plenty of boiling water, with a 
little salt, a small bit of butter, and a couple of 
tablespoonfuls of white vinegar or the juice of 
a lemon ; they will be done in from three-quar- 
ters of an hour to an hour. Try them with a 
fork, and when perfectly tender, drain, and 
serve them with melted butter, or with rich 
brown gravy. 

Fried Oyster-plant. — Boil the roots tender, 
as directed above, drain, and then press them 
lightly in a soft cloth ; throw them into a tol- 
erably thick batter ; take the pieces out sepa- 
rately and fry them in plenty of hot lard to a 
light brown ; then place in a colander to drain; 
dish, sprinkle fine salt over them, and send to 
table hot. 

Or, after boiling, mash the roots to a smooth 
paste, make them into round cakes, dip them 
in beaten egg and then in bread-crumbs, and 
fry as before. 

Stewed Oyster-plant. — Scrape the roots, 
and cut them into pieces one inch long ; put 
these into a sauce-pan with hot water enough 
to cover them, and stew till quite tender ; turn 
off nearly all the water, add a teacupful of milk, 
and stew ten minutes after it begins to boil ; 
cut a tablespoonful of butter into bits, roll 
them in flour, and add them to the stew ; pep- 
per and salt to taste ; then boil up once, and 
serve hot. 



376 



PAEONY 



PAINTING 



PffiONT. The familiar name of a num- 
ber of species of highly ornamental garden 
plants, which blossom through several weeks of 
the early part of the floral season. The paeo- 
nies are divided into two groups, those which 
are herbaceous and those which are shrubby ; 
but the woody stems of the latter (commonly 
called Tree Paeonies) are of a herbaceous 
character, with very large pith. The several 
sorts may be cultivated in the open air, cover- 
ing the plants in winter in the colder latitudes, 
and where heavy snows might break the 
branches, with a perforated barrel, cask, or 
box, a method that secures the flowering for 
the next season, which sometimes fails. In 
pot culture, the chief point is not to allow the 
plants to start suddenly into growth and push 
their flower-buds immaturely. If kept in the 
shady part of the greenhouse or conservatory, 
and not too near the window in the parlor 
the display of flowers will be longer pre- 
served. The best soil for them is a good loam 
mixed with a little leaf mould ; and in the gar- 
den a good loamy soil, with occasional prunings 
of the plants, will be found the best mode of 
cultivation. The paeony is easily propagated 
by division of the roots and by seeds ; and cut- 
tings may be taken in August or September 
(with a portion of the old wood attached). In 
selecting the seed for sowing, the smaller ones 
in the capsules are the best. 

Herbaceous paeonies. — The common red 
paeony used to be found in every garden, its 
large and brilliant red flowers rendering it very 
conspicuous, and delighting all lovers of gorge- 
ous colorings. It is only a few years since the 
white variety was introduced and shortly after- 
wards the pink ; now over a hundred distinct 
varieties are given in the catalogues. Among 
the choicest of them are the following: — Alba 
Plenaia, double flower, white ; Albicans Plena, 
rosy pink ; Amabilis, outer petal rose color, 
inner ones creamy white ; Barojt Rothschild, 
pale rose ; Duchesse de Nemours, rose lilac ; 
Duchess e d'' Orleans, outer petals violet-rose, 
centre, salmon-buff ; Festiva, white shaded to 
carmine in the centre ; Maidens Blush, bright 
pink ; Povipadoura, dark crimson ; Pomponia, 
purplish pink, salmon centre ; Pattsia, purplish 
crimson ; Queen Victoria, rose ; Pubra Striata, 
richest rosy crimson; Tenuifolia, funnel- 
shaped leaves, flowers deep crimson ; Virgin- 
ialis, pure white ; Whitteyi, very fragrant, white 
with yellow centre. 

Tree Paeonies. — There are many varieties 
of these, but after the poppy-flowered and the 
double blush they differ but little. They bloom 
in May and are always ornamental. Elizabeth 
and Roi Leopold are magnificent varieties. 



PAINT. — (To Clean.) Scour with a soft 
brush, using warm (but not hot) soap-suds ; 
wash the soap off immediately with old flannel 
dipped in clear water, and wipe dry with a linen 
cloth. The entire process should be gone 
through with quickly, so that the water will not 
dry upon and streak the paint. {See Clean- 
ing.) 

To Remove Paint. — Apply either spirits of 
turpentine or benzine, with a piece of woollen 
cloth ; the turpentine may afterwards be gotten 
rid of by continuing the friction with a clean 
piece of cloth, or, if necessary, follow it up 
with soap and water or spirits of wine. When 
paint is suffered to get hard and dry, it is very 
difficult to get rid of it entirely, but by perse- 
verance with either of the above solvents it 
may generally be removed. 

PAINTING. — Painting as applied to house- 
building consists in the application to woods 
and other materials of artificial colors com- 
pounded with oil, oil and turpentine, or water. 
It is founded upon the power possessed by oil 
and varnishes and white lead, of preventing the 
injurious action of the atmosphere upon wood, 
iron, stucco, and even stone, while at the same 
time it is capable of considerable decorative 
effect. 

In painting woods, especially pine or deal, 
the knots must first be killed ; otherwise they 
are constantly giving out turpentine, and thus 
destroying the effect of the paint. The com- 
position for this purpose is made with red and 
white lead, ground fine with water on a stone, 
and mixed with warm double glue size ; it 
should be brushed on the knots while warm. 
A second coat of white lead ground in oil with 
the addition of a dryer, as red lead or litharge 
(one quarter as much of the dryer as of the 
white lead) will generally be necessary unless 
the wood has been thoroughly seasoned. This 
should be allowed to become quite dry, and 
then should be rubbed down with pumice- 
stone. After this knotting is completed, the 
next process is to prime. The paint for this 
is composed chiefly of white lead mixed with a 
very small quantity of red lead in raw linseed 
oil ; it should be laid on very thin, so that a 
pound ought to cover eighteen or twenty square 
yards. Another coat is generally laid on after- 
wards still thinner than the first ; and in this 
condition the work is said to be primed and 
one coat, ready for painting, which will require 
two coats more. All the nail-holes and other 
irregularities should now be filled up with put- 
ty, and the whole surface brought to the de- 
sired condition of smoothness. After this, a 
regular coat of paint of the intended color is 
laid on, and in a day or two subsequently the 



PALSY 



PAPER-WARE 



377 



finishing one. When a large proportion of 1 
turpentine is used in this last coat, the paint 
looks dull and has a delicate bloom; this is 
c?i\\&d. Jlatiing. 

The colors and combinations of colors pos- 
sible in painting are practically innumerable, 
and, with the methods of preparing them, consti- 
tute too large a subject to be entered upon here. 
(A few of those most commonly employed are 
given under Pigments). Those processes, a 
knowledge of which can probably be utilized 
in the household, are treated of in their proper 
places.* {See Kalsomining, Staining, Var- 
nish, and Whitewash.) 

The best time for painting the exterior of 
buildings is late in the autumn or during the 
winter. Paint then applied will endure twice as 
long as when applied in early summer, or in 
hot weather. In the former it dries slowly and 
becomes hard, like a glazed surface, not easily 
affected afterwards by the weather, or worn off 
by the beating of storms. But in very hot 
weather the oil in the paint soaks into the wood 
at once, as into a sponge, leaving the lead near- 
ly dry, and nearly ready to crumble off. This 
last difficulty, however, may be guarded against, 
though at an increased expense, by first going 
over the surface with raw oil. By painting in 
cold weather another serious objection to paint- 
ing in summer may be avoided, namely, the 
collection of small flies on the fresh paint. 

Measurement of Painter's Work. — When 
this kind of work is not done by the job it is 
done by measurement. In the latter case, the 
work is always measured by the yard super- 
ficial, and the dimensions are taken in yards, 
inches, and tenths. Every part passed over 
by the brush is measured,^ consequently the di- 
mensions must be taken in a line that girts over 
the moulding, etc. Ornamental and carved 
work are charged extra. 
PALSY. {See Paralysis.) 
PANADA. — This is excellent for the sick- 
room. Break into a sauce-pan a piece of bread 
a little larger than an egg ; cover it with water, 
or milk and water; boil five minutes, stir- 
ring all the while. Then add a saltspoonful of 
salt, one ounce of butter, and a couple of raw 
egg-yolks. Stir well together, and serve in a 
bowl. 

Chicken Panada. — Make according to above 
receipt, reducing the quantity of bread, and 
substituting for it the white meat of chicken 
minced very fine. The egg-yolks may be 
omitted or not. 

Cracker Panada. — Split some Boston crack- 
ers, and pile them in a bowl in layers, sprink- 
ling sugar and a little salt over each ; cover 
with boiling water, put a close top over the 
bowl, and set in a warm place where it may 
steep about an hour. Eat from the bowl with 
sugar, and flavor with a little nutmeg. 



* How to Paint (New York, S. R. Wells), is an excellent 
little manual in which a practical painter gives all the instruc- 
tion on the various branches of the art that an amateur can 
apply. 



PANCAEIiS. — Commonly used for dessert; 

made by frying a thin batter in large cakes. 
They are buttered and served hot; sometimes 
spread with raspberry jam; in either case they 
are rolled and sifted with powdered sugar. 

For Dessert. — Mix a pint of flour with half 
a pint of milk and half a teaspoonful of salt ; 
add four eggs, and beat until very light ; add 
gradually a pint of milk ; grease a small frying- 
pan, and put in some two or three spoonfuls 
— barely enough to cover the pan. When 
done, roll each one separately, and place across 
a platter, kept hot in the mouth of the oven ; 
send to the table when the platter is covered, 
with a little butter over the whole. Have an- 
other plate ready to follow the first ; serve with 
plain butter, sugar, and cinnamon. {See Buck- 
wheat Cakes and Slap-jacks.) 

Apple Pancakes. — Make a batter as for 
common pancakes, adding to it a few apples, 
peeled, cored, and chopped very fine ; these 
must be stirred up in the batter each time a 
pancake is taken from it. Apple renders the 
pancakes light and delicate ; but too much 
makes them fall to pieces in frying. 

German Pancakes. — Beat half a pound of 
butter to a cream ; mix with it half a pound of 
flour, half a pound of sugar, the yolks of twelve 
eggs, and a pint of lukewarm cream ; beat the 
whites of the eggs to a stiff froth, and add 
them, together with a little powdered cinnamon 
and lemon-peel chopped very fine. Fry the 
pancakes on one side only, and place them in a 
pile, one above the other, so as to form a cake, 
sugar and cinnamon being strewn between each 
layer. The pile should be cut downwards like 
a cake, and served with wine or jelly sauce. 

PANSY. — Also called Heartsease and Gar- 
den Violet. This flower is a universal favorite, 
and a garden is seldom found in which it does 
not fill some quiet, shady spot with its rich, 
velvety blossoms. It is a perennial — that is, it 
dies down every year when nipped by the frost 
and springs up again in the spring from the old 
roots or from self-sown seeds. The spot se- 
lected for a pansy bed — the plants are too small 
to plant separately — should be shady, or at 
least protected from the noonday sun ; and the 
soil should be rich and mouldy. Pansies are 
gross feeders, and can scarcely be manured too 
strongly ; they will bloom better if watered at 
least once a week during the summer with a 
tablespoonful of guano dissolved in a gallon of 
water. Water should also be given them very 
freely every day. Pansies can be obtained of 
every color, from the deepest purple and bright- 
est yellow to the faintest buff, and when grouped 
have a very pretty effect. They may be grown 
from seeds by starting them in pots early in the 
spring, and afterward transplanting them to the 
garden ; but the easier way is to procure the 
plants of the florist already in growth. 

PAPER-WARE.— Under the name of Jap- 
anese paper-ware., a species of household uten- 
sils have been recently introduced, embracing 
tea-trays, waiters, pans, pitchers, bowls, slop- 
buckets, churns, etc., etc. They are made of 



378 



PAPER-HANGINGS 



PARAFFINE 



compressed paper, glazed on the surface so as 
to resemble earthenware (how much better it 
would be if decorated according to its own 
character, instead of being made a poor imi- 
tation of anything !), and are low-priced and 
light, and said to be water-tight and durable. 

PAPER-HANGINGS.— Of all wall-cover- 
ings, paper-hangings are the most popular, and 
are used everywhere. The styles and qualities 
are numberless, the best being French impor- 
tations, though the American papers are very 
nearly as good, and somewhat cheaper in the 
same grades. The artistic principles upon 
which wall-papers should be selected are point- 
ed out in the article on Decoration. The 
more complicated the colors, the more expen- 
sive is the pattern, each color requiring a separ- 
ate impression. For the more expensive papers 
a lining paper is required, especially for crim- 
sons. In choosing papers, when economy is an 
object, short patterns should always be selected, 
as they match with much less waste than longer 
ones ; or, better still, plain neutral tints. Avoid 
green papers, as they are frequently colored 
with Paris green, an arsenical pigment, which 
is poisonous. The paper is manufactured of 
various widths, though twenty-one inches is the 
most common, and is sold by the piece or roll 
of twelve yards. The French papers are only 
eighteen inches wide. 

Measuring. Measure the circumference of 
the room, multiply the feet by twelve, and di- 
vide by the number of inches in the width 
of the paper ; this will give the number of 
breadths ; then take the height of the room in 
feet, measuring from the cornice to the base- 
board, and allowing for the matching of the 
pattern; multiply this by the number of breadths, 
and divide by thirty-six. 11. Multiply the cir- 
cumference of the room in feet by the height 
in feet, and divide the result by three times the 
width of the paper in inches. Either way will 
give the number of pieces that would be re- 
quired if there were no windows, doors, or 
mantel-piece. Deduct for these in their pro- 
portion. 

The price of paper-hangings is from twelve 
cents to three dollars y^tx piece; and of border- 
ings, from three to thirty cents a yard. An 
excellent American satin paper can be had at 
one dollar -^^x piece. 

Paper-Hanging. — The first step in hang- 
ing paper is to have the wall well cleaned, 
the old paper or whitewash being scraped off, 
and all cracks filled with plaster of Paris and 
allowed time to dry. Then a sizing, made by 
adding eight ounces of dissolved glue to an or- 
dinary pailful of hot water, should be applied to 
the wall with a whitewash brush, particular care 
being taken to touch every part, especially the top 
and bottom. Allow it to dry a little ; then with 
a sharp pair of scissors cut the blank strip 
from the left side of the paper, the blank strip 
on the other side forming the lap ; or, if heavy 
flocked paper, both edges should be cut and 
the paper put on the wall without overlapping. 
Next, having cut the paper of the required 



length, lay it face downward on a table or 
board, and apply the paste (made as below) with 
a paste-brush or common whitewash brush ; 
spreading it evenly, and as quickly as possible. 
Then place it in position on the wall, beginning 
to press it gently down to the same with a damp 
cloth, at the top, following down until the bot- 
tom is reached. Continue in this manner, 
being careful to match the figures, until the 
whole is covered ; then cut out the border and 
paste it on, and the work is complete. It is 
usual to have the strips of paper a little longer 
than is necessary, so that they can be cut off 
neatly at the base-board after they are put on, 
as the base-board is not always straight or par- 
allel with the ceiling. 

Paste for Paper-Hanging. — For a room 
which will require eight or nine pieces of paper, 
four pounds of flour will be sufficient. This 
should be beaten to a stiff batter with clear 
cold water. Then, having a vessel full of boil- 
ing water at hand, and a vessel containing the 
batter, large enough to contain two pails full, 
pour the boiling water upon the batter, stirring 
it briskly, and it will be observed that the bat- 
ter will swell and its white color change to a 
yellowish hue. When this occurs, stop pouring 
in the boiling water, and a fine smooth paste 
will be found, suitable for any description of 
paper hanging. Some persons add alum to the 
paste, others resin, but it will be found that the 
scalded flour will stick as well, and no injury 
can occur to the paper, as is frequently the 
case when using flocked paper-hangings, with 
alum or resin in the paste. Another method of 
making paste, but not as certain of good re- 
sults, is to mix the flour with cold water to the 
consistency of milk, and heat it to the boiling 
point over a slow fire.^ 

PAPIER MACHE. — As its name implies, 
this consists of paper mashed and softened and 
mixed with gum ; it is pressed into certain 
forms and covered with an ornamental surface. 
It makes excellent and very pretty tea-boards, 
trays, etc., and was formerly much used in the 
manufacture of household ornaments, such as 
cornices, picture-frames, and the like. But in 
most of the articles of furniture, which are now 
sold under this name, the foundation, instead 
of being oi papier tnache', is of wood, as for in- 
stance chairs, tables, etc. Paper would not be 
strong enough for such articles, and hence is 
not available ; but it is absurd to call them 
papier mache. The surface of \ht papier machd 
is generally covered with a thick black varnish, 
in which are embedded pieces of mother-of- 
pearl : and when the whole is thoroughly hard 
and dry, it is rubbed until the pearly surface 
appears, after which it is paintecf or tmted in a 
fanciful manner. On the whole, the rapid sub- 
stitution of other decorative materials ior papier 
mache is not to be regretted. Although occa- 
sionally a piece has been found in good taste, 
such has not been the rule. 

PARAFFINE. — A waxy substance, obtain- 
ed by the distillation at a low temperature of 
coal-tar, peat, petroleum, and other similar sub- 



PARALYSIS 



379 



stances. Its most abundant source is liog- 
head coal, from which it is now extracted in 
enormous quantities for the manufacture of 
candles, which are superior in every way to 
those made of the finest wax or the best stear- 
ine. 

The term is also applied to an oil which is 
one of the products of the distillation, and 
which is used to some extent for burning in 
lamps. It is a very dangerous source of illumi- 
nation. 

PARALYSIS. — This term is generally used 
to signify a loss of motion in some part of the 
body ; but as the nerves supplying most parts 
of the body are of a mixed character — that is 
motor and sensory — the idea usually conveyed 
implies also a loss of sensation. Paralysis 
may, however, be 7notor or sensory, or both. 
Moreover, it may be co7nplete when there is a 
total loss of power and sensation, or partial, 
when these are partly, not wholly, lost. Some- 
times the word partial is used to imply that 
only certain parts of the body are affected, but 
for this purpose the term local seems prefera- 
ble. General paralysis implies that the whole 
body is affected, but the term "general paralysis 
of the insane " exj^resses one particular form of 
malady which is an accompaniment of insanity. 
The two most common forms of paralysis, and 
the only ones which it is worth while to treat of 
specially in a book of domestic medicine, are 
heiniplc^^ia and paraplegia. Hemiplegia is that 
form of paralysis which affects one lateral 
half of the body without the other side being 
affected : hence hemiplegia is right or left. 
Paraplegia on the other hand means paralysis 
of the lower half of the body ; but there is no 
right or left paraplegia — it must affect both 
sides, if not quite equally, at all events to some 
extent. 

Hemiplegia. — This is much the most com- 
mon form of paralysis. In most cases it is 
produced by an injury to one side of the brain, 
and then if the right side of the brain is in- 
jured, the left side of the body is affected and 
vice versa. But all forms of hemiplegia do 
not depend on brain mischief — some arise from 
injury to the spinal cord, affecting only one 
side of it ; and so we may have cerebral or 
brain hemiplegia, and spinal hemiplegia. Any 
influence which interferes with the due supply 
of blood to a certain area of the brain will 
cause hemiplegia : sofiening, cerebral hemor- 
rhage, a clot of Ji brine obstructing the vessels, 
disease of the coats of the vessels from fatty 
change and epileptic attacks will cause this 
form of paralysis. An ordinary attack of apo- 
plexy, when the patient has recovered from the 
shock, leaves the individual in this state ; it is, 
in short, a symptom of mischief in the brain, 
and not the disease itself. Hemiplegia may 
come on suddenly without any warning or in- 
sensibility, as when it is caused by a very small 
clot ; more generally the two symptoms are 
present, and when sensibility returns the pa- 
tient finds that he has lost the use of his arm 
and leg. Sometimes there is stiffness or rigidity 



of the arm and leg as well as loss of power, 
and this seems to depend on the nature of the 
injury to the brain ; in most cases, however, 
the limbs lie useless, flaccid, and, if raised up, 
drop at once when left unsupported. 

Treatment. — This is, of course, a disease in 
which it is necessary to have the best medical 
advice. When the patient has recovered some- 
what from the first shock, friction may be ap- 
plied to the extremities, or a galvanic current, 
or rubbing with rough towels after a stream of 
cold water has been applied ; this should not 
be done until three or four weeks after the 
disease has begun, and then only when the pa- 
tient is in a fit state for it. Improvement may 
be known by the patient being able to perform 
simple movements, or raise the limb a short 
distance from the side ; but for many weeks or 
months the strength of that side will be much 
impaired, and even in favorable cases complete 
restoration can hardly be expected. In every 
case the treatment and chance of recovery de- 
pend upon the nature of the original injury. 

Paraplegia. — This denotes loss of power, as 
we have said, over the lower extremities and 
lower half of the body, and is always depend- 
ent upon some change in the nervous system, 
and generally some disease in the spinal cord. 
The causes are : inflammation of the spinal cord 
or its membranes ; cancer of the cord, or any 
other tumor pressing upon it or growing into 
its substance ; fracture or dislocation of the 
bones forming the spinal column ; a wound of 
the spine ; and hemorrhage into or softening 
of the spinal cord. It may also come on in 
cases of hysteria without there being any true 
paralysis at all. The symptoms are in most 
cases tmgling and numbness of the legs and 
feet, with occasional twitchings, followed by loss 
of the power of moving them ; sensation is 
generally interfered with but not wholly gone. 
If the paralysis be due to an accident it may 
appear at once ; if to cancer or a tumor, the 
symptoms may come on gradually ; if to inflam- 
mation, th^ paralysis may come on in a very 
few days, and often terminates fatally from its 
extending upwards and involving vital parts. 
In most cases the bladder is also paralysed, so 
that there is retention of urine, which con- 
stantly dribbles away. The patient generally 
loses power over his bowels, and the stools 
pass away unconsciously. If the affection 
spreads upwards the abdominal and intercostal 
muscles become involved, and there is great 
distress in breathing ; presently the arms are 
paralyzed and the patient dies of suffocation, 
as he cannot expand his chest. This happens 
chiefly in inflammatory cases, while if the pa- 
ralysis be due to other causes, the parts affected 
will be below the seat of injury and the sufferer 
may go on for months and even years — though 
in most cases he is an invalid and can hardly 
help himself about at all. Those cases which 
arise from a syphihtic state of the constitution 
may generally be much benefited, if not cured, 
by the use of iodide of potassium. The dan- 
ger of paraplegia depends upon the cause. Any 



380 



PARALYSIS 



fracture or dislocation of the spine is always 
serious, but even then life may be prolonged 
for months ; as a rule the higher the injury the 
greater the danger. A tumor of the cord will 
gradually make its way onwards and finally 
kill. Inflammation of the cord is generally fatal 
within a week or a fortnight ; otherwise a slow 
recovery may be looked for. In hysterical 
cases, the patient is generally of the female 
sex, very emotional and excitable in her nature, 
and not unfrequently the subject of deep re- 
ligious impressions. There is no true disease 
of the spinal cord, but the patient will not or 
cannot exercise her will to move the limbs. 

Treatment. — In all cases of paraplegia, the 
patient should lie on a water-bed, if possible, 
so as to prevent the formation of bed-sores, 
which are very liable to form in this disease. 
Great cleanliness must be observed, and any 
excreta removed when passed. A draw-sheet 
must be placed beneath the patient, and re- 
moved when required. The urine must be 
drawn off by a catheter, at least twice a day, if 
the patient cannot pass it, or if it dribbles 
away ; often, too, it is a good thing to wash the 
bladder out night and morning with warm 
water. The feet should be kept warm in hot 
flannels, but the heat must not be too great, or 
the feet are very liable to blister in this affec- 
tion. The diet must be light and nourishing, 
and modified to suit the patient's palate in long 
standing cases. No bleeding must be used ; 
no mercury is to be given, except in cases of a 
syphilitic origin, and not always then ; no 
blisters need be applied, as they do no good. 
For acute cases, an ice-bag may be laid along 
the spine, and this gives relief sometimes. In 
chronic cases, when the paralysis is made out 
clearly to be incurable, the only thing one can 
do is to make the rest of life as easy as possi- 
ble for the patient. In hysterical cases, treat- 
ment is of much avail. It is too common for 
people to look upon a case of hysteria as 
synonymous with a case of shamming ; but 
this is a totally wrong view. It is very com- 
mon among both sexes, and especially amongst 
young women, to find cases in which the emo- 
tional faculties seem developed out of propor- 
tion to the intellectual ones ; such people are 
what are ordinarily called of a nervous and 
excitable temperament ; they often indulge 
in emotional excitement, and this often as- 
sumes a religious aspect, varying in its devel- 
opment according to the people who associated 
with the patient in ordinary life. Intense men- 
tal worry, great grief, loss of a relation, and 
numerous other causes tend to produce an 
excitement of the emotional faculties, while at 
the same time they are not duly balanced by a 
well-taught intellect ; this is what is meant by 
"giving way to the feehngs." In some cases, 
this goes on to such a degree that the will is 
not exerted by the patient, and cannot be ex- 
erted unless some strong stimulant, as elec- 
tricity, etc., is given to the nervous system. At 
one time, the voice is lost, or an arm is palsied ; 
in another case the leg is paralyzed, and it is 



PARROTS 

put down often as hip-joint disease. And these 
cases do not occur because the patient won't 
use the limb; it is because she cannot, unless 
you apply a shock. The best treatment for 
such cases is not to oppose their views, nor, on 
the other hand, sympathize with them too 
much. Daily reading some sensible book, re- 
moving all trashy novels, trying to engage 
the mind on some amusing topic, avoiding all 
excitement, and some light occupation, as sew- 
ing, knitting, or wool work, will be most likely 
to do good. Cold bathing, electricity for a 
short time every morning, and firm but kind 
dicipline, will promote a cure. 

Palsy. — Sometimes called " shaking palsy " 
(Paralysis Agitans). It consists in a want of 
power of using the muscles, and also of keep- 
ing them at rest. The shaking commonly be- 
gins by affecting the hands and arms, but later 
it may affect any part of the trunk or limbs. 
Very often the head is affected ; later it ex- 
tends even to the jaws. This agitation is in- 
creased by any mental effort, especially to call 
into play the muscles affected. The disease 
is progressive, and by-and-by the entire body 
becomes affected, so that the patient can hardly 
walk, being always disposed to run. All this 
time the faculties are unimpaired, and the pa- 
tient is acutely sensible of his misfortunes, 
which often sadly interferes with his occupa- 
tion. His bodily powers become impaired after 
a time, from the inability to sleep or take food 
in comfort, on account of the incessant shak- 
ing. These cases commonly occur in. men ad- 
vanced in life, and in them little benefit is to 
be hoped for ; but it may occur earlier, and 
then it can be alleviated, if not cured, by the 
judicious use of strychnine, iron, and galvan- 
ism, especially of the continuous current. 

PAREGORIC ELIXIR.-PoisoN, if in very 
large doses. Symptoms, sleepiness. Treat- 
tnent, same as in opium, which see. The com- 
pound tincture of camphor ; a popular medicine, 
used as an anodyne and antispasmodic ; it allays 
cough in cases of asthma and catarrh, and re- 
lieves slight pain in the stomach and bowels. 
It is often given to children under the belief 
or pretence that it contains no opium, but the 
modern paregoric elixir contains one grain of 
opium in each half ounce of the elixir, and is 
therefore unfit for indiscriminate domestic use. 
The practice, once common, but now happily 
dying out, of giving it to infants as an ano- 
dyne, is a most dangerous one. A teaspoon- 
ful of paregoric is the full dose for an adult. 

PARLOR. {See Furniture.) 

PARQUETRY. — Inlaid woodwork in geo- 
metric patterns, generally composed of two 
different tints, and generally used for floors. 
As formerly made, this was rather expensive 
decoration, but in the modern form of wood 
carpeting, etc., it is economical and can be 
made very tasteful and pretty. {See Floors.) 

PARROTS. — The parrot family comprise six 
divisions ; the principal are the Macaw, which 
includes the cockatoos and the toucan ; the Par- 
rots, including the paroquet; and the Lories. 



PARROTS 



381 



The Macaws are distinguished from the true 
parrots by having the cheeks bare of feathers, 
and the tail very long. They are extremely 
graceful in form and motion, have rich plum- 
age, are lively and very noisy, occupying a 
great part of their time in discordant screech- 
ing. In the hall or drawing-room they are ex- 
tremely ornamental, from the beautiful metallic 
reflections which play over their plumage. The 
macaws are mostly natives of tropical South 
America, where they nestle in decayed trees, 
which some specially excavate, as do our wood- 
peckers. The food of the macaws is chiefly 
dry seeds, or the fruit of the palm, and in the 
coffee-growing lands they eat coffee-berries ; but 
here, in confinement, we must nourish them 
differently. The red and yellow macaw must 
have white bread soaked in milk, and mois- 
tened biscuit ; it is injured by meat, pastry or 
sweetmeats. It has admirable powers of articu- 
lation, while the blue and yellow macaw imitates 
the mewing of cats, barking of dogs, bleating of 
sheep, etc., with great facility and accuracy. 
The great green macaw — of a beautiful bright 
grass-green, diversified with blue and red, and 
shaded with black or deep blue — is valued for 
its variety, as well as for its beautiful plumage 
and exceedingly docile and amiable temper ; it 
will repeat almost any lesson immediately, call 
persons whom it is accustomed to see by their 
several names, and is fond of children — as 
the other macaws are not. 

The Cockatoos may be recognized by the 
beautiful crest of feathers on the head. The 
name is derived from the loud and distinct call- 
note of some of the species, sounding like 
" Cock-a-too," very distinctly uttered. These 
birds come from Australia and the Indian isles ; 
they live on seeds and fruits, and can crack the 
stones of the hardest fruits ; their color is 
mostly white, tinged with rose-red or sulphur- 
yellow ; they are not capable of speaking more 
than " cock-a-too." The great white cockatoo 
should have a wire bell-shaped cage, or be 
chained to a perch in the open air, if the 
weather be warm. Feed it with all kinds of 
nuts, mealy seeds, and bread and milk. The 
sulphur-crested cockatoo is a most agreeable 
pet — playful, jocular and affectionate. The 
great red-crested cockatoo is the largest and 
handsomest of the species. Some of the 
feathers of its crest are six inches long, of a 
rich orange color at the base. This is not so 
gentle a bird as the more common cockatoo. It 
has a loud, trumpet-like voice, with which it 
shrieks out its own name, and calls " Der- 
deney, " clapping its wings the while like a 
cock, whose crow, as well as the cluck of the 
hen, and the various cries of different animals, 
it readily imitates. It is not a delicate bird, 
and may be easily reared and kept. 

The Toucans are known at once by their 
enormous bills, which are curved and hooked, 
and toothed at the edges, and are thus formid- 
able weapons. In their native haunts in Guiana 
and Brazil they go in little flocks of from six to 
ten ; and, although heavy fliers, will reach the 



tallest forest trees, where they are fond of 
perching. They will eat almost anything. Their 
mode of eating solid food is very peculiar — 
when the morsel is presented they take it on 
the point of the bill, throw it upwards, and then 
catch it in the open mouth so dexterously that 
it goes at once into the aperture of the gullet, 
and is swallowed without diffieulty. The tou- 
cans are so sensible to cold that they dread the 
night; air, even in tropical climates ; it is neces- 
sary, therefore, to keep them in a warm tem- 
perature. They do not speak — their utterance 
is merely a kind of croak. The preacher tou- 
can has a singular cry, which it almost constantly 
utters. It is easy to tame and keep. 

The Tr^ie Parrots are less elegant than the 
macaw tribe — less splendid in color than the 
lories — but are excellent imitators, and can ar- 
ticulate words and sentences very distinctly. 
The ash-colored or grey parrot is one of the 
commonest, largest and most tractable of its 
tribe. It is about the size of a pigeon. It is 
an African bird ; it will eat anything ; but the 
best food for it is bread and milk. The memory 
of the grey parrot is most extraordinary ; it will 
retain entire verses and passages of consider- 
able length. Some grey parrots live to fifty, 
sixty, seventy, or even a hundred years. It 
moults regularly once a year. 

The Paroquets are smaller than the true par- 
rots — more slender, and elegantly proportioned, 
with long, pointed tails ; several from Africa 
and Asia have rings round their necks. Thus 
the paroquets may easily be distinguished from 
the parrots, which are all stout, heavy birds, 
with short and even, or slightly rounded tails. 

The Lories are so named from the call- 
note of some of the species. They are gorge- 
ously beautiful, but exceedingly difficult to 
preserve in a cold climate. There are many 
varieties, but here we shall only mention the 
purple-capped lory — a very rare and costly bird, 
— of resplendent tints. It utters " Lorie, " 
squeaks incessantly, and as hollow as a ventrilo- 
quist ; imitates everything, and in clear, round 
tones ; but it requires to be constantly amused 
and caressed. It is a truly wonderful bird — the 
most highly endowed of the whole parrot race. 

In keeping parrots it should be borne in mind 
that they require large, roomy cages, and the 
larger birds open perches ; the eating and 
drinking vessels should be not of zinc or pew- 
ter, but of glass or porcelain ; coarse sand 
should be sprinkled on the floor ; and in warm 
weather the cage should be cleaned out every 
day, in cold weather twice a week. Carefully 
guard all kinds of parrots from cold, but give 
them plenty of sunshine and fresh warm air. 
Let them out amid flowers, shrubs, or in a green- 
house ; and, in teaching them, never threaten 
to punish, but repeat the lesson frequently, and 
reward with choice morsels. Take care the 
bread and milk be not sour, and vary it with 
biscuit, grain, nuts, and fruits ; and for the 
small birds, add hemp and canary-seed and 
millet. Give no meat ; and be very chary of 
pastry and sweets. 



382 



PARSLEY 



PARTRIDGE 



PARSLEY. — This is the herb most used in 
cookery and for garnishing. There are two 
sorts, the plain-leaved and the curly. The 
latter is much to be preferred, being prettier 
whether growing or on the dish, and more easily 
distinguished from the Aeihusia, or fool's pars- 
ly — a species of hemlock which is poisonous. 
The best mode of cultivating it is by seed, 
sowing where it is to remain any time between 
the middle of March and the middle of June ; 
and if the stalks are cut down occasionally, to 
prevent their seeding, it will last for several 
years. The seed should be buried about an 
inch deep. Parsley is always in season except 
at short intervals through the winter months ; 
if dried and preserved in bottles from which 
the air is excluded, it retains its flavor a long 
time. Besides its usefulness for cooking and 
garnishing, parsley chewed has the property of 
destroying any foetor in the breath, or the 
smell imparted to it from spirits, onions, or 
other substances. The roots also are edible, 
boiled like carrots, but are not much used. 

Fried Parsley. — This is an excellent gar- 
nish for fish, etc. To prepare it, wash and 
pick the parsley and throw it into clean water, 
and then into boiling fat, when it will instantly 
become crisp and must be taken up. 

PARSNIP. — This wholesome and nourish- 
ing root has the advantage of being in season 
during the winter and spring months when 
other table vegetables are scarce. It contains 
a good deal of sugar, and this gives it a pecu- 
liar sweetish taste which many like, but which 
to some is very insipid. Those are sweetest 
which are grown in rich soils, while those 
grown in stiff clayey soils have a much milder 
flavor. In cultivating, sow the seeds in the 
spring in rows eighteen inches apart, burying 
the seeds about an inch deep; thin them out 
to intervals of six or eight inches. Among 
the best varieties are the " Guernsey " and the 
" Large Hollow Crown." Parsnips are im- 
proved by standing until after heavy frosts and 
in dry soils ; they keep perfectly in the ground 
until Spring, but they must then be dug before 
the new growth begins. 

Boiled Parsnips. — According to their size 
and the time of year (they require long cook- 
ing in cold weather) parsnips will take from 20 
minutes to more than an hour to boil. Every 
speck or blemish should be cut from them after 
they are washed and scraped, and the water in 
which they are boiled should be salted and well 
skimmed. If they are large, slice them down 
the middle before boiling ; if young and tender, 
boil them whole. When quite tender, dish 
them, and serve either whole (with butter 
spread over them) or mash like potatoes, adding 
a little milk and butter, and seasoning with 
pepper and salt. 

Buttered Parsnips. — Wash and scrape, and 
then boil as above till tender. Slice length- 
wise into pieces about a quarter of an inch 
thick, season with pepper and salt, and put 
them into a sauce-pan with three tablespoonfuls 
of melted butter and a little chopped parsley ; 



put over a moderate fire until the mixture boils ; 
then arrange the parsnips on a dish, pour the 
sauce over them, and garnish with parsley, and 
serve. 

Fried Parsnips. — I. Prepare as for buttered 
parsnips. Dredge the slices with flour, and 
fry them in hot lard, turning when one side is 
browned. Drain off the fat, season with pep- 
per and serve hot. 

II. Boil them until they are about half done, 
lift them out and let them cool ; slice length- 
wise in thick slices, sprinkle them with fine salt 
and white pepper, and fry them a pale brown 
in good butter. Serve with roast meat or dish 
them under it. 

Wine of Parsnips. — Wash, scrape, and 
slice the parsnips very thin ; for every three 
pounds of the parsnips allow a gallon of water ; 
boil an hour and a half, and strain the liquor 
without bruising the parsnips ; then measure 
the liquor and make up any deficiency (under 
the original quantity) with boiling water. To 
each gallon of the liquor add three pounds of 
sugar and one ounce of crude tartar; when 
nearly cold, put it into a cask, add a tablespoon- 
ful of yeast, and keep it in a warm place ; stir 
daily until the fermentation subsides, which 
may be in ten days or a fortnight, and then 
bung it down. It may be racked and fined in 
three or six months, and bottled in six months 
more. Wine made thus is thought to be but 
little inferior to Madeira of equal age. Spirits 
may be added if it is liked strong. 

PARTRIDGE. — It is said that we have no 
genuine partridge in this country ; and it is 
certain that the birds sold as partridges in our 
markets are very different from the English 
partridge. Moreover, the birds known as 
quails at the North are called partridges at the 
South, while the southern pheasant is the 
ruffed grouse, which is the Northern partridge. 

The partridge, pheasant, or ruffed grouse, 
are very plentiful in our markets from about 
the 1st of September to the ist of January; 
but they are best in October and November. 
After January ist it is not safe to eat them, 
especially if the winter has been very severe, 
as they are then deprived of their ordinary 
food and are forced to feed upon the leaves of 
the poisonous evergreens. They have been 
found with their crops filled with the green 
laurel, and if their flesh be eaten under such 
circumstances the result may be serious. An 
old partridge has a white bill and bluish legs ; 
when young the bill is of a rather dark gray- 
ish color, and the legs are yellowish. As long 
as the rump does not turn blue, the bird is 
fresh enough. 

Baked Partridge. — Clean and wash out the 
inside with soda-water, afterwards rinsing it in 
fresh water. Cut off the claws to about half 
their length ; truss it, and cover its breast with 
a thin slice of fat salt pork, tying the pork on 
with twine. Place the partridge on its back in 
the baking-pan with a piece of butter the size 
of a walnut on it ; set it in a quick oven, baste 
often, and serve when rather underdone. 



PARTRIDGE 



PASTILLES 



383 



Boiled Partridge. — Clean the partridges, 
and tie down the legs very closely. Put a 
pound of salt pork into a pot and boil it an 



Spread thin slices of corned ham or pork over 
the entire bird and bind them on with twine ; 
roast before a hot fire about 40 minutes, bast- 







Partridge. 



hour ; then put in the birds and boil 20 min- 
utes. Serve with parsley and butter, or with 
bread sauce. 

Broiled Partridge. — For broiling select 
young birds ; clean, wash, and split down the 
back ; soak in cold water half an hour ; then 
wipe dry on a towel, season with salt and pep- 




Partridge trussed with head. 

per, and broil on a gridiron over a hot fire, 
turning them when brown on one side. Serve 
on a hot dish, spreading butter liberally both 
inside and outside. Quails are broiled in the 
same wa}^ 

Roast Partridge. — I. 
Prepare, stuff, and truss 
as directed for chickens ; 
lard well with fat pork ; 
and roast at a hot fire, 
basting well with butter 
and water. They require 
25 or 30 minutes to cook. 
To make the gravy, put 
the drippings into a sauce- 
pan with a piece of butter 
about the size of an egg, and a little flour and 
hot water. Let it boil up once, and serve in a 
boat. 

II. (With Bacon). — Prepare as before. 




Partridge trussed without 
head. 



ing it at first with butter and water and then 
with the drippings. Dish with the bacon (or 
ham) laid about the body of the bird. Skim 
the gravy, thicken with browned flour, and 
season with pepper and the juice of a lemon ; 
let it boil up once. 

PASSION FLOWER.— The common pas- 
sion flower (P. ccErtiled) is a native of Brazil, 
where it grows to the thickness of a man's 
arm, and the height of thirty feet. Here it is 
quite a moderate sized garden plant. The 
flowers are large and beautiful, blue externally, 
white and purple within ; they continue in 
bloom but one day. P. incarnata, the flesh- 
colored passion flower, is found from Ohio to 
Florida. The former bears an edible berry, 
pale yellow, of the size of an apple, called 
Granadilla. Other species also bear eatable 
fruit, as the Water Lemon, Sweet Calabash, 
etc. All are easy of cultivation. They will 
grow in any good garden soil, and are propa- 
gated by cuttings. 

PASTE. — Directions for making an excel- 
lent sticking-paste for paper-hanging and simi- 
lar purposes are given under Paper-Hanging. 

Paste for Labels on Bottles, etc. — An ex- 
cellent paste for fixing labels on glass, wood, or 
paper may be prepared by dissolving 1 1 parts, 
by weight, of common glue, soaked a day be- 
fore in cold water, 7 parts of gum arable, and 
some rock candy, in 56 parts of water, at a 
gentle heat, with continued stirring until the 
mass is uniform. Labels brushed with this 
and dried will adhere firmly, if simply mois- 
tened with sahva when used. 

PASTILLES.— Pleasant odoriferous pastilles 
for fumigating purposes may be made as fol- 
lows : gum benjamin, one ounce ; cloves, half an 



384 



PASTRY 



PEA 



ounce ; cinnamon, two drachms ; a stick of cal- 
amus ; and mucilage enough to make the parts 
adhere together. Mix, and then make into 
shapes and dry. 

Mr. Piesse, in his excellent " Art of Per- 
fumery," considers that the burning of woods, 
barks, or aromatic seeds, in pastiles, produces 
far from a pleasant odour ; and that charcoal 
itself is inodorous, and does not in any way in- 
terfere with the fragrance. Mr. Piesse prefers 
the following recipe : willow charcoal, quarter 
of a pound ; benzoic acid, three ounces ; oil of 
thyme, carraway, rose, lavender, cloves, and 
santal, of each fifteen drops. Before mixing, 
dissolve half an ounce of nitre in a quarter of 
a pint of rose water ; with this solution wet the 
charcoal, and then dry ft in a warm place. 
Next pour over it the mixed oils, and stir 
in the flowers of benzoin : mix by sifting (bet- 
ter for mixing powders than the pestle and 
mortar), then beat the whole up in a mortar 
with gum water to bind it. 

PASTRY. — Under this term are included 
pies, tarts, and all productions of cookery in 
which flour-paste is a principal ingredient. 
Directions for making these are given under 
the respective articles ; and we shall only re- 
fer here to the practice, becoming more and 
more common in cities, of purchasing pastry at 
the baker's instead of making it at home. This 
of course is sometimes necessary, as on special 
occasions when social duties call for some unu- 
sual display, or on ordinary occasions where 
the regular cook is not also a pastry-cook. 
When neither of these reasons applies, home- 
made pastry is not only more economical but 
also more wholesome than that bought at the 
shops, where the butter and other ingredients 
used are nearly always inferior. They look 
very well, but the stomach discovers the impos- 
ture, and its owner pays the penalty. Only 
the best butter, etc., should be used in making 
pastry, especially when children are to eat it. 

PAT^. {See Patty.) 

PATTY.— Patties are made of rich puff 
paste, and baked in patty-pans, with a piece of 
bread inside ; after the crust is done, the piece 
of bread is removed, the proper contents are 
inserted, and the patty is served either hot or 
cold. Almost any kind of meat, or poultry, or 
fish can be used. 

Lobster Patties. — Make these with the 
same seasoning as for oysters, adding a little 
cream and a very small piece of butter. 

Oyster Patties. — Prepare the pastry as 
directed under patties. Thicken, over boihng 
water, half a pint of cream with two even table- 
spoonfuls of flour rubbed with one ounce of 
butter ; add half a teaspoonful of mace, a 
teaspoonful of 'salt, and a pinch of cayenne. 
Stew, until plump, a quart of oysters in their 
own liquor, with an even teaspoonful of salt ; 
drain, and stir them into the hot cream ; fill the 
patties and serve. {See also under Oyster.) 

Podovies or Beef Patties. — Shred under- 
done roast beef, with a little of the fat ; season 
with pepper and salt, and a little shalot or 



onion. Make a plain paste, roll it thin, and 
cut it in shape like an apple-puff ; fill it with 
the mince, pinch the edges, and fry to a nice 
brown. 

Turkey Patties. — Mince some of the white 
part of roast turkey ; season with salt, white 
pepper, nutmeg, and a little grated lemon-peel ; 
add a little cream, and a very little melted but- 
ter ; fill the patties and warm, or serve cold. 

Chicken patty can be made in the same way. 

Veal Patties. — Mince some veal that is not 
quite done with a little parsley ; season with 
salt, a grate of nutmeg, and a bit of grated 
lemon-peel ; add a little cream and gravy, let 
it stew gently a few minutes, then fill the pat- 
ties. This dish is improved by the addition of 
a little minced ham. 

PAW-PATV. — The paw-paw or custard ap- 
ple grows wild in great abundance in the South- 
ern and Western States. In form and color it 
resembles a small cucumber when ripe. Its 
pulp is almost too luscious to be agreea- 
ble, although it is liked by many; the fla- 
vor is like that of custard, the color is saf- 
fron, and it is quite full of hard seeds which 
look like those of the water-melon, but are 
larger. It is best when touched by frost ; but 
some like it best when boiled in a green state. 
The paw-paw ripens about the middle of Sep- 
tember. They are not often found in the mar- 
kets. 

PEA. — The garden pea is one of the best 
and most extensively used of all our table-veg^ 
etables, and is not less popular in Europe than 
with us. In cultivating, sow the seeds in double 
rows about four feet apart as soon as the 
frost is out of the ground ; the drill should be 
about two inches deep. By planting different va- 
rieties at proper intervals, a succession of green 
peas can be secured during the entire summer. 
Landreth's Extra Early is said to be the earli- 
est for garden use, and the best. Philadel- 
phia Extra Early is also desirable. Little 
Gem is very dwarf, and of fine flavor, growing 
only one foot high. Hundred-fold, or Cook's 
Favorite, is a first-class variety, early and very 
proHfic. Laxton's Supreme is the earliest 
wrinkled pea, and has the largest pods of any 
kind. The Champion of England, though a 
late variety, is very luxuriant and much the 
best family sort raised. The Marrowfats, though 
.deficient in flavor, are excellent for early sum- 
mer use. Green peas should always be pur- 
chased in the pods, which should feel cool and 
dry. If closely packed they have a mashed or 
wet appearance, and a warm feeling, which 
much injures their natural flavor ; and when 
the shells or pods begin to turn to a lighter 
shade, or to look rusty, the peas have usually 
a black spot upon them and are too old to be 
good. But to have them in the greatest per- 
fection, they should be picked very young and 
should, if possible, be cooked almost immedi- 
ately after being taken from the vines. The 
first new peas that reach the market are gener- 
ally in small quantities at high prices. They 
come from the Bermudas about the ist of 



PEACH 



385 



April ; from Charleston and Norfolk about the 
middle of May; from; southern New Jersey 
about the ist of June ; and from Long Island, 
etc., about the middle of June. They are in 
season till September. 

Large quantities of dry, soaked, and split 
peas are sold throughout the winter season ; 
the Japan and the "lady pea " are the best va- 
rieties. These all require to be boiled with 
salt meat to give them a flavor. 

Boiled Green Peas. — Shell them and soak 
in cold water until the time for cooking them; 
then put into saltedboiling water and boil them 
twenty minutes if young and tender, half an 
hour if old. The English always put in a lump 
of sugar, which improves both the flavor and 
the color. When done, drain well, dish, stir 
in a good lump of butter, season with a little 
pepper and serve hot. 

Stewed old Peas. — Steep them in wa- 
ter all night if very dry, otherwise half an 
hour will do; put them into just enough 
water to cover them, with a piece of salt beef 
or pork ; stew gently till the peas are soft and 
the meat is tender. If the meat is not salt, add 
salt and a little pepper. Dish them around the 
meat. 

PEACH. — Of this, perhaps the mostdehcious 
of all our native fruit, there are a great many 
varieties, but they are generally classified un- 
der two principal nam.es — the freestones and 
the clingstones. Among the best varieties of 
the freestones are tl.e early York, Crawford 
early, rare-ripes, Morris whites, melocoton, and 
honest John ; and of the clingstones, the lemon 
cling, orange cling, white heath, Oldmixon, 
late heath, and blood cling. Peaches first make 
their appearance from the Bermudas about the 
25th April, in small quantities and at high 
prices ; from the Southern States about the 
end of June or first of July ; and from lower 
New Jersey about the 20th of July. They do 
not appear in large quantities, however, until 
about the middle of August, when they com- 
mence to be plentiful and continue so until the 
2oth of September ; they then gradually de- 
crease until in October and November, only 
the hard winter peaches are to be found. After 
this they are found in a dried state. {See Com- 
pote, Jelly, Marmalade, Pickles, Pies, 
and Preserves.) 

Brandied Peaches. — Select fine ripe peaches 
free from bruises, and wash them; allow three- 
quarters of a pound of sugar to a pound of 
peaches ; use as little water as possible for the 
syrup ; boil the peaches in it ten minutes. 
When they are done, measure out a pint of 
white brandy to a quart of the syrup ; lay the 
peaches while they are hot into the cold brandy, 
and when they are cold put them into a jar, 
strain the syrup through a fine sieve into the 
brandy, pour the whole on the peaches and 
cover up tight. 

Candied Peaches. — Make a rich syrup of 
one pound of granulated or crushed sugar to 
one gill of water. Heat this over boiling wa- 
ter until the sugar is dissolved. Pare and halve 
25 



fine ripe, but firm peaches ; put them in the 
syrup in a shallow vessel, as the fruit should be 
in one layer; cook slowly until clear; drain 
from the syrup, place on plates and dry in a 
heater or in a very moderately heated oven. 

Placed in the heater belonging to a cooking 
stove, the fruit will be sufficiently dry in twenty- 
four hours, to pack in jars. 

Plums and cherries may be done in the same 
way, after stoning. Bartlett pears too are ex- 
cellent, but do not require so rich a syrup. 

Dried Peaches. — Pare the ripe fruit, cut it 
in large slices from the stone, spread these on 
wood or cloth, and dry thoroughly in the sun. 
This will take several days, and they must be 
brought in or covered over at night. In the 
Northern and Western States it is generally 
best to have a small room heated with stoves, in 
which the fruit can be dried, the sun not 
being powerful enough. When thoroughly 
dried, store in bags in a cool dry place. In 
buying dried peaches choose those that look 
brown and clean and dry ; the whitish colored 
have less flavor, and the damp ones are seldom 
good. 

Peach (Leather). — Allow a pound of sugar 
to a pound of fruit, pare and halve ripe peaches; 
crack a dozen stones for a peck of peaches, 
chop the kernels after blanching them, and 
throw them over the fruit, which must now be 
put in the preserving pan, heated slowly and 
boiled to a pulp. Add the sugar (granulated 
or crushed) and boil until clear ; then spread 
on plates and dry in quite a cool oven until so 
stiff that it can be eaten from the fingers. Tear 
the sheets into bits and pack in jars with pow- 
dered sugar between the layers. Stretch clean, 
well-soaked bladder overthe top and tie secure- 
ly ; or it may be packed in air-tight fruit cans. 
Salad of Peaches. — Pare and slice half a 
dozen fine ripe peaches, arrange them in a dish, 
strew them with pounded white sugar, and 
pour over them two or three wineglassfuls of 
champagne. Other wine may be used, but 
champagne is best ; persons who prefer brandy 
can substitute it for wine, using a smaller 
quantity. The quantity of sugar must be pro- 
portioned to the sweetness of the fruit. 

Stewed Peaches. — I. Should the peaches not 
be perfectly ripe throw them into boiling water 
and keep it just simmering until the skin can 
be easily stripped off. Have ready half a 
pound of fine sugar boiled to a light syrup with 
three-quarters of a pint of water ; throw in the 
peaches, let them stew softly until quite tender, 
and turn them often that they may be equally 
done ; after they are dished, add a little strained 
lemon-juice to the syrup, and reduce it by_a 
few minutes' very quick boiling. The fruit is 
sometimes pared, divided, and stoned, then 
gently stewed until it is tender. 

II. Take a quart of dried peaches, cover 
them with water, add half a pound of sugar, 
and stew gently until the peaches are reduced 
almost to pulp. More or less sugar can be used 
according to taste. Peaches prepared^ in this 
way are an excellent corrective for costiveness. 



886 



PEA-FOWL 



PEAR 



Suedoise of Peaches. — Pare and divide 
four fine, ripe peaches, and let them just sun- 
nier from five to eight minutes in a syrup made 
with the third of a pint of water and three 
ounces of very white sugar, boiled together for 
fifteen minutes ; lift them out carefully into a 
deep dish, and pour about half the syrup over 
them, and into the remaining half throw a 
couple of pounds more of quite ripe peaches, 
and boil them to a perfectly smooth dry pulp 
or marmalade, with as much additional sugar in 




Suedoise of Peaches 

fine powder, as the nature of the fruit may re- 
quire. Lift the other peaches from the syrup, 
and reduce it by very quick boiling, more than 
half. Spread a deep layer of the marmalade in 
a dish, arrange the peaches symmetrically round 
it, and fill all the spaces between them with the 
marmalade ; place the half of a blanched peach- 
kernel in each, pour the reduced syrup equally 
over the surface, and form a border round the 
dish with Italian macaroons, or, in lieu of these, 
with candied citron, sliced very thin, and cut 
into leaves with a small paste-cutter. A little 
lemon-juice brings out the flavor of all prepara- 
tions of peaches, and may be added with good 
effect to this. The better to preserve their 
form, the peaches are sometimes merely wiped, 
and then boiled tolerably tender in the syrup 
before they are pared or split. Half a pint of 
water, and from five to six ounces of sugar 
must then be allowed for them. If any of those 
used for the marmalade should not be quite 
ripe, it will be better to pass it through a sieve, 
when partially done, to prevent its being lumpy. 

PEA-FOWL. — Pea-fowls or Peacocks are 
ornamental birds only, for though good for the 
table, they have such wild habits and eat so 
much food that they are never kept for the sake 
of their produce. When old, or even when 
mature, the pea-fowl is tough and rank; but 
when young, the flesh is both tender and agree- 
able in flavor, some pronouncing it superior to 
that of the turkey. Cook and serve as directed 
for turkey. 

PEA-NUT. — Also called Earth-nut, Pin- 
dar-nut, and Ground-pea. This very common 
nut is raised in immense quantities in the 
Southern States, especially in North Carolina, 
and is sometimes imported from Africa. It is 
found chiefly in fruit-stores, and after having 
been roasted, everywhere — in the markets, on 
the street corners, apple-stands, etc. The fresh 
or new nuts arrive in our markets from Novem- 
ber to June ; but they rather improve by 
keeping, and can be had at all seasons of the 
year. A valuable oil is expressed from the 



nut, which is said to be superior to whale-oil 
as a lubricant for machinery. One of the qual- 
ities of this oil is employed in medicine ; an- 
other is used for illuminating purposes. While 
a third makes an excellent salad condiment. 

PEAR. — 'The best suninier pears are the 
Bartlett, summer Doyenne, Madclaine, Sugar, 
Bloodgood, Brandywine, and Small Harvest. 
The autumn pears are the Duchesse d'An- 
gouleme, Bartlett, Vcrgalein, or white Doy- 
enne, Sheldon, gray Doyenne, Seckel, Buffam, 
Flemish Beauty, Louise Bonne de Jersey, 
Washington, Bell, etc. The whiter pears are 
the winter Nellis, Pound, Columbia, Vicar of 
Winkfield, Lawrence, and Easter Beurre. The 
first pears usually appear in June,but are seldom 
good. The best for eating purposes ripen in 
August, September, and October. Many of 
the common kinds are used for baking, stew- 
ing, preserving, etc., and a drink called Perry 
(which see). Several of the winter varieties 
will keep well through the winter, until April, 
if stored in a dry cool closet. {See Compote 
and Preserves.) 

Baked Pears. — Select large, sound pears, 
not fully ripe; arrange them on a dish with the 
stalk-end upwards, put them into the oven 
as the fire is dying down, and let them remain 
all night. If well baked they \yill be excellent, 
and much finer in flavor than those which are 
stewed or baked with sugar. 

Or, cut some large pears in half lengthwise, 
put them into a deep dish, with a very little 
water, sprinkle them with sugar, and put a few 
cloves, or bits of cinnamon, or a pinch of 
ground ginger among them. Cover closely, 
and bake till tender in a moderately hot oven. 

Or, wash the pears, leave the stems on, 
put them into a two-quart stone crock with a 
gill of water and half a pint of sugar ; cover 
the crock with apiece of dough made of coarse 
flour and water, and rolled about half an inch 
thick ; bake them two hours or more, accord- 
ing to the ripeness of the fruit. 

Brandied Pears. — Pare the pears very 
neatly, boil them in water fifteen minutes, and 
lay them on an open dish to cool ; make a 
syrup half the weight of the fruit, boil the 
pears in it fifteen minutes, and again set them 
to cool ; put into the jars, and fill half full of 
the syrup and the rest with brandy. 

Candied Pears. — Peel large white pears, cut 
off the stem half way; then drop them into 
cold water, with a little lemon juice, to keep 
them white. Put cold water in a deep pan, 
add the juice of a lemon to every two quarts, 
drop the pears in, and boil gently till quit* ten- 
der; then take off, drain, and drop in cold 
water, which is to be changed two or three 
times without stopping ; then drain again, place 
the pears in a large bowl, and proceed the 
same as for candied peaches. {See Candied 
Peaches.) 

Salad of Pears. — Peel pears of any good 
crisp flesh variety, cut them in thin slices, and 
remove the pips and cores; put them in a dish, 
dust them well with pounded sugar, and mois- 



PECAN-NUT 



PEPSINE 



387 



ten with brandy or rum, which may be added 
in large or small quantity according to taste. 
This is an excellent dessert-dish, but it must 
not be made until just before it is served ; the 
sliced pears turn brown if kept. 

Stewed Pears. — Pare, cut in halves, and 
core, a dozen fine pears, put them into a close- 
shutting stew-pan with some thin strips of 
lemon-peel, half a pound of sugar in lumps, as 
much water as will nearly cover them, and 
should a very bright color be desired, a dozen 
grains of cochineal, bruised and tied in mus- 
lin; stew the fruit as gently as possible four or 
five hours, or longer, should it nt)t be perfectly 
tender. Wine may be added if the taste is liked. 

Or, if the pears are small, cut out the blos- 
som end without paring or coring, and stew 
them whole, in enough water to cover them. 
When quite tender add half a teacupful of white 
sugar for every quart of pears, and boil ten 
minutes ; then dish the pears, add a few cloves 
or a pinch of ginger to the syrup, boil ten min- 
utes, and pour over the fruit hot. 

PEARLASH. {See Potash.) 

PECAN-NUT. — A species of hickory-nut 
which grows abundantly in the Southern States, 
especially Texas, and in some parts of the 
West. It is about an inch in length, of oblong 
shape, with a smooth, hard shell, and about as 
large as a common-sized finger. Pecan-nuts are 
of an agreeable taste, and wholesome, and make 
an excellent dessert. The fresh nuts begin to 
come in in December, and are in season till 
April ; they are best when they have been kept a 
month or two. 

PELARGONIUM. — A species of plant very 
similar to the geranium, under which it is gen- 
erally included in popular speech. The leaves of 
the plant are more pleasantly perfumed than 
those of the geranium, and have no zonal, or 
horse-shoe markings, but are of a rich vivid 
green. The flowers are much sought after on 
account of their perfect coloring; no descrip- 
tion can convey an idea of their beauty. There 
are all shades of scarlet, crimson, pink, purple, 
and white ; the lower leaves, and frequently the 
upper ones, are veined and blotched with the 
darkest crimson, purple, and red, beautifully 
veined with the Hghter shades. They are the 
most showy-flowered of all the bedding-out 
plants, except the Scarlet Salvia, and should 
find a place even in the smallest garden. They 
are propagated both from cuttings and seeds. 
They require a light, sandy loam, well enriched 
with cow-manure, and if they are not plentiful- 
ly supplied with water, their buds will wither 
away. They need more sunlight than the 
geranium to bloom in perfection. The different 
colors and sizes may be grouped together in a 
bed, so as to produce a very beautiful effect ; 
some of them, however, are tall in growth and 
produce a good effect planted singly on the 
lawn. The treatment for indoor plants is the 
same as for the geranium. 

There are hundreds of varieties of Pelar- 
gonium, and many novelties are added every 
season. The following are a few of the best :- 



Cloth of Silver, petals of silvery whiteness 
blotched with delicate rose ; Belle of Paris, rich 
violet crimson, upper petals spotted, an im- 
mense cluster of flowers ; Co7npetitor, black, 
edged with rose ; Crimson King, rich crimson, 
beautifully veined and blotched; Dr. Andre, 
pink and white, petals fringed ; Eclipse, clear 
white petals marked with maroon ; Eligible, 
pink crimson with white edges and violet mark- 
ings ; Emperor of Pelatgoninm, very large 
snow-white flower spotted with violet and tinged 
with rose, petals finely fringed ; Gen, Taylor, 
rich crimson blotched with very dark red ; and 
Niagara, white, striped and blotched with crim- 
son. 

PELISSE. — Originally a furred robe or coat, 
now a silken coat or habit worn by ladies, 
mostly as a part of their travelling costume. 
Pelisse cloth is a woolen fabric, twilled and 
made quite soft ; it is usually seven quarters 
wide. 

PENNYROYAL. — A species of mint which 
grows wild in great abundance in many parts 
of the United States, and is sometimes culti- 
vated for making an essential oil which is used 
in medicine. Its odor seems to be very annoy- 
ing to certain insects, especially ticks and fleas ; 
and in this way it may be made useful. It is 
generally for sale in the markets during the 
autumn months, sometimes in large quantities ; 
and it is put up in packages and sold in a dried 
state at the drug stores. The essential oil is 
used in medicine for the same purposes as pep- 
permint and spearmint ; the reputation of the 
herb as an abortive is altogether fallacious. 

PEONY. {See P^ony.) 

PEPSINE. — An organic secretion in the 
stomach of animals, which is regarded as an 
active agent in digestion. In all healthy stom- 
achs it exists in sufficient quantity for the ac- 
complishment of its purpose, but in many cases 
of gastric disorder it must be introduced arti- 
ficially. The best medicinal pepsine is made 
from pigs' stomachs and is called Pepsina por- 
ci; it is free from acid and starch, and has a not 
disagreeable odor. It should be given during 
or after a meal. The best way of administering 
it is in a dose of five to ten grains along with 
food, and thereafter to take dilute nitric acid, 
in a dose of five drops, in a wineglass of 
water, with sugar. In cases of great debility 
of the stomach, especially in old people, the 
habitual use of pepsine may render life easy 
where before it was unendurable. It is also 
valuable in cases of the regurgitation of half- 
digested or half-putrid food, and in cases ot 
obstruction at the passage from the stomach 
to the intestines. After a time, a dose of 
five grains of salicylic acid may be given to 
prevent putrefaction of what remains. For 
it has been tolerably clearly proved that sub- 
stances which are digested in the stomach are 
absorbed there, so that if albumen be convert- 
ed into peptone and there absorbed, there will 
be no necessity for it to pass on into the intes- 
tines, nor will there be time for it to undergo 
decomposition. 



388 



PEPPER 



PERITONITIS 



The dilute nitric acid should be taken through 
a tube. The salicylic acid can be taken as any 
other powder. Sulphite of soda or of magne- 
sia, taken in doses of from ten to fifteen grains, 
is also good to arrest decomposition in the 
stomach. 

PEPPER. — This most generally used of all 
the spices, is the produce of two allied plants 
(known as Piper nigrtun and Piper longzim\ 
which grow chiefly in the East Indies ; the 
part used is the berry dried in the sun. Black 
and white pepper are both obtained from the 
berry of Piper itigrjwi j the former being the 
entire berry ground, while the latter is made 
from the berry after it has been deprived of its 
outer covering or husk. Long Pepper, the 
berry of the Piper longtun, is not ground, and 
is not much used ^t the present day ; it is not 
so aromatic as the black, but more pungent. 
Peppercorns is the name given to the whole 
berries ; the best are those which are not too 
small nor too much shrunk in drying, but which 
feel heavy in the hand and sink in water. Pep- 
per is universally employed as a condiment, 
and from its promoting the secretion of the 
gastric juice, it aids the digestive powers of the 
stomach ; but even in small quanties, it is hurt- 
ful in inflammatory habits. Its use should be 
prohibited to invalids and children. 

Pepper, both black and white, is adulterated 
with a variety of articles — as the flour of lin- 
seed, mustard, wheat, sage, and arrowroot. 
Also by "pepper-dust," being the sweepings of 
the floors of the warehouses. These adultera- 
tions can only be detected under the micro- 
scope, and it is best, therefore, to buy the 
peppercorns, and grind or powder them at 
home. 

Cayenne Pepper is a totally different sub- 
stance, and is the most heating and stimulating 
spice known. (See Cayenne.) The pods of 
the capsicum, from which the cayenne is made, 
are grown throughout the southern part of the 
United States ; when green they are much 
used for pickling, and when dried in the sun 
they are strung and sold in all the markets. 
Bell pepper (C. grossjiin), is the largest and 
best variety, and is easily raised from the 
seeds. 

PEPPERMINT. — A variety of mint which 
is usually found growing wild in damp soils. 
It is sometimes used in cookery, but its chief 
use is for distillation in the -manufacture of 
the oil of peppermint, of which great quantities 
are used by confectioners, druggists, liquor- 
dealers, etc. It should be gathered in August 
and September. 

Drops (Peppermint.) — Pound and sift 
four ounces of double refined sugar, and beat 
it with the whites of two eggs until perfectly 
smooth ; then add sixty drops of the oil of pep- 
permint, beat it well, with a small stick, drop it 
on white paper, and dry at a distance from the 
fire. 

Essence of Peppermint. {See Essences.) 

PEPPER-SAUCE. {See Sauces.) 

PERCH. — There are numerous varieties of 



this fish, most of them, however, being known 
by other names. The best variety, commonly 
called black perch, are in reality black bass, 




1 Perch. 

and have been treated of under Bass. They 
weigh from a pound and a half to three pounds, 
and are in season during the months of May, 
June, and July. The white perch and the yel- 
low-bellied perch are the kinds usually sold as 
perch. They are in season in the winter and 
spring months, and so small — they seldom 
weigh more than a quarter of a pound each — 
that they are only fit for frying. 

Fried Perch. — Clean, wash and dry the fish ; 
sprinkle them with salt and dredge them with 
flour ; and fry to a light brown in hot butter, 
lard,. or dripping. Serve hot. 

PERFUMES. — The use of perfumes about 
the person is, of course, a matter of individual 
taste ; but they are useful as deodorizers in the 
sick-room, under circumstances when fresh air, 
which is by far the best means for the purifi- 
cation of a room, cannot be immediately intro- 
duced. In such cases the use of perfumes is 
beneficial, not only because they hide the bad 
odor, but because they act as a prophylactic in 
the atmosphere. The odorous substance of 
flowers is antiseptic in a high degree, and being 
diffused in an atmosphere charged with foul 
gases, moderates their poisonous influence. It 
must be borne in mind, however, that in overcom- 
ing a bad odor by an agreeable one, the causes of 
the former are neither removed nor destroyed. 
The only really efficient means of removing a 
bad smell is proper ventilation. Receipts for 
making the choicer kinds of the perfumes which 
are within the resources of domestic manufac- 
ture are given in the proper places. 

PERITONITIS. — Inflammation of the peri- 
toneum, or the membrane which lines the cav- 
ity of the stomach and covers the intestines. 
Its danger varies with its cause. It may be 
produced by a stab or gunshot wound in the 
abdomen ; these cases are often fatal. Cancer 
and tubercle may bring it on, but this is gener- 
ally only a part of the malady, and the chief seat 
of disease is elsewhere. Any tumor of any or- 
gan in the pelvis or abdomen may cause it ; 
stricture, hernia, and ulceration of the intestinal 
canal will bring it on ; and it is often associated 
with typhoid fever. It is perhaps most often 
a sequence of child-bearing. The chief syjnp- 
toms of Peritonitis are pain over the abdomen, 
vomiting, and a raised temperature ; the pulse 
is quick and small, the countenance anxious 
and sunken, the legs drawn up so as to relieve 
the pain. The pain is worse on any movement, 
and is very wearing to the patient. In some 



PERIWINKLES 



PHLOX 



389 



cases of blood-poisoning, as in certain forms of 
puerperal fever, etc., there may be peritonitis, 
and yet no pain. Colic, which often comes on 
in lead poisoning, must not be mistaken for 
this disease ; in the former case, there will be 
no fever, and the patient will have a blue line 
around the gums. Some cases of hysteria may 
simulate peritonitis ; here, again, the tempera- 
ture is normal, and there are the usual signs of 
hysteria. 

Treatment. — Perfect rest in bed must be en- 
joined ; hot fomentations, made as light as pos- 
sible, must be applied over the abdomen ; the 
weight of the bed-clothes should be takeii off 
the patient as far as possible. Opium must be 
given to relieve the pain, and for this purpose, 
large doses are frequently required. Cooling, 
saline drinks, and iced water may allay the thirst 
and nausea, while milk and beef-tea must be 

fiven every three hours or oftener, so as to 
eep up the patient's strength. Each case, of 
course, will vary so with the cause as to require 
a, somewhat different line of treatment ; and for 
this competent medical advice must be sought. 
Peritonitis -often forms a serious complication 
in cases of typhoid fever. {See Typhoid 
Fever.) 

PERIWINKLES.— These are small shell- 
fish, of which several varieties are occasionally 
found in our markets. They are not highly es- 
teemed as an article of food, being somewhat 
rank-flavored ; but they are sometimes eaten by 
the poor who live near the coast. They are 
in season in the summer and fall months. Boil 
and pickle them like Cockles. 

PIjRRY. — A very pleasant drink made from 
pears. Any of the commoner kinds of pears 
will answer, but they must be just ripe without 
being mellow or in the least degree decayed ; 
when they are not sufficiently ripe an excess of 
fermentation cannot be prevented, and when 
they are too ripe the liquor rarely ferments kind- 
ly and is exceedingly apt to become sour. In 
making perry the pears are mashed and pressed 
in exactly the same way as apples in making 
cider. The subsequent management of the 
perry is also the same as cider {see Cider), ex- 
cept that a few days after the liquor is pressed 
out it should be drawn off from the lees, and 
fermented in another vessel. An excess of fer- 
mentation is prevented by the means used in the 
making of cider, and the liquor can be rendered 
bright, if necessary, by isinglass. Perry will not 
do well in situations where it is exposed to 
change of temperature ; and it should be bot- 
tled if it remains sound and perfect at the con- 
clusion of the first succeeding summer. 

PETROLEUM.— An exceedingly inflammable 
oil obtained in a natural state from the earth in 
various parts of the United States. It does not 
enter in its crude form into any of the domestic 
arts, but at least two valuable articles are made 
from it. {See Benzine and Kerosene Oil.) 
PEWTER-WARE.— Pewter is an alloy of 
tin, antimony, and lead ; but its composition is 
not always uniform. There are three kinds of 
pewter m common use, called plate metal, 



triple, and ley. Plate metal is said to be formed 
of 1 12 parts tin, 6 or 7 of antimony, and a small 
portion of brass or copper to harden it ; it is the 
best kind and is used for making dishes. The 
sort called triple is used for alehouse pots, cheap 
dishes, spoons, etc., and is composed of lead 
and tin, with a little brass. The ley pewter used 
for wine and spirit measures has more lead. 
Lead being a cheaper metal than tin it is the 
interest of manufacturers to employ as much of 
it as they can, and, consequently, pewter is apt 
to contain too much of it. Lead being a nox- 
ious metal, danger was apprehended from its 
employment in this way ; and the P'rench gov- 
ernment appointed a commission of some very 
able chemists to examine the subject. They 
found that, when wine or vinegar is allowed to 
stand in vessels composed of an alloy of tin and 
lead in different proportions, the tin is first dis- 
solved, while the lead is not sensibly acted upon 
by these liquors, except at the line of contact of 
the air and the liquor ; and no sensible quantity 
of lead is dissolved even by vinegar, after stand- 
ing some days in vessels that contain no more 
than 18 per cent, of lead. Hence it was con- 
cluded that, as no noxious effect is produced by 
the very minute quantity of tin which is dis- 
solved, pewter may be considered as a safe 
material when it contains about 80 per cent, of 
tin; and, where vessels are intended merely for 
measures, a much less proportion of tin may be 
allowed. But the common pewter of Paris was 
found to contain no more than 25 to 30 per 
cent, of tin, and the remainder was lead ; there 
is reason to fear that this is also the composition 
of our common pewter ; if so, malt liquor, and 
particularly porter, always containing more or 
less acetic acid, cannot fail to dissolve some of 
the deleterious metal. The use of pewter for any 
vessels in which food or drink is prepared 
should therefore be avoided ; and in fact the in- 
vention of the Britannia and similar wares which 
make up in superior durability for their slightly 
greater cost, has now rendered it unnecessary. 

PHEASANT. — There is no genuine pheas- 
ant in this country, what is called pheasant in 
the Northern markets being really the ruffed 
grouse, which is also called partridge at the 
South. {See Grouse and Partridge.) 

PHLOX. — This is another of the peren^ 
nials, the beauty of which should secure it a 
place in every garden. It is perfectly hardy, 
and its brilliant clusters of flowers, comprising 
all colors from white to crimson and purple, 
striped and mottled, have few superiors among 
hardy plants. It will thrive in almost any soil, 
but enjoys fresh loam and new quarters every 
two or three years. It increases rapidly from 
the roots,. and will also grow easily from cut- 
tings or layers. The Phloxes are a large 
family, containing many species and fine va- 
rieties. The latter are numbered by hundreds, 
and we can only mention here a few of the 
most desirable. For Early Spring Flower- 
ing : — P. Divaricata, light and dark purple ; 
P. Nivalis, white ; P. Stonolifera, deep red ; 
P. Tubalata, pink, white, purple, and eyed va- 



390 



PIANO FORTE 



PICKLES 



rieties. For Summer Flowering : — P. Beppo, 
purple or crimson ; P. Cointess of Home, white, 
crimson eye ; P. Henri Lierval, purplish crim- 
son ; P. Louis Van Hoiitte, striped ; P. Ma- 
culata, red ; P. Madame Wagner, whitish 
rose, rosy eye ; P. Rival, white ; P. Roi Leo- 
pold, whi'te, striped with purple ; P. Speculum, 
white, with red eye; P. Dia7ttJiiflora, rose 
and white ; P. Hersine, purple and white ; P. 
Le Croix de St. Louis, rose and white ; P. 
Madame Basseville, rosy white, red eye ; P. 
Madame le Cerf, pure white ; P. Oculata, lilac, 
white centre ; P. Osirus, white, with red eye ; 
P. Mr. Regel, violet, purple, and crimson ; P. 
Souvenir de la Mer, white, violet centre. 

PIANOFORTE (Care of the). — A piano 
should be tuned at least twice a year by an ex- 
perienced tuner. If it be allowed to go too 
long without tuning, it usually becomes flat, 
and troubles a tuner to get it to stay at concert 
pitch, especially in the country. Never place 
the instrument against an outside wall, or in a 
cold, damp room, particularly in a country 
house. There is no greater enemy to a piano- 
forte than damp. Close the instrument imme- 
diately after finishing practice ; by leaving it 
open, dust fixes on the sound-board, and cor- 
rodes the movements, and if in a damp room, 
the strings soon rust. Should the piano stand 
near or opposite to a window, guard, if possi- 
ble, against its being opened, especially on a wet 
or damp day ; and when the sun is on the win- 
dow, draw the blind down. Avoid putting me- 
tallic or other articles on or in the piano ; such 
things frequently cause unpleasant vibrations, 
and sometimes injure the instrument. The 
more equal the temperature of the room, the 
better the piano will stay in tune. 

PICCALILI. — This is a name given to mixed 
pickles which may contain almost any combina- 
tion of the vegetables usually made use of for 
pickling. The following makes an excellent 
pickle: — Take gherkins, cucumbers, cauliflower, 
radish-pods, French beans, samphire, celery, 
white cabbage, carrots, capsicums and button 
onions. Soak them in brine for twenty-four 
hours ; drain them and dry with towels, then 
place them in glass cans and pour over them, 
boiling hot, the following prepared mixture : To 
one gallon of vinegar add four ounces of bruised 
ginger, two ounces of whole black pepper, two 
ounces of whole allspice, three ounces of curry, 
and half a pint of sweet oil ; boil them together for 
half an hour, and then pour them over the vege- 
tables, having mixed a little turmeric and mus- 
tard in a bowl with a small quantity of vinegar, 
which should also be poured in. Some persons 
prefer straining the vinegar, but the spice ma- 
terially improves the flavor of the pickle in 
keeping ; and at last the liquor makes an ex- 
cellent sauce for cold meats. Put up in glass 
jars. 

PICKEREL.— This fish is known in Phila- 
delphia as " Pike," and in Virginia and the 
Southern States as "Jack." It is one of the 
most delicious of the fresh-water fish, being es- 
teemed hardly inferior to trout. When in good 



condition it is very firm-fleshed, sweet, and 
well-flavored; it is best in the winter and spring 
montns, from September to March, and during 
that time is generally quite plentiful in the mar- 
kets. The pickerel is a long, square-backed 
fish, with one fin on the back near the tail ; the 
upper jaw has somewhat the appearance of a 
duck's bill, and the eyes are very small ; the 




color on the back is of a bluish gray, and some- 
times of a greenish cast ; the sides are of a 
muddy yellow and quite full of dark, irregular 
marks. There is a smaller variety, called 
"brook pickerel," which are different in shape 
and smaller ; they are not so desirable as the 
regular pickerel. Prepare, cook and serve 
pickerel in the same way as trout. The smaller 
fish only should be used for frying and broil- 
ing, and the larger ones for boiling, baking and 
roasting. 

PICKLES. — With the exception of walnuts, 
which, when softened by keeping, are the least 
objectionable of any pickle, these are not 
very wholesome articles of diet, consisting, as 
so many of them do, of crude, hard vegetables, 
or of unripe fruit. Those which are commonly 
sold in the shops are especially objectionable, 
as in most cases they are so injured by adultera- 
tion as to become dangerous to persons who 
partake of them often or largely. Color is of 
great moment in pickling ; and the fine green 
color of many of the prepared pickles is secured 
by the addition of sulphate of copper, or blue- 
stone, directly to the vinegar, and where this is 
not done, they are made in copper or brass 
vessels. A very simple and effective way of 
testing whether such "greening" has been 
ventured upon, is to put a few drops of the 
suspected vinegar on the blade of a knife, or 
cut the pickles with it ; add a drop of sulphuric 
acid (oil of vitriol), and heat the under surface 
of the knife over the flame of a candle ; the 
vinegar in evaporating will deposit the copper 
upon the knife-blade, if any be present. The 
best plan, however, is to make the pickles at 
home, for then they can be relied upon as at 
least pure. 

For home pickling we subjoin a few leading 
rules. Acids dissolve the lead contained in the 
tinning of saucepans, and corrode copper and 
brass ; consequently, if vinegar is kept in them 
for any length of time, it becomes highly poi- 
sonous. This danger, therefore, is easily 
avoided by heating the liquor in a stone jar on 
a stove ; but glazed stone jars should not be 
used for pickles, as salt and vinegar dissolve 
the lead which is in the glaze. Scalding or 
parboilini>; the articles to be pickled in salt and 
water will cause them to absorb the vinegar 
much sooner ; but this does not add to their 



PICKLES 



391 



crispness. In this case the articles «;hould be 
cold and quite dry before they are put into the 
vinegar. Should the vinegar become thick, it 
may be advisable to pour it off the pickles, boil 
it up again, and pour it back. Use the strong- 
est vinegar for pickling, for that of inferior 
quality is useless ; it should be scalding hot, as 
ravir vinegar becomes ropy, and will not keep ; 
but it should be remembered that neither 



vinegar, nor any other fermented liquor, can be 
boiled without loss of strength. Pickles should 
be kept from the air, otherwise they soon spoil. 
They should, likewise, be touched only with a 
dry wooden spoon or ladle ; and as it is an ob- 
ject to keep the jars as full as possible, small 
jars should be from time to time filled up from 
larger ones. The pickles should always be 
covered with vinegar, at least two inches above 




their surface. The least quantity of water, or 
a wet spoon, put into a jar of pickles, will spoil 
the contents. 

Barberries. — Take barberries, when not 
quite ripe, pick out the stalks, and preserve 
the finest sprigs, which should be tied together 
in bunches, as they may be wanted for garnish- 
ing ; wash them in salt and water carefully, 
and set them in a sieve to drain ; place the 
berries and the branches of sprigs in separate 
jars, and pour over them a pickle made of two 
pounds of common salt and a gallon of water ; 
fill the jars to the brim, skim the pickle as long 
as any scum rises, then pour it off and fill the 
jars again, and tie over. The acidity of the 
barberry renders vinegar unnecessary. 

Beans. — Pick the young string or snap 
beans just before they change color, and leave 
them quite whole. Let them stand two weeks 
in a brine made of two pounds of salt to a gal- 
lon of water, stirring them up from the bottom 
every day ; change the water then for fresh 
and let them remain in that another day ; they 
are now ready for pickling. Line a kettle with 
a thick layer of green vine-leaves, put the 
beans into it, add a half-teaspoonful of pow- 
dered alum for every gallon of water, fill the 
kettle with cold water, put another layer of 
vine-leaves over the top, and cover with a close- 
fitting lid ; simmer over a slow fire for five or 
six hours, without allowing it to come to a boil. 
When the pickles are of a bright green re- 
move the leaves, and drop the beans into very 
cold water, leaving them there while the follow- 
ing pickle is prepared : — To one gallon of the 



best cider vinegar add a teacupful of sugar, 
three dozen peppercorns, three dozen cloves 
a dozen and a half of allspice, and a dozen 
blades of mace ; boil five minutes, then put 
the beans into a stone jar and pour the vine- 
gar over them scalding hot. Set away, closely 
covered. Two days afterward scald the vine- 
gar again and return to the pickles, and repeat 
this process three times more at intervals of 
two or three days. Then cover over tightly, 
and set in a cool place : they will be ready for 
eating in a couple of months, but improve with 
age. 

Radish-pods are often pickled along with the 
beans, and it improves them. The pods should 
be gathered just before maturity. 

Beet-roots. — Select roots of blood-red color ; 
wash them well, boil them till tender; then 
peel them and cut them into cross slices, not 
too thin ; put them in layers into jars with a 
little mace, whole pepper, cloves, horse-radish, 
salt, and bruised ginger, and fill up with the 
best vinegar. Tie the jars closely with blad- 
der. 

Cabbage (Red).— Take a large closely-grown 
cabba<re, strip off the outside leaves,which cutm 
thin slices into a dish, sprinkling salt over them. 
Cover them with a cloth, and let them he' 
twenty-four hours. Next drain the cabbage on 
a sieve, and put it into a clean jar with allspice, 
whole pepper, and sliced ginger; pour over it 
cold vinegar, and tie it closely over ; a httle 
bruised cochineal will brighten the red color, 
but is not requisite. The jar should be com- 
pletely filled. 



392 



PICKLES 



Cabbage (White).— Take off the outside 
leaves, quarter it, cut out the stalk, shred the 
cabbage and sprinkle it liberally with salt ; let 
it stand a day, then put it into a jar, and pour 
over it, boiled but cold, spiced vinegar, which 
will insure its crispness, though it will not keep 
so long as when pickled with boiling vinegar. 
A little turmeric may be added. 

Capsicums, or Red Pepper.— Soak green 
capsicums three or four days in a strong brine, 
drain them, put them into jars with mace and 
allspice, and fill up with cold boiled vinegar. 
Red capsicums will not require soaking. Chilies 
may be pickled in the same way. 

Cauliflower. — Choose a hard, white cauli- 
flower; pull it into small pieces, which put 
into a stewpan with salt and water, and boil. 
Then take out the pieces, dry them before the 
fire, and pour on them spiced vinegar : a little 
turmeric will give the cauliflower a fine yellow 
color, and will also improve the flavor. 

A nice spiced vinegar for cauliflower, or any 
similar pickle, may be made as follows ; — To 
one gallon of vinegar, add a teacupful of white 
sugar, a tablespoonful of celery seed, a dozen 
blades of mace, two dozen white peppercorns, 
a tablespoonful of coriander-seed, a table- 
spoonful of whole mustard, and some bits of 
red pepper. Boil five minutes. 

Celery. — Prepare a pickle of an ounce and 
a half of salt, half an ounce of ginger, and as 
much whole white pepper, to each quart of 
vinegar, and set it to boil. Having picked and 
washed, and cut into small pieces, fine fresh 
celery, put it into the boiling pickle, and when 
the whole has boiled two minutes, put it into 
dry stone jars ; or let it cool, and then put 
it into bottles. It will remain good for a long 
time, and the vinegar will make good salad- 
dressing. A few button onions may be thrown 
into the vinegar. 

Cherries. — Leave about an inch of their 
stemc on some fine, sound cherries, which are 
not over ripe ; put them into a jar, cover them 
with cold vinegar, and let them stand three 
weeks; pour off two-thirds of the liquor and 
replace it with fresh vinegar ; then, after hav- 
ing drained it from the cherries^ boil it whole 
with an ounce of coriander-seed, a small blade 
of mace, a few grains of cayenne, or a teaspoon- 
ful of white peppercorns, and four bruised 
cochineals to every quart ; the spices should 
be tied loosely in a piece of muslin. Let the 
pickle become quite cold before it is added to 
the cherries. In a month they will be fit to 
use. The vinegar which is poured from the 
fruit makes a good syrup of itself, when boiled 
with a pound of sugar to the fruit, but it is 
improved by having some fresh raspberries, 
cherries, or currants previously infused in it 
for three or four days. 

Cucumber. — I. Select small cucumbers — 
none should be over a finger in length ; they 
should also be perfectly sound. Pickle them 
in the manner previously directed for Beans ; 
but the cucumbers may be kept cither a week 
or a month in the brine, according as they are 



liked salty or otherwise. Soft ones when 
taken from the brine should be thrown away. 

II. (Grated.) — Pare and halve full-grown cu- 
cumbers, take out the seeds; grate, strain, and 
press the pulp until the water is nearly extract- 
ed. Season highly with pepper and salt, mix 
with vinegar to taste; seal in small bottles. 

III. (Sliced.) — Slice large cucumbers length- 
wise and boil an hour in just enough vinegar 
to cover them ; set them aside in the hot vinegar. 
Then make a strongly-spiced vinegar (adding 
a pound of sugar to each gallon), put the cu- 
cumbers into it, and stew them two hours. 
This pickle is ready for use as soon as made. 

Elder Pickle. — Cut the tender shoots of 
the elder-tree, peel them, and soak them twelve 
hours in brine ; drain and dry them ; then boil 
in two quarts of vinegar, two ounces of whole 
ginger, two ounces of whole black pepper, and 
the same of allspice ; pour it boiling upon the 
elder shoots in a jar, and cover up. 

Eschalots. — For a quart of ready-peeled 
eschalots, add to the same quantity of the best 
pale white wine vinegar, a dessertspoonful of 
salt, and an ounce of whole white pepper ; 
bring these quickly to a boil, take off the scum, 
throw in the eschalots, simmer them for two 
minutes only, turn them into a clean stone jar, 
and when they are quite cold, tie a skin, or two 
folds of thick paper over it. 

French Pickle. — Ta/iv .--Green tomatoes, i 
peck ; green peppers, 6 ; onions, 6 ; salt, Yz pt ; 
brown sugar, i pt; horse radish (grated), y, pt; 
ground cloves,ground allspice, ground cinnamon, 
I tablespoonful each ; mustard seed, celery 
seed, 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls each; peppercorns, 

y2 gill- 

Slice the tomatoes, onions and peppers (hav- 
ing taken the seeds from the latter) sprinkle 
the salt over them and let them stand all night. 
Then pour off the water and add the other in- 
gredients ; mix well : put it in a large porcelain 
lined kettle, cover with good vinegar and boil 
slowly until well cooked ; this requires several 
hours. A fewred peppers may be added, if liked. 

Gherkins. — Pickle these exactly as directed 
for cucumbers. The smaller gherkins make 
the choicest pickles. 

Higdom. — Peel and take the seeds from large 
green cucumbers ; chop them and to two quarts 
add one of chopjied onion ; mix them, adding 3 
tablespoonfuls of salt ; after two hours hang 
them in a thin cloth, to drain for twelve hours ; 
put them in a preserving kettle, season with 
cayenne and black pepper, cover with vinegar, 
heat slowly and boil ten minutes. 

Kalamazoo Pickles. — J}? -t^ .--small cucum- 
bers (2 or 3 inches long) ^ bush. ; brown sugar, i 
qt ; white mustard seed, y^ pt ; broken cinnamon, 
I oz ; alum, 2 oz ; celery seed, I oz ; vinegar, 7 qts. 

Wipe the withered flowers from the end of 
the cucumbers ; cover with a brine made of two 
gallons of water and a pound of salt ; let them 
stand twenty-four hours ; drain them ; boil the 
vinegar, alum and spices ; put the cucumbers 
in glass cans, rinsed in hot water, pour in the 
boiling vinegar and spices, and close at once. 



PICKLES 



393 



Mangoes. — Take the latest growth of mangoes 
of not more than a third or half their full size. 
Keep them in brine several weeks ; then soak 
them for two days in cold water changing the wa- 
ter frequently ; boil them in vinegar with a small 
piece of alum, three quarters of an hour; stand 
them in the vinegar (well covered) for a week. 
Remove the seeds and fill with this mixture : one 
pound of ginger soaked in brine for a day or two, 
or until soft enough to slice, whole black pepper, 
cloves, mace, allspice and tumeric, one ounce 
each ; half a pound of garlic, soaked for a day or 
two inbrine, and then dried ; grated horseradish, 
black mustard seed and white mustard seed, one 
pint each. Bruise the spices and mix them with 
a teacupful of olive oil. For each mango add 
a teaspoonful of brown sugar. This is suffi- 
cient for four dozen large mangoes. Having 
chopped six or eight imperfect ones to mix with 
the stuffing, tie up and pour over them the 
best cider vinegar. Set in a light dry place 
to be cured. After a month add three 
pounds of brown sugar to the vinegar; scald 
and pour it over them hot; keep them dry 
and light. 

Mixed. — Take some very tender string 
beans, some very small onions, a cauliflower 
broken into bits, a red pepper cut fine, a few 
long green peppers, and some small tomatoes ; 
scald them in salt and water and let them stand 
about twent3'-four hours. Drain them well, put 
them into a jar or pan, and turn boihng spiced 
vinegar over them ; let them stand till cool, 
then put them into glass jars and stop them 
tight. The proportions of the different ingredi- 
ents in this pickle can be varied to suit the 
taste. 

Monroel. — Keep very small cucumbers in 
brine for twenty-four hours ; drain them and put 
them in a jar ; cover with boiling water allowing 
an ounce of alum to five quarts. Leave them on 
a warm hearth several hours ; drain and cover 
with boiling vinegar seasoned with cloves, 
whole peppers, mace and a little sugar. 

Mushroonis (Brown). — Take a quart of 
large mushroom buttons, and wash them in 
vinegar with a piece of flannel ; take three an- 
chovies and chop them small, a few blades of 
mace, a teaspoonful of salt, a little pepper and 
ginger, and three cloves of shalots. Put them 
into a saucepan with as much vinegar as will 
half cover them ; then set them on the fire 
and let them stew till they shrink pretty well. 
When cold put them into bottles, pour the 
vinegar over them, cork and tie them up. This 
pickle will make a fine addition to brown sauces, 
and is much liked. 

Mushrooms (White). — Put the mushrooms 
in equal quantities of cold milk and water, 
and rub them with a piece of flannel ; have 
ready hot milk and water, and boil them in it 
a few minutes ; take them out carefully and 
put them into a jar with a little salt, and 
cover them closely with a cloth ; let them stand 
till next day, then boil up the vinegar and pour 
over them. 

Onions. — Choose fine white ones, not too 



large, peel them, and let them stand in strong 
salt and water three days, changing the brine 
on the second day. Heat more brine to a boil, 
throw in the onions, and boil three minutes ; 
then drain off the brine, and throw the onions 
into cold water, leaving them there several 
hours. Pack in jars, season with cloves, mace, 
and whole pepper, and fill up with scalding 
vinegar in which sugar has been dissolved in 
the proportion of a teacupful to every gallon. 
Cork while hot. They can be used in a month, 
but improve with keeping. 

Onions (Sliced) and Cucumbers. — Slice 
but do not peel large cucumbers, and peel and 
cut in thick slices large onions ; soak them in 
brine for a day : then drain them, put them into 
jars, and pour on boiling vinegar, with ginger, 
allspice, and whole black pepper, three succes- 
sive days. This is a cheap and good pickle. 

Peaches. — Take, at their full growth just be- 
fore they begin to ripen, six large or eight mod- 
erate sized peaches ; wipe the down from them 
and put them into brine that will float an egg. 
In three days take them out, and drain on a 
reversed sieve for several hours. Boil in a 
quart of vinegar for ten minutes, tw'o ounces 
of whole white pepper, two of ginger slightly 
bruised, a teaspoonful of salt, two blades of 
mace, half a pound of mustard-seed and half a 
teaspoonful of cayenne tied in a bit of muslin. 
Lay the peaches into a jar, and pour the boil- 
ing pickle on them. In two months they will 
be fit for use. 

Peaches (Sweet). — Put four pounds of 
pared peaches into a kettle with two pounds of 
sugar, and heat slowly to a boil ; add half a 
pint of good vinegar strongly spiced with 
cloves, mace, and cinnamon, and boil for five 
minutes ; take out the fruit with a perforated 
skimmer and spread upon dishes to cool. Pack 
the fruit in glass jars, boil the syrup thick and 
pour it on scalding hot. Look into the jars 
every few days for a month or so and if there 
are any signs of fermentation, set the jars in a 
kettle of water and heat until the contents are 
scalding hot. 

Pears, plums, and other fruits may be pickled 
in this way. 

Piccalili. {See Picalili.) 

Sweet Pickles. — Almost any kind of fruit 
may be used in making sweet pickles. To two 
pounds of fruit allow a pint of vinegar, and a 
pound of sugar ; put on the vinegar and sugar 
and let them boil fifteen minutes, skimming 
carefully ; then put in the fruit and let it boil 
till about half cooked ; put it in jars, and cork 
tight. For peaches a little cinnamon and 
mace may be boiled with the vinegar ; for 
plums, or dark fruit, allspice or cloves. 

Tomatoes (Green). — Slice without peel- 
ing, two gallons of green tomatoes, and also 
slice a dozen medium-sized onions ; add half a 
gallon of vinegar, a pound of sugar, two table- 
spoonfuls each of salt, black pepper, and 
ground mustard, and one tablespoonful each of 
cloves and allspice. Put on the fire and stew 
until the tomatoes and onions are quite tender. 



394 



PICKLING MEAT 



PIES 



stirring often from the bottom ; when cold put 
into glass jars. This is one of the best 
pickles to serve with meat and fish. 

Tomatoes (Ripe). — To two gallons of ripe 
tomatoes, sliced without peeling, add a pint of 
vinegar, and two pounds of sugar ; season 
with cinnamon, mace, and nutmeg; put on 
the fire and simmer slowly for an hour. Put 
up in glass jars. 

"Walnuts .— L Gather the walnuts while soft 
enough to be pierced by a needle. Prick 
each "with a large needle (hold the walnuts in 
a cloth during this process to avoid staining 
the hands); cover them with strong salt and 
water; let them stand two or three days, 
changing the water every day. Then pour 
over the'm a strong brine made of salt dissolved 
in boiling water ("let it get cold before using), 
stand three days, and then repeat the process. 
Drain and expose them to the sun until they 
are black. Put them into a jar, and pour over 
them as much good vinegar as will cover them. 
To each hundred walnuts allow six spoonfuls 
of mustard seed, one ounce of whole black 
pepper, two or three shalots, two ounces of 
whole ginger crushed, a few cloves, and a blade 
or two of mace. Tie them down closely for six 
months. At the end of that time drain off the 
vinegar, and use as ketchup. Fill up the jars 
with fresh vinegar, and add, if necessary, a 
few more peppercorns. In six months more 
they will be ready for use. 

II. Soak in salt water and brine as before ; 
but instead of laying them in the sun, put them 
in cold water for half a day, and then pack 
them in small jars. Measure out enough vine- 
gar to cover them well, and for each gallon al- 
low a teacupful of sugar, three dozen each of 
whole cloves and allspice, a dozen and a half of 
allspice, and a dozen blades of mace ; boil five 
minutes, and pour over the walnuts scalding hot. 
In three days draw off the vinegar, heat it to 
boiling, and again pour it over the walnuts ; 
and at the end of three days more repeat 
the process. Walnuts pickled thus will be fit 
to eat in a month. 

Buttermits can be pickled by either of the 
methods given above. 

PICKLING MEAT. — This consists in keep- 
ing meat immersed in a strong brine, to which 
other ingredients are sometimes added. This 
mode of preserving does not render the meat 
so salt as dry rubbing, nor is it so well calcu- 
lated for keeping it for a great length of time, 
being chiefly limited to small pieces ; it is 
thought, however, to be less injurious to the 
nutridous qualities of the meat. Full directions 
for pickling beef, tongues, pork, etc., etc., are 
given under the respective articles. 

PICTURES (Cleaning). Castile soap and 
water can be used on oil paintings without 
danger, care being taken of course not to 
wet the back, or let water through cracks. 
There are few other things that can except by 
experts. For the ordinary dusting of pictures 
a silk handkerchief should be used. 
Framing. — Heavy gilt frames are appro- 



priate to oil paintings. On chromos, they sug- 
gest a dishonest (and consequently untasteful) 
attempt to make the chromo appear what it is 
not — an oil painting. An engraving would be 
made to appear cold by a bright or heavy gilt 
frame, though sometimes a plain unburnished 
one looks well. Of course a margin of white 
paper is needed between the printed surface 
and the frame, so as not to make the contrast of 
brilliancy too violent. Moreover, if the frame 
be dark, the margin prevents the monotonous 
continuation of dark color, and if it be of col- 
ored wood, the margin prevents a harsh 
contrast. 

Gay colored wood frames brighten up a 
room which sometimes needs it, and if of af>- 
propriate colors, do not jar on the taste. One 
would hardly select pale blue to frame a bat- 
tle scene, however, or blood-red for a Ma- 
donna. 

Chromos should honestly express what 
they are — color printed on paper, and should 
not be made to represent paint and canvas by 
smearing the color unreasonably thick and em- 
bossing the paper. Such chromos deceive no 
one but the owner. Chromos had best Iiave a 
margin, as association of ideas requires it in 
paper. Light frames of dead gilt, or uncolored 
wooden ones should be the only styles used on 
them. 

Passe-partouts are good for all small engrav- 
ings and honest chromos. 

In framing engravings or chromos, see that 
no knots are in the boards at the back, as 
resinous exudations are apt to strike from them 
through the paper. If knots are found, glue 
over them bits of sheet rubber. 

Hanging. — Use copper wire. Moths eat 
out the inside of cord. Nails damage walls, 
and fresh ones are needed for all changes. 
Far the best way of suspending pictures is from 
hooks sliding on rods of painted gas-pipe or 
burnished brass, fastened into the wall near the 
ceiling. A wooden moulding grooved in its 
inner upper edge so that hooks shaped like the 
letter S can curve over its top, answers admira- 
bly for light pictures. Where one is rid of nails, 
it is certainly best to hang the picture from 
wire on each side depending from separate 
hooks. The lines of the wires correspond 
better with the general lines of the walls, and 
give a feeling of greater strength. It is but 
little more trouble to do this than to use the 
single wire, provided two nails are not needed. 

Protecting from insects. — Water in which 
onions have been boiled, rubbed lightly over 
the frames, will keep insects away from them. 

PIES. — Whether pies are healthy or the 
contrary depends chiefly upon the character of 
the crust, and in order to make good crust it is 
absolutely necessary to use only the best ma- 
terials. The flour must be thoroughly dry 
and white (^See Bread) ; and the butter, in 
particular, should be the best that can be pro- 
cured. The using of inferior butter — "cook- 
ing butter " as it is called — is the most com- 
mon mistake in the making of pies ; and yet it 



PIES 



395 



requires but little experience to show that bad 
butter is sure to reveal all its worst qualities 
in pie-crust. Butter intended for pastry should 
be washed carefully in several clean, cold 
waters, and kneaded while under water in 
order to extract the salt ; then wipe it dry and 
lay it in a cool place till the time comes for 
workino; it in. The board on which the butter 




Raised Pie-mould. 

is rolled should be hard and smooth, and it 
should not be used for any other purpose. It 
is harder to make good pastry in warm weather 
than in cold, on account of the tendency of 
butter to oil, and thus render the crust heavy 
and solid. 

Pie-Crust. I. — Take :-S\ited flour, i lb ; 
butter, ^ lb ; cream tartar, two teaspoonfuls ; 
soda one teaspoonful ; ice-water. 

The butter should be stiff and firm ; cut it 
into the smallest possible bits, and add half of 
it to the flour, with which the soda and cream 
tartar should have been previously well-mixed ; 
work with ice-water into a stiff dough ; then 
roll it out thin, spot it over with one-third of the 
remaining butter, fold it up closely into a long 
roll, flatten and roll out again ; repeat this 
operation three times, until all the butter has 
been worked in, and it will then be ready for 
use. In forming the pie, roll out the crust 
thin, butter the pie-plates, lay the paste "lightly 
over them and press it down so as to take the 
shape of the plates ; then cut it off evenly 
around the edges, saving the scraps to roll out 
into another sheet. Now fill the plates with 
fruit, or whatever is to form the inside of the 
pie, lay the paste over this, trim as before, and 
press the edges of the upper and lower crusts 
together with a spoon, key, or jagging-iron, so 
as to prevent the escape of the juice. Pies 
should be baked to a light-brown, in a mode- 




Paste pincers. 

rately hot oven, and great care should be taken 
to have the heat as high at the bottom of the 
oven as at the top — otherwise the bottom crust 
will be raw and doughy. 

II. — Takes-Flour, i lb; butter, lo oz; lard, 
6oz; salt. 

Mix the lard (which should be pure and firm) 
with the flour, and work them into a smooth 
paste with cold water; press the buttermilk 



from the butter, and form the latter into a ball 
by twisting it in a clean cloth ; roll out the 
paste, put the ball of butter in the middle, close 
it like an apple dumpling, and roll it very 
lightly, until it is less than an inch thick ; then 
fold the ends into the middle, dust a little flour 
over the board and the roller, and roll the 
paste thin a second time, then set it aside for a 
few minutes in a very cool place ; give it two 
more hints (or folds), rolling it out each time, 
and set it away again for a few minutes ; roll it 
out twice more, and it ought to be fit for use. 
The sooner this crust is sent to the oven after 
it is made, the lighter it will be ; if allowed to 
remain long before it is baked, it will be tough 
and heavy. 

Cream Crust. — Taie :-F\our, i lb ; salt, one 
small saltspoonful (more for meat pies) ; rich 
cream, % to }i pint ; butter, 4 oz (for richest 
crust, 6 oz). 

Stir the salt thoroughly into the flour, and 
mix the cream in till a smooth paste is formed; 
roll it out thin and add the butter minced fine ; 
re-roll it three or four times. Handle this 
crust as lightly as possible in making it, and 
send it to the oven as soon as it is ready. It 
may be used for pies, fruit tarts, puffs, and 
other varieties of small pastry, or for good 
meat pies. A good crust for ordinary family 
use may be made by omitting the butter, but 
the butter improves it greatly ; six ounces of 
butter to the pound of flour will give a very 
rich crust. 

Puff-paste. — Take .--Flour 2 lbs ; butter i lb. 
10 oz; a little salt. 

Break eight ounces of the butter lightly into 
the flour (sifted); add a pinch of salt, and 
enough cold water to make the paste ; work it 
as quickly and as lightly as possible, until it is 
smooth and pHable, then level it with the paste 
roller until it is three-quarters of an inch thick, 
and place regularly upon it six ounces of but- 
ter in small bits ; fold the paste like a bolster 
pudding, roll it out again, lay on it sIk ounces 
more of butter, repeat the rolling, dusting each 
time a httle flour over the board and paste, add 
again six ounces of butter, and roll the paste 
out thin three or four times, folding the ends 
into the middle. If very rich paste be required, 
equal portions of flour and butter must be 
used ; and the latter may be divided into two, 
instead of three parts, when it is to be rolled 
in. 

French Puff-paste. — Take .--Flour and but- 
ter, equal weights ; to each pound of these, the 
yolks of two eggs, and a small saltspoonful of salt. 

This, when made by a good French cook, is 
the perfection of rich light paste, and will rise 
in the oven from one to six inches in height; 
but some practice is, without doubt, necessary 
to accomplish this. In summer it is a great 
advantage to have ice at hand, and to harden 
the butter over it before it is used ; the paste 
also between the intervals of rolling is improved 
by being laid on an oven-leaf over a vessel con- 
taining ice. Take an equal weight of good 
butter free from the coarse salt which is found 



396 



PIES 



in some, and which is disadvantageous for this 
paste, and of fine, dry, sifted flour; to each 
pound of these allow the yolks of two eggs, 
and a small teaspoonful of salt. Break a few 
small bits of the butter very lightly into the 
flour, put the salt into the centre, and pour on 
it sufficient water to dissolve it (we do not un- 
derstand why the doing this should be better 
than mixing it with the flour, as in other pastes, 
but such is the method always pursued for it) ; 
add a little more water to the eggs, moisten 
the flour gradually, and make it into a ve)-y 
smooth paste, rather lithe in summer, and never 
exceedingly stiff, though the opposite fault, in 
the extreme, would render the crust unmanage- 
able. Press, in a soft thin cloth, all the moist- 
ure from the remainder of the butter, and 
form it into a ball ; but in doing this be careful 
not to solten it too much. Should it be in an 
unfit state for pastry, from the heat of the 
weather, put it into a basin, and set the basin 
into a pan of water mixed with plenty of salt 
and saltpetre, and let it remain in a cool place 
for an hour, if possible, before it is used. 
When it is ready (and the paste should never 
be begun until it is so), roll the crust out 
square, and large enough to enclose the but- 
ter, flatten this a little upon it in the centre, 
and then fold the crust well over it, and roll it 
out thin as lightly as possible, after dredging 
the board and the paste roller with a little flour : 
this is called giving it one turn. Then fold it 
in three, give it another turn, and set it aside 
where it will be very cool, for a few minutes ; 
give it two more turns in the same way, rolling 
it each time very lightly but of equal thickness, 
and to the full length that it will reach, taking 
always especial care that the butter shall not 
break through the paste. Let it again be set 
aside to become cold ; and after it has been 
twice more rolled and folded in three, give it a 
half -turn, by folding it once only, and it will be 
ready for use. 

Short-crust for Sweet Pastry. — Take: — 
Flour, I lb ; butter, Ys, lb ; sugar (sifted), 2 oz ; 
milk, and salt. 

Break the butter very small and add it to the 
flour ; mix well with these a pinch of salt and 
the sugar, and add enough milk to make them 
up into a smooth and somewhat firm paste. 
Bake this slowly to a very light brown. It will 
be found an admirable crust if well made and 
lightly handled, and will answer for many 
dishes much better than puff-paste ; it will rise 
in the oven too, and be extremely light. Ten 
ounces of butter will make it very rich, but 
eight is enough. 

Economical Short-crust. — Take : — Flour, 
I lb; mixed dripping and lard (or all dripping 
alone will do), }i lb; cold water. 

Mix the dripping and lard into the dry flour 
well, either with the thumb and fingers, or with 
a fork or spoon ; add just enough cold water to 
wet it and make a paste ; roll it out three times. 
After covering the dish, wet the crust with 
milk, or the white of an egg, and sift crystal- 
lized or •' crushed lump " sugar over it. This 



recipe, without the sugar, and with a little salt 
mixed with the flour, answers very well for 
meat-pies. 

Suet-crust. — Take .-Flour, 2 lb ; beef or 
veal kidney-suet, 12 to 1 6 oz; salt (for fruit pies), 
J4 teaspoonful ; (for meat pies, one teaspoonful.) 

In many families this is preferred, both for 
pies and tarts, to crust made with butter, as 
being much more wholesome ; but it should 
never be served unless especially ordered, as 
to some j^ersons it is peculiarly distasteful. 
Chop the suet extremely small, and add from 
six to eight ounces of it to a pound of flour, 
with a few grains of salt ; mix these with cold 
water into a firm paste, and work it very 
smooth. Some cooks beat it with a paste- 
roller, until the suet is perfectly blended with 
flour ; but the crust is lighter without this. In 
very sultry weather the suet, not being firm 
enough to chop, may be sliced as thin as pos- 
sible, and well beaten into the paste after it is 
worked up. 

Apple Pie. — I. Select ripe and rather tart 
winter apples ; pare and core them, and slice 
rather small ; line the pie-plate with crust, put 
in the fruit, and cover with a top crust ; bake 
in a moderate oven till the crust is light brown 
and the fruit tender. Then take from the 
oven, remove the upper crust without break- 
ing, and add sugar and nutmeg, cinnamon, or 
rose-water to taste. Some prefer the season- 
ing added before baking. A little orange peel 
chipped fine and added before baking, gives a 
pleasant flavor. 

II. Pare, core, and quarter the apples ; put 
into a preserving-kettle with four tablespoon- 
fuls of powdered sugar to a pie, and add water 
enough to make a thin syrup ; add a few blades 
of mace, and boil the apple (a few pieces at a 
time, so as to avoid breaking them) in the syrup 
till tender ; as they get done, take them care- 
fully from the kettle and lay them in dishes. 
When enough apples for the numljerof pies to 
be made are ready, add to the syrup cinnamon 
and rose-water, or any other spice, enough to 
flavor it well, and divide it among the pies. 
Put the contents of each pie into a pie-plate 
without a bottom crust, line the rim with paste, 
and cover with a top crust; bake to a light 
brown in a moderate oven. This is an excel- 
lent recipe. 

Beefsteak Pie. — Line a large pie-dish with 
a good crust ; pour into it a teacupful of highly- 
seasoned stock or gravy; cut the steak into 
pieces of convenient size for serving to each 
person, and dust them on both sides with flour, 
pepper, and salt ; arrange them in the dish, in- 
termingling with them a small proportion of 
fat. A few pieces of veal, with two or three 
hard-boiled eggs in quarters, make an agree- 
able variety in the contents of the pie. Pour 
over these half-a-teacupful more of well-sea- 
soned stock or gravy, cover with a good stout 
crust, and bake an hour or more in a moderate 
oven. Beefsteak pie is best hot, but is an en- 
joyable dish cold for travelling and picnics. 
A pie composed of beefsteak only is almost 



PIES 



397 



too solid a dish for ordinary appetites ; but any 
pie composed of meat, fowl, or game, is the 
better for having a layer of beef steak at the 
bottom, on which the other ingredients are 
afterwards placed. The bottom of the pie-dish 
being in contact with the floor of the oven, the 
steak intercepts the heat which might other- 
wise overcook the tenderer meats ; it likewise 
enriches the gravy. {See also under Beef.) 

Blackberry Pie. — Line a deep plate with 
paste ; fill it about half full of blackberries, 
previously picked and washed ; add half a tea- 
cupful of sugar, a tablespoonful of butter, and 
a little cinnamon ; fill up the plate with berries, 
add a little more sugar, cover with a good 
crust, and bake an hour in a moderate oven. 
A few currants improve this pie. 

Carrot Pie. — Scrape the carrots, boil very 
soft, and mash them through a sieve. To a 
pint of the strained pulp and six eggs well 
beaten, add three pints of boiling milk, two 
tablespoon fuls of melted butter, the juice of 
half a lemon, the grated rind of a whole one, 
and sugar to the taste (some of it mixed with 
the lemon-juice), and bake in deep pie-plates 
without an upper crust. 

Cherry Pie. — Make like blackberry pie, 
omitting butter, and regulating the quantity of 
sugar by the sweetness of the cherries. Best 
cold, with white sugar sifted over the top. 

Cocoanut Pie.— I. Cut off the brown part 
of the cocoanut — grate the white part, mix it 
with milk, set it on the fire, and let it boil 
slowly eight or ten minutes. To a pound of 
the grated cocoanut allow a quart of milk, 
eight eggs, four tablespoonfuls of sifted white 
sugar, a glass of wine, a small cracker, pounded 
fine, two tablespoonfuls of melted butter, and 
half a nutmeg. The eggs and sugar should 
be beaten together to a froth, then the wine 
stirred in. Put them into the milk and cocoa- 
nut, which should be first allowed to get quite 
cool; add the cracker and nutmeg; turn the 
whole into deep pie-plates, with a lining and 
rim of puff paste. Bake them as soon as 
turned into the plates. 

II. Cut away the brown part of the cocoa- 
nut as before, and grate the white part ; beat 1 2 
ounces of powdered sugar and six ounces of 
butter to a light cream, adding a wineglassful 
of white wine, two tablespoonfuls of rose-water, 
and a teaspoonful of nutmeg; then stir in half 
a pound of the grated cocoanut, and finally the 
whites of five eggs, whipped to a stiff froth. 
Line the plates with paste, fill with the above 
mixture, and bake without a top crust. Eat 
cold, with sugar sifted over the top. 

Cranberry Pie. — Make exactly like ripe 
currant pies, but stew the cranberries till well 
done before straining them through the sieve. 
The pies may be made without any top crust, 
or narrow strips of paste may be interlaced 
across the top. 

Currant (Green) Pie. — Gather the currants 
when they are just beginning to turn red, pick 
off the stems, and wash them in cold water. 
Line a pie-plate with good paste, fill it about 



half full of the currants, and add half a teacup- 
ful of sugar, a tablespoonful of butter, and a 
little ground cinnamon ; fill up the plate with 
currants, add nearly half a cupful more of 
sugar, and cover with a crust ; bake half an 
hour in a moderate oven. These pies may be 
eaten either hot or cold. If the foregoing re- 
cipe makes them too sweet, use less sugar. 

Currant (Ripe) Pie. — Stem and wash the 
currants ; stew them ten minutes, and strain 
them through a sieve; add plenty of sugar 
while they are hot, and set them away to cool. 
Line small pie-plates with paste, fill them with 
the currrants, and bake in a moderate oven 
until the crust is done. No top crust is put 
over these pies. 

Custard Pie. — I. (Apple) — Stew the apples 
till quite soft, adding sugar enough to make 
them very sweet ; when done, set them away 
to cool. Beat up six eggs, the whites and 
yolks separately, and mix the yolks with three 
teacupfuls of the stewed apple ; stir in a quart 
of milk, and then the whites of the eggs ; hne 
pie-plates with a light crust, fill with the mix- 
ture, and bake without a top crust. 

II. (Corn-.5tarch).— Put three pints of milk 
on the fire, and when it comes to a boil, stir 
in two tablespoonfuls of corn-starch wet in a 
little cold milk, and boil one minute ; remove 
from the fire, and when nearly cold stir in two 
tablespoonfuls of white sugar, the yolks of six 
eggs, and the whites of two, and flavor with 
two teaspoonfuls of essence of bitter almonds ; 
line pie-plates with paste, fill with the custard, 
and set in a moderate oven ; whip up the re- 
maining whites of eggs with two tablespoonfuls 
of white sugar and a teaspoonful of vanilla, and 
as soon as the custard has " set," draw the pies 
to the edge of the oven and spread the mixture 
quickly over them. 

Arrowroot or rice-flour may be substituted 
for the corn-starch in this recipe. 

III. (Peach.) — Pare some nice ripe peaches 
and remove the stones ; stew them in a little 
water till thoroughly done, then mash them 
smooth and flavor with nutmeg ; set aside to 
cool. Line pie-plates with paste, fill with the 
peach, and bake in a moderate oven until the 
crust is just done. Make a meringue by whip- 
ping to a stiff froth the whites of three eggs for 
each pie; sweeten with a tablespoonful of 
powdered sugar for each egg, flavor with vanilla 
or rose-water, and beat to a very stiff froth ; 
then spread it nearly an inch thick over the 
pies, and set them back into the oven until the 
meringue is well set. To be eaten cold. 

Gooseberry Pie. — Pick off all the stems 
and little blossoms from the berries. Line 
some pie-plates with paste, and fill half full of 
berries ; add plenty of sugar, a tablespoonful 
of butter, and a little ground cinnamon ; then 
fill the plate with the berries, add more sugar, 
and cover with a light crust ; bake until the 
crust is done, then open the oven door, and let 
the pies stand ten or fifteen minutes before 
removing. 

Grape Pie. — Grapes make good pies only 



398 



PIES 



when they are young and tender. If not very 
small, stew and strain them to get out the 
seeds ; sweeten them to the taste when stewed 
— they do not require any spice. If made into 
a pie without stewing, put to each layer of 
grapes a thick layer of sugar, and a tablespoon- 
ful of water. 

Huckleberry Pie. — Make exactly like a 
Blackberry pie. 

Lemon, or Mock-Apple Pie. — ^L For one 
large plate, pour half a pint of cold water on 
two square soda crackers broken in small 
bits, add a small piece of salt, the grated yel- 
low rind and the juice of one lemon, also a pint 
of coffee-sugar and one well-beaten egg; mix 
and bake with an upper as well as a lower 
crust. 

II. Take two good-sized, large lemons ; grate 
the yellow rind, squeeze the juice and chop the 
white skin and pulp as fine as possible ; mix 
two and a half even tablespoonfuls of corn- 
starch with a little cold water and stir it in one 
gill of boiling water; add this to the lemon 
with half a pint of coffee-sugar; mix well, pour 
on paste-lined plates,cover with pastry, and bake 
half an hour or more. If less flavor of the 
rind is liked, grate but one lemon, throwing 
away the thin yellow rind of the other. The 
various lemon puddings called ptes are not so, 
strictly speaking, as they have no upper crust, 
neither should a pie be called a pudding or a 
tart, both of which are uncovered. 

Lemon Cream Pie. — Place on fire, in a thick 
stew-pan, i qt milk, 2 blades mace, i inch cinna- 
mon, 3 cloves, rind of 2 lemons pared thin, and 
a pinch of salt. When it boils, strain ; return to 
fire with 4 tablespoonfuls corn starch dissolved 
in a little cold milk, and 6 oz sugar ; boil, and re- 
move ; add 5 yolks of eggs, juice of 3 lemons, 4 oz 
butter. Line pie-plate with paste, work up a high 
rim. Pour in the cream ; bake without top crust. 

Marlborough Pie. — Pare and grate some 
nice sweet apples. Beat a couple of eggs to a 
froth, and stir in enough brown sugar to make 
the pie sweet ; add a pint of milk and a pint 
of the grated apple pulp, the grated peel of a 
lemon, and half a wineglassful of brandy ; stir 
all well together. Bake in deep plates, without 
any upper crust. A little stewed pumpkin 
mixed with the apples is considered an im- 
provement to these pies. 

Mince Pies. — Directions for making mince- 
meat are given under Mince-meat and Mock 
Mince-meat. Mince pies should have a very 
light crust both top and bottom, and be well 
baked. Eat either hot or cold, with sugar 
sifted over the top. 

Orange Pie. — Beat a level teacupful of white 
sugar and two tablespoonfuls of butter to a light 
cream ; add the juice and half the grated rind 
of one orange, and the juice and grated peel of 
half a lemon ; beat together well, and add the 
yolks of three eggs beaten to a froth ; season 
to taste with nutmeg. Line a pie-plate with 
light paste, fill it with the above mixture, and 
bake without a top-crust ; beat up the whites of 
the eggs with two tablespoonfuls of powdered 



sugar, and when the pies are done, spread 
over them and return to the oven for three 
minutes or so. 

Peach Pie. — I. Peel and stone the peaches, 
and cut them into thin slices ; line a deep pie- 
plate with a thin paste, fill up with the fruit 
and sweeten liberally, though very ripe peaches 
will not require much sugar ; allow three peach- 
kernels, chopped fine, to each pie ; cover with 
a puff paste, and bake three-quarters of an 
hour in a moderate oven. Instead of the top 
crust, cross-bars of the paste may be laid across 
the top. 

II. Peel some peaches, cut them in halves, 
and put them into a saucepan, with a very little 
water and sugar ; simmer until the peaches are 
tender ; lift the peaches out and set them aside 
to cool ; add a little more sugar to the juice, 
and let it simmer till it thickens. Line a pie- 
plate with paste, lay in the peaches carefully, 
and turn the juice over them ; cover with a 
rich puff paste, or omit the top crust entirely ; 
bake twenty minutes. (See Custard Pie, 
{Peach) ■ 

Plum Pie. — Put the plums in a little sugar 
and water, and simmer until they are tender ; 
then take them out and put them in a dish ; add 
more sugar to the juice, and boil it till it begins 
to thicken ; then turn it over the plums, and 
set aside to cool. When cold, line tin pie-plates 
with a rich paste, fill them with the plums and 
juice, cover with a puff paste, and bake half an 
hour. 

Potato Pasty. — A tin mould of the con- 
struction shown in the cuts, with a perforated 
moveable top, and a small valve to allow the 
escape of the steam, must be had for this pasty, 
which is a good family dish, and which may be 
varied in numberless ways. Arrange at the 
bottom of the mould from two to three pounds 
of mutton cutlets, freed, according to the taste, 
from all or from the greater portion of the fat, 
then washed, lightly dredged on both sides with 
flour, and seasoned with salt and pepper, or 
cayenne. Pour to them sufficient broth or 
water to make the gravy, and add to it at pleas- 
ure a tablespoonful of mushroom catsup or of 
Harvey's sauce. Have ready boiled, and very 
smoothly mashed, with about one ounce of 
butter, and a spoonful or two of milk or cream 




Pasty Mould. 

to each pound, as many good potatoes as will 
form a crust to the pasty of quite three inches 



PIES. 



399 




thick ; put the cover on the mould and arrange 
these equally upon it, leaving them a little 
rough on the surface. 
Bake the pasty in a 
moderate oven from 
three-quarters of an hour 
to an hour and a quarter, 
according to its size and 
its contents. Pin a fold- 
ed napkin neatly round 
the mould, before it is 
served, and have ready 
Pasty Mould. ^ j^q^ (jjgh to receive the 

cover, which must not be lifted off until after 
the pasty is on the table. 

Potato (Irish) Pie. — Boil mealy Irish po- 
tatoes until they are perfectly done, then peel 
them, and mash them through a colander. 
To one pound of the potatoes, put a quart of 
milk, three tablespoonfuls of melted butter, 
four beaten eggs, and a wineglassful of wine: 
sweeten with sugar to taste, and season with 
nutmeg and mace. Bake without any top 
crust, and let them cool before eating. 

Potato (Sweet) Pie. — Boil some mealy 
sweet potatoes till about half done, and when 
qicite cold grate them. Beat half a teacupful of 
butter, and not qviite a teacupful of sugar, to a 
light cream ; add the beaten yolks of four eggs, 
the juice and grated rind of a lemon, a table- 
spoonful of cinnamon, and a teaspoonful of 
nutmeg; stir together, and add by degrees a 
pound of the grated potato, beating them in' 
well ; then add a wineglassful of brandy, and 
the whites of the eggs whipped to a light froth. 
Line some deep pie-plates with a rich paste, 
fill with the mixture, and bake without any top- 
crust. Eat cold. 

Pumpkin Pie. — L Cut the pumpkin in 
half, remove the seeds, and rinse out the in- 
side ; cut into small strips and stew them, over 
a moderate fire, in just enough water to pre- 
vent their burning to the bottom of the pot. 
When it has stewed soft, turn off the water, 
and let the pumpkin steam over a slow fire for 
fifteen or twenty minutes, taking care that it 
does not burn ; remove it from the fire, and 
when cool press it through a sieve. If you 
wish to have the pies very rich, put to a quart 
of the stewed pumpkin two quarts of milk, and 
twelve eggs. If 3'ou like them plain, put to a 
quart of the pumpkin one quart of milk, and 
three eggs. The thicker the pie is of the 
pumpkin, the less will be the number of eggs 
required ; one egg, with a tablespoonful of 
flour, will answer for a quart of the pumpkin, 
if very little milk is used. Sweeten the pumpkin 
with sugar, and very little molasses — the sugar 
and eggs should be beaten together. Ginger, 
the grated rind of a lemon, or nutmeg, is good 
spice for the pies. Pumpkin pies require a 
very hot oven. The rim of the pies is apt to 
get burnt before the inside is baked sufficiently ; 
on this account, it is a good plan to heat the 
pumpkin scalding hot when prepared for pies, 
before turning it into the pie-plates. The pies 
should be baked as soon as the plates are filled, 



or the under crust to the pies will be clammy. 
The more the number of eggs in the pies, the 
less time will be required to bake them. 

If you have pumpkins that have begun to 
decay, or that are frozen, they can be kept 
several months, in cold weather, by cutting the 
good part up, stewing it till soft, then stirring 
it, and adding sugar and molasses, to make it 
very sweet. Make it strong of ginger, then 
scald the seasoning in well. Keep it in a stone 
jar in a cool place ; whenever you wish to use any 
of it for pies, take out the quantity you wish, 
and put milk and eggs to it. 

n. (Rich). To one quart of strained pumpkin 
add two quarts of milk and a pint of cream ; 
one teaspoonful of salt, and four teaspoonfuls 
of ginger ; two teaspoonfuls each of nutmeg, 
mace, and pounded cinnamon, and ten eggs, 
well beaten. Mix together well, and sweeten 
to taste. Line a pie-plate with good paste, fill 
with the pumpkin, and bake (without a top 
crust) till the pie is solid in the centre. 

Squashes may be used instead of pumpkins 
in making these pies. {See SQUASH PUDDING.) 

Raspberry Pie. — Like cherry pie. 

Rhubarb Pie. — L Peel the stalks of rhu- 
barb, and cut them in very small pieces ; Ime a 
deep pie-plate with paste, fill it half full of the 
rhubarb, and put in plenty of sugar; season 
with a little pounded cinnamon; then fill up 
the plate with rhubarb, add more sugar, and a 
teaspoonful of butter ; cover the whole with a 
good crust, and bake till the crust is done ; then 
open the oven door and let the pies stand 
ten or fifteen miiiutes. 

n. Cut the stalks of the rhubarb into small 
pieces, and stew them with some lemon-peel 
till tender ; strain them, sweeten to taste, and 
add eggs, more or less, according as you want 
the pies rich or otherwise. Bake without an 
upper crust. 

Rice Pie. — To a quart of boiling water put 
a small teacupful of rice ; boil it till very soft, 
then take it from the fire, and add a quart of 
cold milk ; add also a teaspoonful of salt, a grat- 
ed nutmeg, and five eggs beaten to a froth ; 
sweeten to taste and press the whole through 
a sieve. Bake in deep pie-plates with an un- 
der-crust and rim of paste but no top-crust. A 
few raisins improve this pie. 

Strawberry Pie. — Pick the berries care- 
fully. Line a pie-plate with good j^aste, put in 
a layer of the strawberries, and sprinkle plen- 
tifully with sugar ; then another layer and more 
sugar, till the plate is full. Fill very full as 
strawberries shrink greatly in cooking. Cover 
with a light crust, and bake in a moderate 
oven. 

Tomato Pie. — Take green tomatoes turn 
boiling water on them, and let them remain in 
it a few minutes ; then strip off the skin, cut the 
tomatoes in slices, and lay them in deep pie- 
plates, lined with paste ; sprinkle sugar over 
each layer, and a little ground ginger ; cover 
with a thick crust, and bake slowly for about 
an hour. Grated lemon-peel and the juice of 
a lemon will improve these pies. 



400 



PIG 



PIGEONS 



PIG. — The young pig is not changed in 
name, like the full-grown hog, by the fact of 
slaughtering; living or dead it is called a 
pig, a roaster, or more commonly a " roasting- 
pig." When desired for a choice dish, it should 
not be less than three nor more than six weeks 
old. The skin of the roasting-pig should be 
white (this color being preferred to all others) 
plump, hard, and well-cleaned. The flanks, 
where it is opened, should be thick and fat, 
and it ought to weigh from eight to fourteen 
pounds. The best season for it is during the 
fall and winter months. 

Baked Pig. — Prepare the pig exactly as for 
roasting; truss and place it in the dish in 
which it is to be sent to the oven, and anoint 
it thickly in every part with whites of eggs 
which have been slightly beaten ; it will require 
no basting, nor furtner attention but turning, 
and will be well crisped by this process. It 
will take from one to two hours to bake. 

Roast Pig. — After the pig has been scalded 
and prepared for the spit, wipe it as dry as 
possible, and put into the body about half a 
pint of fine bread-crumbs, mi.xed with three 
heaped teaspoonfuls of sage, minced very 
small, three ounces of good butter, a large 
saltspoonful of salt, and two-thirds as much of 
pepper or some cayenne. Sew it up with soft, 
but strong cotton ; truss it with the fore legs 
skewered back, and the hind ones forward ; 
lay it to a strong clear fire, but keep it at a 
moderate distance, as it would quickly blister 
or scorch if placed too near. So soon as it has 
become warm, rub it with a bit of butter tied 
in a fold of muslin or thin cloth, and repeat 
this process constantly while it is roasting. 
When the gravy begins to drop from it, put 
basins or small deep tureens under, to catch it 
in. As soon as the pig is of a fine light amber 
brown and the steam draws strongly tovvards 
the fire, wipe it quite dry with a clean cloth, 
and rub a bit of cold butter over it. When it 
is half done, a pig-iron, or in lieu of this, a 
large flat-iron should be hung in the centre of 
the grate, or the middle of the pig will be done 
long before the ends. When it is ready for 
table lay it into a very hot dish, and before the 
spit is withdrawn, take off and open the head 
and split the body in two, chop together quickly 
the stuffing and the brains, put them into half a 
pint of good veal gravy ready thickened, add a 
glass of Madeira or of sherry, and the gravy 
which has dropped from the pig ; pour a small 
portion of this under the roast and serve the 
remainder as hot as possible in a tureen ; a 
little pounded mace and cayenne, with a squeeze 
of lemon-juice, may be added, should the 
flavor require heightening. Fine bread sauce 
and plain gravy should likewise be served with 
it. Some persons still prefer the old-fashioned 
currant sauce to any other ; and many have the 
brains and stuffing stirred into rich melted 
butter, instead of gravy ; but the receipt which 
we have given has usually been so much ap- 
proved, that we can recommend it with some 
confidence, as it stands. Modern taste would 



perhaps be rather in favor of rich brown g^avy 
and thick tomato sauce. 

It will take from an hour and a quarter to 
an hour and three-quarters to roast a pig of 
ordinary size. 

In dishing the pig lay the body flat in the 
middle, and the head and ears at the ends and 




Roast Sucking Pig 

sides. When very pure oil can be obtained 
it is preferable to butter for the basting : it 
should be laid on with a bunch of feathers. 

If the pig is small it is more ornamental to 
dish and send it to the table whole, garnished 
with the green leaves of whatever vegetables 
are in season. 

In carving the pig, cut the head off first; 
then split down the back, take off hams and 
shoulders, and separate the ribs. Serve some 
of the dressing to each person. 

PIGEONS. — The old pigeons are rather 
dry eating as compared to some other birds ; 
but the flesh is well flavored, and if they are 
cooped up and fed well a few days before kill- 
ing it will be more delicate and tender. The 
young pigeons, or squabs, are rightly esteemed 
agreat delicacy, and their nutritiousness makes 
them an excellent food for the sick. They are 
found in the markets all the year round. 

Wild Pigeons, both alive and dead, are to 
be had in the markets throughout the winter 
months, and are generally very plentiful and 
cheap in September and October, when they 
are at their best. The wild squabs, when fat 
and fresh, are a very delicate and savory food ; 
the cooped bird is also good, though the flesh 
is rather dry ; but an old or poor wild-pigeon 
is very indifferent eating, even if well cooked. 
The tame and the wild birds are dressed and 
served alike. 

Baked Pigeons. — Clean, and prepare as for 
roasting; lay them in a bake-pan on their 
backs, and place on the breast of each a thin 
slice of salt pork or bacon ; cover the bottom 
of the pan with cold water, and set in a hot 
oven ; baste often till done. Place the birds 
on their backs in the dish, garnish with water- 
cress, sprinkle with lemon-juice all over, and 
serve warm. 

Boiled Pigeons. — Truss them like boiled 
chickens, drop them into plenty of boiling 
water, and throw in a little salt ; in fifteen 
minutes, lift them out, dish, pour parsley and 
butter over them, and send a tureen of it to 
table with them. 

Broiled Pigeons. — Young pigeons or squabs 



PIGMENTS 



401 



are best for broiling. Clean and wash them 
carefully and then wipe them dry ; split them 
down the back and lay them breast downwards 
on a gridiron over a clear fire ; when brown on 
one side turn them over. Dish them, spread 
them liberally inside and out with butter, and 
season with pepper and salt. This is one of 
the best of dishes for a sick-room when meat 
is permitted ; it is almost always relished. 

Fried Pigeons. — Clean and wash four 
pigeons, and cut each in four pieces ; put two 
ounces of butter in a frying-pan, set it on the 
fire, and when it has melted put the pigeons 
in with two or three sprigs of parsley, a pinch 
of allspice, salt and pepper, and half a pint of 
broth ; take the pigeons off when about half 
done, and as soon as they are cool, dip each 
piece in beaten egg and roll it in bread-crumbs ; 
strain the butter left in the frying-pan, add 
about an ounce more, and fry the birds two or 
three minutes. Serve plain, or, for an orna- 
mental dish, garnish with parsley and water- 
cress. 

Pie (Pigeon). — Clean and wash the pigeons ; 
cut off the heads and necks, and put them 
aside with the livers and gizzards ; boil these 
down for gravy, with a piece of beef, adding 
pepper, salt, and mace. Some cooks put the 
pigeons whole into the pie-dish ; but they are 
more convenient to help at table if divided 
into quarters by first splitting them lengthwise 
down the back and along the breast-bone, and 
then cutting them across. Line a deep pie- 
dish with a thin puff paste ; set an inverted 
cup in the centre of the dish to retain the 
gravy ; at the bottom of the dish put a layer of 
lean beefsteak, or veal, or ham and bacon, as 
may be preferred ; on the steak (or other meat) 
lay the quartered pigeons until the dish is full ; 
have ready some hard-boiled eggs, peeled from 
the shell, halve them crosswise, and use them 
to fill up any hollows that may be left between 
the pigeons, with the view of giving to the 
crust as level an outside surface as possible ; 
pour in the gravy over all, and cover with a 
stout crust. Bake an hour or more in a tol- 
erably quick oven. This pie may be eaten hot, 
but is better cold. 

Wild pigeons are better for making pies than 
the tame ; they should be parboiled a few 
minutes before being cut up. 

Roast Pigeons. — Take off the heads and 
necks, and cut off the toes at the first joint ; 
draw them carefully, and pour plenty of water 
through them ; wipe them dry, and either stuff 
like chicken, or put into each bird a small 




Pigeons Trussed for Roasting. 

bit of butter dipped into a Httle cayenne 

pepper ; truss the wings over the backs, and 

26 



roast them at a brisk fire, basting constantly 
with butter. Roast 20 or 25 minutes if large, 
and about 15 minutes if very young. Serve 
with brown gravy, and a tureen of parsley and 
butter. 

St e-wed Pigeons. — Draw and wash care- 
fully? and stuff like chickens ; put them into a 
good-sized pot, pour in enough of cold water 
to cover them, set on the fire, and stew gently 
for an hour, or until tender ; then season with 
salt, pepper, a tablespoonful of butter, a little 
sweet marjoram, and a few blades of mace ; 
stew gently five minutes longer, then stir in a 
tablespoonful of browned flour, and boil up 
once more ; dish, pour the hot gravy over 
them, and serve at once. 

PIGMENTS —Practical directions for ordi- 
nary house-painting will be found under Paint- 
ing. The pigments or colors most com- 
monly employed by house-painters to mix with 
the white-lead, are the following : — 

Blacks. — Lamp black, the soot of oil burned 
in lamps. Ivory black, ivory or bone burned 
to charcoal. Blue black, the charcoal of ivy 
twigs, or some other plants. 

Blues. — Prussian bhie is a preparation of 
Prussic acid and iron. Blue verditure, a 
color from copper precipitated upon chalk. 
Indigo, a color extracted from plants in India. 
Small, a glass colored by cobalt, and ground 
to a fine powder. 

Browns. — Burned -umber, a native earth. 
Asphallum, a native bitumen. Bistre, a kind 
of soot from peat smoke. Cologne earth, a 
native pigment dug up. 

Greens. — Verdigris, a carbonate of copper. 
Prussian green, a composition similar to the 
blue of that name. Terre vexte, a native 
earth. 

Orange Color. — Orange lake, the tinging 
part of anatto. 

Reds. — Vermilion, a bright scarlet prepared 
from sulphur and quicksilver, being a sul- 
phuret of mercury. Red lead is lead calcined 
till it becomes a red oxide. Venetian 7-ed \s 3. 
native ochre. Spanish brown, also a native 
earth. Lake is alumina, the basis of alum, 
tinged with a dye from cochineal or Brazil 
wood : it differs much in quality. Rose pink 
is similar to the last, but inferior. Red ochre 
is produced by burning yellow,ochre. Burned 
Terra di Viejina, the raw Sienna burned. 

"Whites. — Flake white, a superior ceruse. 
White-lead, carbonate of lead. 

Yellows. — Yellow ochre, called often stone 
ochre, a native earth of various qualities. 
Dutch pink, chalk colored by French berries. 
King's yellow, arsenic combined with sulphur. 
Naples yellow, Raw Terra di Sienna, a native 
earth. 

Compound Colors. — It would be an endless 
task to attempt to enumerate all the colors 
and tints produced by the mixture of other 
colors ; but the following table showing the 
simplest method of making the various tints 
most frequently used will probably prove 
serviceable. To produce. 



402 



PILES 



Straw Color 
Silver Gray 
Rose Color I 
Pink f 

Pea Green 
Lead Color 
Wood Color 
Brilliant Green 
Bright Green 
Drab Color 
Buff Color 
Salmon Color 
Flesh Color 
Dark Green 
Brown 
Purple 
Pearl Color 
Orange 
Olive 



add Chrome Yellow to White Lead. 
" Lampblack and Indigo to White. 

" Carmine or Lake to White. 



Chrome Green to White. 
Lampblack to White. 
Raw Umber to White. 
Emerald Green to White. 
Paris Green to White. 
Umber to White. 
Yellow Ochre to White. 
Red, Umber and Yellow to White. 
Carmine to Straw Color. 
Black to Chrome Green. 
Red and Black to suit. 
Red to light Blue. 
Blue to Lead Color. 
Vermilion to Chrome Yellow. 
Chrome Yellow, Blue, Black, and 
Red. 

Chestnut " White to Brown. 

Chocolate " Yellow to Brown. 

Cream White " White, tinted with Red and Yel- 

low. 
French White " White, tinted with Purple Color. 

Pearl White " White, tinted with Blue and Pur- 

ple. 
Ashes of Roses " White, tinted with Lead Color 

and Lake. 
French Gray " White, tinted with Black and Pur- 

ple. 

PIKE {See Pickerel). — Pike are simply 
large-sized pickerel. 

PILES. — These are swellings, situated in the 
region of the anus, which by their size and 
their liability to irritation and inflammation, 
cause much trouble and uneasiness, and some- 
times intense pain. There are two kinds of 
piles, the external and the internal. External 
piles consist of a collection, just without the 
margin of the anus, of rounded hard tumors 
covered with thickened skin, and of prominent 
ridges of skin. These growths at first cause 
little or no pain, but as they increase in size 
and number the patients complain of a diffi- 
culty in passing the motions, of bearing down 
pains, of a sense of weight about the anus, and 
of a general feehng of discomfort. After a 
time one or more of these piles may become 
irritated and inflamed, and then they give rise 
to very acute pain, with throbbing and a sense 
of great heat, and to a constant desire to go to 
stool. These symptoms pass off in the course 
of three or four days, but the attacks are fre- 
quently renewed and the piles gradually en- 
large and invade the lower portion of the 
intestine. This affection originates in disten- 
sion of the veins about the anus in consequence 
of obstruction to circulation ; but it is met with 
generally in thoje engaged in sedentary occu- 
pations, and those who, in consequence of 
indulgence in highly-seasoned food and alco- 
holic drinks, suffer from congestion of the 
liver. Much riding on horse-back, long-con- 
tinued standing and constipation, are also 
causes of external piles. The presence within 
the anus of largQ rounded and soft tumors 
covered by red mucous membrane is called 
internal piles, which are much more serious. 
These internal piles when large come down 
through the anus from time to time, generally 
when the patient is at stool, and become en- 
gorged with blood and very painful ; evacuation 
of the bowels gives rise to a burning or throb- 
bing sensation, and as the piles increase in 
size becomes more and more difficult ; a dull 



pain across the loins is complained of, and oc- 
casionally the urine cannot be passed in conse- 
quence of irritation at the neck of the bladder. 
The most serious symptom is bleeding, which 
occurs during evacuation of the bowels, when 
the piles are protruded and compressed by the 
anus ; the blood is red and arterial, and is often 
passed in considerable quantity. Patients often 
remain ignorant during a long period of this 
frequently renewed loss, and finally suffer from 
extreme debility, become irritable and restless, 
and present a blanched countenance and a weak 
and quick pulse. In addition to the discharge 
of blood there is in most cases a constant flow 
of thick, slimy or purulent fluid. On exam- 
ination of the region of the anus there will be 
seen as the patient bears down, one or more 
rounded protrusions of a dark red or livid blue 
color, and varying from the size of a currant to 
that of a small chestnut. These growths, like 
external piles, are sometimes inflamed. Then, 
in addition to intense pain and other severe 
local symptoms, there is high fever. Inflam- 
mation of internal piles sometimes ends in 
mortification and in expulsion of the mass of 
abnormal growths from the rectum. The 
causes of internal are similar to those of ex- 
ternal piles. Congestion of the liver causing 
venous obstruction in the intestines, and direct 
irritation of the walls of the intestines, are the 
conditions which most frequently give rise to 
this affection. The latter condition is often 
due to an immoderate use of strong purgatives, 
especially aloes. 

Treatment. — The general treatment of piles, 
both internal and external, consists in remov- 
ing congestion of the veins of the liver and 
intestine-s, in keeping up the strength and 
health of the patient, and in avoiding or alle- 
viating the results of certain conditions favor- 
able to the development of the disease. The 
patient should restrict himself to a carefully 
regulated and temperate diet, and abstain from 
highly seasoned dishes, pastry, and spirits ; 
wine and beer ought not to be taken except in 
moderation. Walking exercise is to be re- 
commended, and during the summer months, 
sitting in the open air, but violent exercise, 
should be avoided. The affected region sliould 
be well bathed every morning with cold water 
and then carefully dried. To external pHes' 
may be applied lead lotion or a weak solution of 
alum. For both external and internal piles the' 
compound gall ointment is a very useful appli- 
cation. When internal piles protrude after 
8very evacuation, they should then be sponged 
over with cold water or a solution of alum, or be 
smeared with gall ointment. Great attention 
should be paid to the state of the bowels, which 
ought to be kept in daily action by some mild 
aperient, as rhubarb in the form of a pill to be 
taken at night, or confection of senna, castor oil, 
or seidlitz to be taken in the morning before 
breakfast. The half-grain doses of aloes, taken 
three times a day, often prove curative. In cases 
of inflammation and great pain in external and 
internal piles, leeches should be applied to the 



PIMENTO 



PIPES 



403 



skin at some distance from the anus, and bran 
poultices or poppy-head fomentations be placed 
over the whole of the affected region. When a 
patient with external piles complains of almost 
intolerable pain in one pile which is found to 
be swollen, tense, and hvid, an incision into 
this with the point of a sharp knife will often 
let out a small dark-red clot of blood, and give 
immediate and total relief. By these means 
the bad effects of both external and internal 
piles may be much relieved, or, as occasionally 
takes places, the disease may be permanently 
cured. When, however, in spite of careful at- 
tention to diet, to local ablution, and to the 
working and venous circulation of the abdo- 
minal viscera, the affection increases in extent 
and intensity, it will become necessary to un- 
dergo some surgical operation in order to ob- 
tain permanent relief. External piles are gene- 
rally treated by excision, the tumors, together 
with the adjacent ridges of thickened skin, 
being removed with large curved scissors. In- 
ternal piles have been treated by various 
operative methods ; many surgeons apply a 
ligature round the base or contracted portion of 
each pile ; other surgeons prefer to cut away the 
pile and then to apply to the raw surface the 
red-hot iron. Fuming nitric acid is often ap- 
plied to the surfaces of small internal piles. 
In cutting operations upon external piles, the 
surgeon, whilst endeavoring to obtain for the 
patient effectual relief, is careful not to take 
away too much of the skin lest contraction of 
the anus should follow the shrinking of the 
scar. In these operations, but more especially 
in those consisting in excision or incision of 
internal piles the bleeding is very free, and, 
if it should recur in the absence of a medical 
man, dangerous to life. 

PILLAW. {Sci; Entrees.) 

PILLS. {See Drugs.) 

PIMENTO. — The original name of the berry 
commonly called Allspice. (See Allspice.) 

PIMPERNEL. — The common pimpernel (A. 
Arvensis)^ well known as "the poor-man's 
weather-glass," is a little trailing plant with a 
pretty scarlet flower and violet mouth, common 
in the fields throughout the country. The 
flowers open about eight o'clock in the morn- 
ing, and close in the afternoon, and they are so 
sensitive to light that in cloudy weather, espe- 
cially when there is moisture in the air, they 
remain closed altogether. Like their glorious 
sisters, the morning-glories, which share with 
them the misfortune of being a native wild- 
flower, the pimpernels have been crowded out 
of our gardens to make room for more showy 
and novel plants, and are seldom seen in culti- 
vation. A few seeds sown in the early spring 
will produce a constant succession of the 
curious little flowers year after year. 

PIMPLES. — These are simply a surface 
eruption indicating a bad condition of the blood, 
and their treatment is to be sought in such 
medicines and such a course of diet as will 
eliminate the objectionable matter from the 
system rather than in local applications, which 



in most cases are ineffective or injurious, or 
both. The most favorably known of these 
local applications — Sir William Knighton'' s 
Lotion — is made as follows : — Mix together 
half a dram of liquor of potass and three ounces 
of spirits of wine. Apply this to the pimples 
with a camel's hair pencil; if it causes in- 
flammation or irritation, add one-half pure 
water to it. 

PINKS. — This is a popular name for the 
flowers more commonly called carnations, and 
is applied to the same order of plants as the 
latter ; but there is one variety — the Picotee 
or Paisley pinks — which is not usually ranked 
among the carnations. The culture of the 
Picotee is the same as that of the carnation 
{See Carnation); but the Picotee is the 
hardier of the two, and will endure the coldest 
winters without protection, except at the ex- 
treme north. When the flower-stems are ten 
or more inches high, they should be supported 
with stakes, and when the flowers appear, if 
there is danger of their bursting the calyx, and 
thus spoiling their symmetry, it is well to tie a 
bit of colored worsted yarn about them ; this 
gives support, and retains the leaves in place. 
The Picotee is a profuse bloomer, and on this 
account makes a desirable house-plant. 

PINE- APPLE.— This delicious tropical fruit 
is very abundant in our markets during the sea- 
son for it, which commences about the ist of 
April and lasts until September. There are 
two kinds of pine-apples, known among dealers 
as the binVs-eye and the sngar-loafj the first 
is considered best for dessert, etc., the latter 
for preserving in different ways. In buying 
the fruit for immediate consumption, select 
those which look yellowish on the smooth sur- 
faces, though this is not a conclusive proof of 
ripeness. If one of a lot proves green set the 
rest aside and keep them a few days ; they are 
not likely to spoil and will soon mellow. No 
pine-apple should be eaten unless it is fully 
ripe, as the unripe juices have caustic proper- 
ties, and are liable to irritate the coat of the 
stomach. It is customary in this country to 
cut pine-apples in horizontal slices ; but in the 
West Indies they are shced obliquely, in the 
direction of the pips. They are brought to 
our markets from Havana, Nassau, Matanzas, 
Jamaica, etc. Their usual weight is from two 
to five pounds. {See Ice-cream, Marmalade, 
and Preserves.) 

Pine-apple Water. — This is excellent for 
flavoring, and it also makes an agreeable 
beverage. Peel and slice a moderate-sized 
pine-ap"ple, and pound it to a pulp in a mortar ; 
put this into a bowl, and pour in a pint of boil- 
ing syrup ; add the juice of a lemon, stir to- 
gether, cover up, and set it aside for two hours ; 
then filter it through a silk sieve or jelly-bag, 
and add a quart of clear cold water. 

PIPES (Gas and Water). In the article on 
the House we have already spoken of gas- 
pipes and of the lead pipes which are now 
universally employed for small water-pipes. 
For the larger pipes, especially where water is 



404 



PISTACHIO NUTS 



PLASTERING 



to be conveyed for long distances, cast-iron is 
superior in strength and durability to any other 
material. The popular idea that iron is in- 
jurious to the salubrity of water is founded on 
an error ; for a thin black oxide soon forms 
upon the inside of the pipes, forming a sort of 
black japan, and this protects them from the 
action of the water. If the water contains 
lime the latter is deposited as a fine crust over 
the inside, and defends them from corrosion ; 
and there is no danger that iron pipes will fill 
up with this deposit, since the water only de- 
posits the stony matter from the attraction of 
the iron, which being once covered with a slight 
thickness of the lime, the water no longer has 
access to the iron. Some have put lime into 
the water purposely at first, when it was found 
that the water was so corrosive as to become 
tinged in running through iron pipes newly 
laid down ; a rapid current of lime-water being 
passed through the whole length for several 
days, the pipes became coated on the inside 
with calcareous matter. At first, after this, the 
water tasted of lime, but it became pure again 
in a short time. Pottery pipes preserve the 
water perfectly pure; but they cannot bear 
much pressure are very liable to be broken by 
accident, and are expensive. {Sec Leak.) 

PISTACHIO NUTS. — These nuts are 
brought from Sicily and Syria, where they grow 
upon a kind of turpentine-tree. They are oblong 
and pointed, about the size and shape of a fil- 
bert, and have a kernel of a pale greenish 
color. Their taste is very agreeable, much re- 
sembling that of sweet almonds ; but they are 
sweeter, have more flavor, and are more oily. 
This latter quality renders them liable to be- 
come rancid, and they do not keep well ; con- 
sequently they are not imported in any con- 
siderable quantity. No nut is superior to them 
for dessert. 

PITCH. — Pitch is simply tar, from which the 
essential oil has been driven off by boiling. 
Tar differs from common turpentine in having 
been extracted by heat and blackened in the 
process, whereas the latter preserves its natural 
color ; but both contain the essential oil of 
turpentine, though this can only be obtained 
pure from the turpentine. To convert tar into 
pitch, boiling is all that is necessary. 

PLAICE. — Same as Spotted Tiirbot. {See 
Turbot). 

PLAID. — This term is often applied to the 
color of stuffs, whereas it means a peculiar 
ancient dress worn in the Highlands of Scotland, 
and was merely an oblong piece of cloth wrai> 
ped round the body to protect the wearer from 
rain and cold. It is always made of a check- 
ered pattern of various colors, there called 
Tartan. Tartan is the name of the color; 
plaid is that of the dress. Instead, there- 
fore, of saying " plaid ribbons," we should say, 
" Tartan ribbons." The true Scotch plaid is a 
coarse, strong stuff, well calculated to keep 
out the wet, and still used in Scotland, especially 
in the Highlands. The stripes and squares 
formerly varied in their patterns and colors 



according to each clan ; but this distinction is 
now little attended to. Tartan, or, as it is 
called, plaid, of wool, is manufactured both in 
this country and in England, and is much used 
as a cheap, warm, and durable material for 
cloaks, dresses, etc. It comes in pieces, gen- 
erally a yard wide. It should be shrunk care- 
fully before cutting. 

PLANTAIN. — The plantain is allied to the 
banana, with which it is commonly confounded. 
It is about the size of ordinary cucumbers, but 
pointed at both ends, and grows in clusters 
which sometimes weigh as much as forty 
pounds. When ripe, it turns yellow, is sweet, 
of a mealy substance, tasting something like a 
melon, luscious, and dissolving in the mouth. 
It is very nutritious, is one of the most whole- 
some of fruits, and makes an excellent dessert. 
It may also be fried or roasted, converted into 
tarts, or preserved as a sweetmeat. Plantains 
are brought from the West Indies, and are in 
season from February to September. 

PLASTER FIGURES. (To give the ap- 
pearance of marble or to varnish.) — Dissolve 
one ounce of pure curd soap, grated, in four 
ounces of water, in a glazed earthen vessel; 
add one ounce of white wax, cut in thin slices. 
When the whole is melted and mixed together, 
it is ready for use. Having dried the plaster 
figure before the fire, susjDend it by a string, 
and dip it in the mixture ; when it has become 
nearly dry, dip it a second time, and that gen- 
erally suffices ; cover it carefully from the dust 
for a week ; then rub gently with soft cotton- 
wool, and it will have a brilliant shining gloss. 
A coat of cream tinted paint will be found to 
answer the same purpose. 

To give a metallic surface to plaster figures, 
take half an ounce of tin and half an ounce of 
bismuth ; melt in a crucible ; then add half an 
ounce of mercury. When perfectly combined, 
remove the mixture from the fire, and let it 
cool. Mix with the white of an egg, and it 
forms a beautiful varnish. The figure to be 
dipped in it, and polished when dry. 

Either of these methods will prevent that 
peculiar decay and discoloration to which the 
best of plaster casts are liable when exposed 
lo the air and dust, and especially to dampness. 
PLASTERING. — The business of the plas- 
terer begins as soon as the brickwork is thor- 
oughly dry, and not before, otherwise there 
will be danger of the drying and finishing of 
the house being protracted. The process of 
covering the house-walls with plaster is called 
rendering. The first coat laid on consists of 
good, common mortar, mixed with hair from 
the tan-yards, to prevent its cracking. The 
second coat, called setting, is made of a finer 
mortar, consisting of lime and fine sand. The 
lime used in this case is calledyfw^ stuff, and is 
prepared by slacking quicklime with very little 
water, and afterwards saturating it with water 
to excess, and putting it into tubs to settle and 
let the water evaporate. The use of the second 
coat of plastering is to give a perfectly smooth 
surface for coloring or papering. Sometimes, 



PLATED WARE 



PLEURISY 



405 



if the work is required to dry or set very 
soon, a little plaster of Paris is mixed with it, and 
it is then called ^a7^^^<-/ j//(/i^ In order to se- 
cure the perfect dryness of plastering in brick 
houses, the walls should be battened. This is 
fixing on Ihem upright slips of wood called 
battens, on which laths are nailed close together 
horizontally, thus leaving a cavity between the 
laths and the walls. The plastering being laid 
upon these laths, no wet or dampness that may 
penetrate the walls can reach the plaster ; this 
kind of work is called lath and plaster. The 
lath and plaster for partitions and ceilings is 
put on in the same manner. 

PLATED "WARE.— The best plated-ware 
has received three " coats," as they are called,, 
of the silver, and in appearance and durability 
is quite equal to the solid silver-ware. The 
demand for cheap goods, however, and the 
competition between rival manufacturers has 
rendered it common to prepare ware for the 
market with only one coat or even without any 
genuine silver at all upon it. For this reason, 
the following process of testing the genuineness 
of silver-plating on metals may be of value ; it 
should be applied to all plated-ware of which 
the price is very low. Cleanse the metallic sur- 
face carefully, and place upon it a drop of a 
cold, saturated solution of bichromate of potash, 
in nitric acid; wash it off immediately. On 
silver, a blood-red spot of chromate of silver is 
formed ; on German-silver, or Britannia-metal, 
the stain is brown or black. Clean plated-ware 
as directed for silver-ware. 

PLEURISY. — An inflammation of the pleura 
or serous membrane, which covers the lungs 
and lines the greater part of the cavity of the 
chest. In health this membrane is quite 
smooth, and is lubricated by a small quantity 
of fluid, so that the lungs can move upon it 
with the least possible amount of friction ; but 
when it is inflamed, it becomes roughened, and 
in most cases a large quantity of fluid is 
secreted, in consequence of which the lung on 
that side is compressed against the spine and 
there is much distress in breathing, as there is 
then only one lung available for the purposes 
of respiration. It follows that in those cases 
in which both sides are affected with pleurisy 
there is imminent danger of suffocation, as the 
lungs are unable to aerate the blood properly ; 
and so, unless relief be afforded, or the inflam- 
mation subside quickly, death is very likely to 
ensue. Fortunately double pleurisy is of very 
rare occurrence. The most common cause of 
pleurisy is exposure to wet and cold ; but it 
may come on after an accident in which the 
ribs are broken, or from stabbing or gunshot 
.wounds, and other external injuries. In nearly 
all cases of pneumonia, or inflammation of the 
lung itself, there is more or less pleurisy ; but 
then very little fluid is effused. The first 
symptoms of pleurisy are a severe catching pain 
in the affected side, and this becomes worse in 
taking a deep inspiration, or coughing; the 
pain is usually confined to one spot, and on 
listening there one may hear a rubbing sound 



due to the roughened surfaces moving on each 
other. There is also a feeling of weakness 
and lassitude, the pulse quickens, the tongue is 
coated white ; there may be headache, thirst, 
and loss of appetite ; the temperature of the 
body is raised, and the usual febrile symptoms 
appear. In a day or two the breathing be- 
comes worse, because effusion of fluid is now 
going on ; the patient is obliged to keep to his 
bed, and lie on his back in a diagonal position, 
so as to enable the healthy lung to expand, 
while the one affected is too sore to rest on. 
These symptoms go on for several days with- 
out much change being observed, but they 
vary in intensity according to the amount of 
the effusion ; in some very bad cases there is 
much distress and anxiety of countenance, the 
respirations are quick and shallow, and the 
face pale, while the lips are livid; any exertion, 
as moving in bed, or talking, increases the 
discomfort. In less severe cases the distress 
lessens as the fever abates, and the breathing 
becomes more regular. Then comes the time 
when the fluid begins to be reabsorbed, and 
when the lung commences to expand again; 
but this takes up a very variable time, so that 
no rule can be laid down as to the duration 
of a pleurisy, some being of a very slight na- 
ture, while others may take weeks or even 
months before they are really cured. Long 
before this, however, the severe symptoms 
have abated, and the chief trouble is shortness 
of breath on any exertion. In most cases the 
patient is liable to pain in the chest afterwards, 
and to a recurrence of pleurisy on being over- 
heated, or on exposure to cold and wet. 

Treatfnent. — The patient must be at once 
placed in bed in an atmosphere of about 60° 
-65° Fahr., and the air should be tolerably 
moist. This can be effected by boiling some 
water in a kettle in the room, and occasionally 
letting the steam escape. The important 
thing is to avoid any great variations of tem- 
perature, and especially any chills to the sur- 
face of the body. Nor should the patient be 
moved about from one room to another, if such 
movement cause any distress, nor should he be 
allowed to talk more than is necessary. Three 
or four leeches applied to the spot where the 
pain is greatest will afford much relief, and 
when the bites have finished bleeding, a large 
hot linseed-poultice should be applied to the 
chest; but care must be taken that the bleeding 
does not recommence on applying the heat, 
as too much blood may in that way be drawn, 
and tend to exhaust the patient. Cotton-wool 
may also be applied for a similar purpose. It 
is best to have a mattress on the bed, rather 
than a feather-bed ; as the body is then kept 
cooler, and it is easier to get at the patient. 
Light food must be given, and milk is generally 
borne the easiest in the early or febrile stage 
of the disease ; light puddings, eggs, beef-tea, 
broth, jelly and fish maybe given when the ap- 
petite returns and the tongue begins to clean. 
Stimulants should be given very sparingly, as 
in the majority of cases they are not needed, 



406 



PLOVER 



PNEUMONIA 



and if given in excess tend to depress the 
patient and hurry the breathing. Restleseness 
at night is a common symptom. Opiates in 
doses sufficient to relieve pain are well borne, 
and by diminishing the difficulty of breathing 
contribute thus to the relief of the disease. Blis- 
ters should not be applied in the early stage 
when there is fever, but they must be used 
later on, so as to hasten the absorption of the 
fluid ; or tincture of iodine may be painted over 
the affected side for the same purpose. In 
cases of double pleurisy it may be necessary to 
tap the chest and let the fluid out, and in some 
cases bleeding from the arm may then be at- 
tended with benefit. During convalescence the 
patient should be careful not to venture out too 
soon, especially if the weather is cold, foggy, 
or damp. He should sit up at first in the after- 
noon, and may go from one warm room to 
another ; but no exertion must be persisted in 
which hurries the breathing. Tonics may then 
be given to improve the general health, and the 
ordinary diet may be resumed. All patients 
should be careful for some weeks to avoid ex- 
posure to bad weather, should avoid being out 
after sunset if possible, should not get over- 
heated, and should always wear flannel next the 
skin. 

PLOVER.— One of the best of the small 
birds for table purposes. There are several 
varieties of the plover, all bearing a gen- 
eral resemblance to each other, and being 
about equally desirable. The ^ray plover 
(sometimes called grass, field, or upland 
plover) are generally found in the markets 
in June, July, August and September; they 
are considered best in the two latter months. 
Frost plover {greenback or golde?i plover) are 
sometimes called " frost-bird " and sometimes 
'■^plover.''' They appear occasionally in num- 
bers in April and May, and again in September 
and October, when they are in fine condition, 
and their flesh well-flavored. Ring plover, or 
ring-neck, are abundant in the markets in Sep- 
tember and October, when they are considered 
best for the table. Piping plover or beach 
bird, are found in small numbers from April to 
October, but in September and October they 
are very fat, and their flesh is excellent. Pre- 
pare, cook, and serve Plover as directed for 
Reed-birds. 

PLUMES. {See Feathers.) 

PLUMS. — There are numerous varieties of 
this fine fiuit, the best being the well-known 
green-gage which ripens about the middle of 
August and lasts until October. Besides the 
green-gage, there is the Washington, the Jef- 
ferson, white and purple Damsons, the white, 
red, blue, and frost gage, the purple and yellow 
egg, magnum bonum, apricot, and the common 
blue, or horse-plum. The choicer varieties of 
plums make a most delicious dessert, and the 
inferior kinds make excellent pies, puddings, 
marmalades, preserves, and sweetmeats. Eaten 
in moderate quantities plums are very whole- 
some ; but excess in the use of them is liable 
to produce colic, diarrhoea, or even cholera. I 



The danger is greater if they are eaten before 
becoming perfectly ripe. Plums, in some of 
the varieties, are generally found in the mar- 
kets from the latter part of July to the middle 
of October. {See Marmalades, Pies, Pre- 
serves, and Puddings.) 

PLUSH.— A kind of stuff having a nap 
resembling that of velvet on one side, composed 
regularly of a woof of a single woollen thread, 
and a double warp — one of wool, of two threads 
twisted, and the other of goat's or camel's hair. 
Some plushes, in imitation of these, are made 
of other materials. Plush was formerly much 
used for liveries, but is now out of fashion and 
seldom used for clothing in any form. That of 
English manufacture is best. 

PNEUMONIA. — This is the name given to 
inflammation of the substance of the lungs. It 
may come on of itself as the result of exposure, 
or it may follow in the course of some other 
disease, and the symptoms may then differ some- 
what. Pneumonia is often associated with the 
fevers, as typhus, typhoid, and measles, also 
with some blood disorders, and in these cases 
it adds to the gravity of the original disease ; 
but the main symptoms of pneumonia are then 
either masked or modified by the associated 
disease under which the patient is suffering. 
Simple, uncomplicated pneumonia of one lung, 
or part of the lung, is not a formidable affection, 
and more than nine-tenths recover with proper 
treatment. The first syjnptoms of pneumonia 
are shivering or severe headache, pain on one 
side of the chest, furred tongue, and a high 
temperature of the body; in the course of a 
day or two the skin becomes very hot, the lips 
dry, and the tongue covered with a white, 
moist fur ; the patient breathes quickly, and is 
glad to remain quiet in bed, and not be dis- 
turbed by talking ; he feels a sense of pain and 
tightness on the affected side of the chest, has 
a troublesome cough, and spits up frothy, viscid 
phlegm, tinged with blood ; the urine is highly 
colored and diminished in quantity. In chil- 
dren the nostrils are dilated at every inspiration, 
and they breathe very rapidly. In four or five 
days the symptoms are about at their height ; 
on the seventh or eighth day, in most cases of 
recovery, the temperature falls rapidly, the 
febrile symptoms abate, and the patient feels 
much better ; his tongue cleans, the appetite 
returns, and the breathing is easier. For some 
time, however, he feels short of breath, and 
several weeks may elapse before the lung clears 
up and becomes sound again. In severe cases 
so speedy a termination must not be looked for ; 
the inflammation may spread to the other lung, 
causing great distress of breathing, and bring- 
ing on a livid appearance of the lips ; there may 
be much delirium, especially in those of in- 
temperate habits ; and occasionally the inflam- 
mation does not clear up at all, but passes into 
one of the forms of consumption. 

Treatment. — The patient must at once be 
put to bed in a room with a temperature of from 
60° to 65° Fahr., and the air should not be too 
dry. Hot linseed-meal poultices or hot stupes 



POISONS AND ANTIDOTES 



407 



I 



must be applied to the chest, and changed as 
often as they become cool. If there is much pain, 
a few leeches to the side will give relief. For 
pneumonia the same rules as to diet, medicines, 
and precautions during convalescence must be 
observed as are described in the article on 
Pleurisy. In very severe cases, the treat- 
ment must vary with the special requirements 
of each case ; and on these, of course, only a 
competent physician can decide. 

POISONS AND ANTIDOTES.— Give an 
emetic instantly ! For special poisons look for 
their names. When poison has been swallowed 
it is very difificult to fix upon any particular 
symptoms as indicative of it ; but it may be 
surmised that an individual has swallowed 
poison if, shortly after food or drink, he be 
seized with violent parn in the stomach, or with 
Yomiting or purging, especially if convulsions 
or paralysis are present, or if the individual 
suffer from great giddiness or delirum, or if 
there be a strong tendency to sleep. Whenever 
these symptoms appear, and especially when 
any poison is known to have been taken, 
three things have to be done: — ist. To 
get rid of the poison. 2nd, To stop its effects. 
3rd, To remedy the evil it has done. It does 
not matter which of the first two is attended to 
first. To save time is the important thing; 
"whatever is readiest is best" is emphatically 
the rule in dealing with poisoning ; better the 
poorest remedy given at the moment, than the 
very best given an hour later. There is this, 
however, to be said, as far as the general 
public are concerned, that they always have the 
means of getting rid of the poison by them, but 
not always the means of stopping its action 
or remedying its effects ; so that, generally 
speaking, the former should be attempted in 
the absence of medical aid. A considerable 
number of all poisons are self-evacuating ; 
having been taken, they produce vomiting and 
purging and are thereby eliminated. In such 
cases ail that it is necessary to do is to aid the 
self-evacuating process ; especially to aid the 
vomiting, and so perhaps get rid of the poison 
altogether. Ordinarily two different methods 
are employed to get rid of the substance in the 
stomach : these are the stomach-pump and vom- 
iting. It requires considerable skill to use the 
stomach-pump, and usually where one can be 
obtained, the skilled aid necessary for its em- 
ployment can also be obtained. In passing the 
tube down into the stomach the important rule 
is to use as little force as possible, and to make 
the point of the tube slide along the posterior 
wall of the gullet. Grievous accidents have re- 
sulted from unskilful use of this instrument, and 
so any one not acquainted with it and attempting 
to use it should attend implicitly to the foregoing 
rule. There are, however, certain cases — as 
when violent corrosives have been swollowed — 
where the tissues are so much softened that 
an attempt to pass the stomach-pump would 
very likely end in driving it through the tissues, 
and in these cases such attempts must be 
avoided altogether. The advantage of the 



stomach-pump is that it enables you to wash 
the stomach out and empty it without any action 
on the part of the stomach itself. In cases 
where the stomach is paralysed, as it sometimes 
is in opium poisoning, this is of very great im- 
portance. 

In cases where, from whatever cause, the 
stomach-pump cannot be employed, we have 
left to us the self-evacuation known as vomiting. 
This sometimes is one of the results of the 
poison itself ; in others it must be excited. If, 
as most irritants do, the poison have given rise 
to vomiting, it may only be necessary to en- 
courage it. This is best done by tickling the 
fauces with a feather, and by copious draughts 
of luke-warm water. This process, though ex- 
hausting, must be continued until everything 
seems expelled from the stomach. Sometimes, 
however, there is no vomiting, and then some- 
thing must be given to cause the stomach to get 
rid of its contents. Here the same rule that 
the readiest is best prevails. It is useless, or 
worse than than useless, to wait till an emetic is 
brought from the druggist, if that be far away the 
resources of the locality must suffice. Three 
things may be made use of as emetics, which 
are to be found almost everywhere. These are 
mustard, salt, and smelling-salts, besides the 
stimulation of the fauces with the finger, and 
the use of lukewarm water. Smelling-salts are 
not suitable for all cases, but are good in a 
certain number of cases of poisoning, especially 
by vegetable substances, which give rise to 
narcotic symptoms. The dose of this is a tea- 
spoonful given in a pint of lukewarm water, 
and followed up by copious draughts of the 
same. Mustard is a better emetic, and is gen- 
erally to be had ; its use is limited to those 
cases where there is no violent irritating effect 
produced by the poison. Usually it suits best 
where there is a sedative effect produced by 
the poison, and the stomach requires a stimu- 
lant to call its action into full play. The dose 
of mustard is a tablespoonful mixed up with a 
pint of lukewarm water, and followed by copious 
draughts of the same. Salt can always be had, 
and a handful of this dissolved in water will 
usually suffice to produce copious vomiting, 
and so the evacuation of the stomach contents. 
Ipecacuanha is a most useful emetic in cases 
where the stomach has been already irritated, 
and it is desirable to effectually get rid of any 
irritant substance which may remain. It is 
best given as ipecacuanha wine ; half an ounce 
for a dose. 

When the poison has been administered 
locally, as in snake-bite, it may be necessary to 
scarify the wound, so as to make it bleed freely, 
to suck it, and, if necessary, to apply a ligature 
round the limb, higher up and nearer the heart, 
if the wound be so situated as to admit of this, 
so as to prevent the passage of the poison up- 
wards towards the heart and nervous centres. 
Washing, too, should be freely employed, es- 
pecially by means of a heavy stream of water. 

Frequently, however, the simple plan of get- 
ting rid of the poison will not suffice. Its effects 



408 



POISON PLANTS. 



have to be neutralized or remedied. That 
means practically, that some antidote must be 
given. Now, no single antidote is suited to all 
emergencies, — the antidote must be adapted to 
the particular poison ; the subject, therefore, 
naturally distributes itself, at this point, into 
the different poisonous substances which are 
used about the house in one shape or another. 
These are treated of separately in their proper 
places. 

POISON PLANTS.— The only poison 
plants worth taking into account in the popu- 
lated parts of the United States, are the 
poison ivy (sometimes called Poison Oak) and 
the poison sumach (sometimes called Poison 
Dogwood). 




Poison Ivy. 



(Poison Oak) in flower, Branch, ^ natural size- 
Below, berry of the natural size. 



Poison ivy appears in two forms. One is 
a low shrub seldom over three feet high, ex- 
cept in California where it is said to have 
attained the dimensions of a tree, with a 
trunk six inches thick. In this form of a 
shrub or tree, the plant is generally known 
as Poison Oak. In its other forms it is 
a vine, clambering over walls or trees, some- 
times to a great height. In either form, the 
leaves grow in threes, as in the cut, and in June 
and July it ordinarily puts forth greenish white 
berries. When wounded, it exudes a milky 
juice which becomes black on exposure to the 
air, and does not wash off. 

Poison Sumach. — A plant known also as 
swamp sumach and as poison dogwood. It 
flourishes principally in marshy ground in 
various parts of the United States and other 
countries where the temperature is not exces- 
sive in either direction. It is not to be con- 
founded with the beautiful plant generally 
known as sumach, with light green leaves and 
bunches of bright red berries. 

Poison sumach is a beautiful shrub or 
small tree varying in height from six to eigh- 
teen feet. The bark is dark grey. The 
flowers (which of course are not visible upon 
it at all seasons) are small and of a greenish 
white color, and it bears nearly round pale- 
green or whitish berries. These are gen- 
erally to be seen only in June or July. 



The number of leaves on the separate 

stalks varies from seven to thirteen. 

Symptoms. — The sumach is more poison- 
ous than the ivy. The juice of these plants 
applied to the skin produces some inflammation 
and is apt to cause the appearance of small 
water-blisters. But perhaps their damaging ef- 
fects are most frequently conveyed by some vo- 
latile principle pervading the air to the distance 
of several feet, though the distance at which 
one person can be affected is not a very relia- 
ble guide for another. It is asserted that some 
people can handle the plants (or even chew the 
ivy) with impunity. In other persons, how- 
ever, they produce an affection not unlike 
erysipelas. The worst effects are general- 
ly in the face. They begin with redness and 
itching, followed by swelling, water-blisters, 
and the peeling off of the skin. 

The symptoms appear within a day of ex- 
posure, and generally decline within a week. 




Poison Sumach (in fruit), Fig. H natural size. Below, fruit of 
the natural size. 

Treatment. — A good dose of Rochelle 
salts, and keeping the irritated surface moist 
with a solution of one drachm of acetate of 
lead in a pint ofwater 

Prof. Proctor recommends a solution of a 
teaspoonful of baking soda in a pint of water, 
to be applied unviediately after exposttre, with-' 
out waiting for symptoms to develope. 

The well known extract of Witch Hazel has 
also been recommended as awash. A child — 
a patient of the writer, was bathed in it fre- 
quently after an ugly water blister from poison 
oak had displayed itself, and no farther incon- 
venience was suffered; but the probability is 
that the patient was not very susceptible to 
the poison. 

Whatever application is made, it is well to 



POMADES 



PORGEE 



409 



anoint the whole body on the plan of a pre- 
ventive, as suggested by Prof. Proctor. 

Eradication of the plants should of course 
be effected when they are at all likely to be 
approached by people, but this is not as easy 
as would at first appear. When cut down or 
even covered with stones, they are apt to 
reappear, and they like to climb between 
stones. Dr. Squibb recommends covering the 
spot with ashes. Others recommend^ salt. 

POMADES. — Pomades, or pomatums, are 
preparations for softening the skin and hair, and 
consist of fats or oils, with the addition of some 
perfume. It is necessary to choose such fats 
as do not become rancid ; the best are clarified 
beef suet, or clarified beef marrow, and hog^s 
lard. Beef or mutton suet and hog's lard are 
clarified from the raw materials by chopping 
them fine, and rolling them out to break the 
cells in which the fat is lodged, then melting 
the fat in a water-bath, or by other gentle heat, 
and straining it while warm. It should then 
be put into bladders, to keep it from the air. 
Or it may be made by boiling it in water, and 
skimming it off when cold ; but by this method 
it contains water, and does not keep so well as 
when melted by itself. Purified beef marrow 
is considered preferable to hog's lard, and is 
thought by some to make the hair grow. 

I. Common soft pomatum is made of equal 
parts of beef or mutton- suet and hog's lard 
melted together; while they are liquid add a 
little oil of bergamot, or any other perfume 
that may be agreeable, beat the whole well to- 
gether, and then pour the mixture into pots. 

IL Another method is to soak in water for 
two or three days half a pound of clean beef mar- 
row and a pound of fresh hog's lard, changing 
the water and beating every day. Put it into 
a sieve to drain, and, when dry, into a jar, and 
the jar into a saucepan of boiling water ; when 
melted, pour it into a bowl, and beat it with 
two teaspoonfuls of brandy ; drain off the 
brandy, and add bergamot or any other per- 
fume. 

m. Another still : melt together an ounce of 
hog's lard, one of beef marrow, one of sperma- 
ceti, and a pint of almond oil ; add oil of berga- 
mot and oil of roses, or any other perfume. 

Castor-oil Pomatum. — Take tuberose po- 
matum, one pound; castor-oil, half a pound; 
almond-oil, half a pound ; otto of bergamot, one 
ounce. Melt the grease, then beat it up with 
a whisk or wooden spoon for half an hour or 
more, as the grease cools ; minute vesicles of 
air are inclosed by the pomatum, which not 
only increase the bulk of the mixture, but im- 
part a peculiar mechanical aggregation, render- 
ing the pomatum light and spongy. 

Hard Pomatum is made by melting togeth- 
er two parts of beef suet and one part of mut- 
ton suet, and making it up into rolls with paper 
around them. 

Sultana Pomade. — Melt together half a 
pound of beef suet, the same of bear's grease, 
an ounce of white wax, and two ounces of olive- 
oil ; and add to it, tied up loosely in muslin, one 



ounce of bruised cloves, half an ounce of cin- 
namon, two bruised tonquin beans, and four 
grains of musk ; strain and put into pots. The 
article called bear's grease, usually sold in the 
shops, is little else than perfumed beef-marrow ; 
and the many oils offered for restoring and 
softening the hair are chiefly olive or almond 
oil perfumed with different scents. 

POPLIN. — A cloth composed of a warp of 
silk and a weft of worsted, but containing more 
silk than bombazine, which is similar. It is much 
used for ladies' dresses. There are several va- 
rieties. Irish poplin has long been celebrated, 
and is unsurpassed for richness by any other 
fabric ; it is manufactured in Dublin. Besides 
the Irish, there are brocaded poplins, figured 
poplins, and watered poplins. Poplin is gen- 
erally a yard, and sometimes a yard and a half, 
wide. 

POPPY CAPSULES. — The capsules or 
fruit of the opium poppy grown in this country 
and gathered before they are quite ripe. They 
contain some opium, and the numerous seeds 
in their interior, called maw-seeds, contain a 
bland oil ; consequently a decoction of these 
capsules possesses a doubly-soothing property 
from the opium and from the oil. A warm 
fomentation is prepared by boiling some of the 
capsules in water ; any injured part may be 
bathed in this fluid while it is warm. Some- 
times a poultice is made with the fluid, and ap- 
plied to bruises and other injured parts where 
the skin is whole. The quantity of opium con- 
tained in the capsules is very variable ; and on 
this account no preparation of the capsules 
ought to be used internally, though there are 
two medical preparations of them which are in- 
tended for this purpose, — an extract and a 
syrup. This syrup used to be given to children, 
but it is dangerous and should be banished 
from medical practice. 

PORCELAIN. {See Earthenware.) 

PORGEE. — V>\^\)Oxg^Q{ox porgy ,scup ,scup- 
paug) is a fish which would be more valued, per- 
haps, if it were less abundant. It is a httle dry, 
but is well flavored and savory when properly 




cooked. They begin to appear in the markets 
in April, but their regular season begins in 
May and lasts until December; they are best 
in the fall months. They weigh from half a 
pound to two pounds, the average being less 
than one pound. 

The Sand Porgee is smaller and has five 
or six dusky bars across the back. It weighs 
about six ounces, and is very good for frying. 
In season in the months of August and Sep- 
tember. Prepare, cook and serve porgee as 
directed for Mackerel. 



410 



PORK 



PORK. — Pigs or hogs when killed under 
six weeks old, are called "roasting pig," or 
"roaster." {See PiG.) those older than six 
weeks, but under one year, are called shoats, 
and their meat shoat-pork. The meat of the 
full-grown hog is called pork, when it is fresh, 
and when cured, bacon, ham, etc. Shoats or 
hogs should be penned up two or three months 
before slaughtering and fed well. The hog is 
indolent naturally and filthy in _ its habits ; 
yet on the- growth of no domestic animal is 
the advantage of cleanliness more obvious. 
The kind of food given has a very great in- 
fluence on the quality of the flesh. Skimmed 
milk, or butter milk and peas, oats and barley- 
meal, rank first in excellence as food for 
making delicate pork. Milk alone will fatten 
hogs and milk-fed pork is the most delicate 
of any. Grain-fed pork is next in value ; 
peas, oats, barley, and Indian-corn being 
best. Pork fed on beans is hard and ill-flavor- 
ed ; that fed on grains exclusively has 
the fat spongy ; potatoes make a light, in- 
sipid flesh ; and butcher's offal causes the 
flesh to be full of gravy, but to have a disgust- 
ingly strong taste and smell. As good a diet 
as can be devised for hogs that have been 
penned previous to slaughtering, is to 
feed them at first on swill, vegetables, and 
wet grain of any kind, and towards the end to 
give a considerable proportion of dry Indian 
corn. 

Pork differs from beef and mutton, not in 
flavor only, but in the larger proportion of fat 
to lean flesh. This is due both to the nature of 
the animal and its tendency to store up fat, 
and to the habit of so feeding and treating it 
that this tendency may be fully developed. 
As to its relative value as food. Dr. Edward 
Smith says : " Pork having so very large a pro- 
portion of fat cannot be regarded as equal to 
beef or mutton in nourishing the system of 
those who make much muscular exertion. 
Moreover, there is a peculiarity about pork by 
which it is believed to be less digestible than 
other kinds of flesh, and it appears to me that 
this is due to the greater hardness of the mus- 
cular fibre, by which the mastication of it is 
rendered so difficult that much of it is swal- 
lowed in pieces too large for immediate solu- 
tion in the juices of the stomach. This attends 
the eating of pork by all persons, but particu- 
larly by those who habitually masticate quickly, 
or who have defective powers of mastication, 
or who are careless in performing the act of 
mastication — classes embracing the old and the 
young, and no inconsiderable proportion of 
those of intermediate ages." Owing to its ex- 
cessive fatness, fresh pork is considered un- 
wholesome during the hot months, and it should 
be eaten sparingly, perhaps, at any time. 

In butchering for the markets, the pork is 
cut up into pieces, as shown in the accompany- 
ing engravings. 

The choicest pieces are the leg and shoulder, 
and for roasting, the loin-pieces. The brisket 
is generally used for corning; the chine for 




Shoat Pork. 



Leg of pork. 
Loin of pork. 
Chine of pork. 
Brisket of pork. 



often cut 
together. 



S- Flank of pork. 

6. Hocks. 

7. Pig's-head. 

8. Pig's feet. 




Hog. 
Leg, or fresh ham. 
Shoulder (after being trinuned) 
Chops or cheeks. 
Loin pieces. 
Rib, or chine-pieces. 



3' 

6. Brisket. 



7. Flank. 

8. Tail-piece. 

9. Neck-piece. 

10. Pate or skull. 

11. Feet. 



roasting, or the ribs for rib-chops, up as far as 
the blade-bone, and the rest for pork-steaks ; 
some prefer the chine (after taking out all the 
bones) for sausage-meat. 

In choosing pork, take a thin piece of the 
lean between the finger and thumb, and if of 
good quality it will readily yield to a smart 
squeeze. The color ought to be pale rather 
than deep red. The rind also should be thin 
and delicate. The freshness is indicated by 
the transparency and freedom from any green 
tint or unwholesome smell. Measly pork is 
known by the fat containing enlarged glands, 
called kernels, and by the lean yielding little 
specks of matter on pressure. This is not 
wholesome, or indeed fit for human food. 
{See Bacon, Ham, Lard, and Sausage.) 

Beans and Pork. — Take a pound of salt 
" middling" of bacon, parboil it, and score it 
thin. Soak a quart of dried beans over night 
in lukevvarm water, changing the water once or 
twice ; put them on to boil in cold water, and 
when they have boiled soft, drain off the liquor, 
put the beans into a deep dish or baking pan, 
scoop out a hole and bury the bacon in the 
middle, and add a very little warm water ; bake 
in a moderate oven to a crisp brown. 

Boiled Leg of Pork.— Take a leg that has 
been salted or pickled for about ten days, rinse 
it well in cold water, and let it drain. Boil it 
exactly as directed for hams, only for a shorter 
time ; about three hours from the time of boil- 
ing up will suffice to cook a moderate-sized leg 
of Pork thoroughly. When once the boiling 
point is attained, the more slowly it is boiled 



PORK 



411 



the better. When done, place the leg on a 
dish and peel off the skin, which ought to be 
so tender as not to come away entire ; after it 
is peeled, either spot the surface of the pork 
with patches of ground allspice — an ornament 
not unpleasing to the eye or to the palate — or 
sprinkle bread-crumbs over the surface and set 
it in an oven to brown. 1 n either case, after trans- 
ferring it to the hot dish on which it is to be sent 
to table, garnish with sprigs of fresh parsley. 

Boiled Leg of Pork is improved by being 
stuffed with parsley. Chop the parsley as fine 
as possible, and mix with it a little pepper and 
allspice. Insert a sharp-pointed knife into the 
knuckle-end of the leg, close to the bone ; let 
it follow the bone for nearly its whole length, 
so as just 7iot to come out at the other end. 
By working the knife, detach the flesh from 
the thigh-bone, so as to form a sort of pocket, 
into which stuff chopped parsley as firm as you 
can ram it. The leg must then be boiled and 
finished off as before. It will be much the 
better, both in flavor and appearance, for this 
stuffing of parsley, especially when cold; and 
the orifice made, allowing the boiling water to 
penetrate to the central parts of the leg, will 
tend to further its thorough cooking. 

Bravrn. — Take a pig's-head weighing five or 
six pounds, clean and wash it carefully, and set 
it in a pot on the fire, with enough cold water 
to cover it ; add a pound of lean beef, and stew 
until the meat on the pig's-head will fall away 
from the bones ; then drain off the liquor, re- 
move the bones and chop the meat very fine 
while it is hot; season with a small onion 
minced fine, a teaspoonful of salt, a half tea- 
spoonful each of black pepper, cayenne pepper 
and mace, and a pinch of pounded cloves ; 
mix well into the meat, and pour all into a 
mould that has been previously rinsed out in 
cold water. This is very nice. 

Broiled Corned Pork. — Take some nice 
slices of corned pork, and broil quickly over a 
hot fire ; mix some pepper and salt with a tea- 
spoonful of mixed mustard and a little vinegar, 
add a tablespoonful of butter, and spread the 
whole over the pork. Serve hot for breakfast. 

Chops and Steaks. — Chops from the chine, 
and steaks from the loin are best. Remove 
the skin, and trim away the superfluous fat ; 
dust on both sides with pepper and salt, and 
broil or fry them. They may also be dipped 
in egg and bread-crumbs and fried. A good 
way is to broil them without seasoning, and 
when dished, add salt, pepper, a pinch of 
sage, and another of minced onion ; then 
cover closely and set in the oven five minutes 
till the aroma of the seasoning flavors the 
meat. Tomato catsup is the best condiment 
for pork chops or steaks ; or they may be 
served with apple sauce. 

Italian Pork Cheese. — Chop, not very fine, 
one pound of lean pork with two pounds of the 
inside fat ; strew over and mix thoroughly with 
them three teaspoonfuls of salt, one and a 
half teaspoonfuls of pepper, half a teaspoon- 
ful of mace, one small nutmeg, and half a tea- 



spoonful of mixed parsley, thyme, and sage, all 
minced extremely small. Press the meat 
closely and evenly into a shallow tin, and bake 
it in a very gentle oven from an hour to an 
hour and a half. It is served cold in shces. 
Should the proportion of fat be considered too 
great, it can be diminished on a second trial. 

Pickled Pork. — Make the brine and treat the 
pork exactly as directed for Pickled Beef. 

Pie, i^Pork) — I. Take three parts (in weight) 
of lean spare-rib or loin of pork, and one of 
veal ; cut all the meat away from the bones, 
divide it into dice, and mix it together, season- 
ing well with salt, pepper, and allspice. Break 
the bones, and boil them, together with a few 
sweet-herbs, until all the substance is out of 
them ; strain off the broth, and reduce it by 
boiling if too much in quantity. If the pie is 
to be served in the baking-dish, there is no 
need of an undercrust ; otherwise butter the 
bottom and sides of the dish, and line it with 
a good stiff paste. Spread over the bottom of 
the dish a few very thin slices of ham ; then 
put in the chopped meat, adding at pleasure 
hard-boiled eggs quartered, and small force- 
meat balls. Pour in enough of the broth to 
moisten the meat but not to soak it ; cover the 
whole with a top-crust ; and bake thoroughly in 
a slow oven. This pie is to be eaten cold. It 
is very nice for travelling or picnics. 

n. {Pork and Apple.) — Take pork-chops, 
and remove as much of the fat as possible ; 
cut each into three or four pieces, leaving the 
bone attached to the meat ; roll them in flour, 
and season with salt, pepper, and allspice. Peel, 
quarter, core, and slice some apples, in quan- 
tity about half that of the pork. Pour a tea- 
cupful of cider or broth into the pie-dish ; at 
the bottom put a layer of pork, then a layer 
of apples, then another layer of pork and so on, 
finishing with sliced apples at the top ; pour in 
another teacupful of cider or broth ; cover with 
a solid crust, not too rich in butter or fat ; and 
bake thoroughly in a slow oven. This old- 
fashioned dish is palatable and wholesome, and 
may be partaken of fearlessly by those who 
are afraid of pork in most of its other shapes. 

m. Pot-pie. — The chine is best for this, but 
it may be made of any lean pork ; cut the meat 
into strips as wide and half as long as the 
middle finger, and break the bones ; grease the 
inside of a pot which is round at the bottom, 
and line it with a light paste ; put in first a layer of 
the meat, then a layer of potatoes, parboiled and 
cut in half, and seasoned with pepper and salt ; 
proceed in this way till the pot is nearly full, then 
pour in a quart of cold water, and cover with a 
stiff top-crust; cut a round hole in the top through 
which hot water may be added should the gravy 
boil away too fast. Put on the lid of the pot, 
and boil from one hour and a half to two hours. 
When done, remove the upper crust carefully, 
turn out the meat, etc., into a bowl, lift out the 
lower crust and place it upon a hot dish ; ar- 
range the meat, etc., in order upon it, pour the 
gravy over it, cover it with the top crust, and 
serve. This is good either hot or cold. 



412 



PORK 



Pig's-Ears. — I. {Boikd.) — Soak the ears in 
warm water for a few minutes, then wash and 
clean them well, and scrape off the hair. Drop 
them into boiling water for two minutes and 
take from the fire ; add four onions for four 
ears, one carrot, salt, and pepper ; leave just 
water enough to cover the whole, and boil till 
tender ; then drain and serve. 

II. [Broiled). — Prepare and cook as above; 
then dip them in beaten eggs, roll in bread- 
crumbs, place on a gridiron over a clear fire, 
and broil about two or three minutes. Serve 
with a jnattre d''hdtel sauce. 

Pig's-Feet. — [Fri^d.) — Make a batter with a 
little flour, one tgg, water, and a little salt, dip 
the feet in till they are well covered ; have some 
fat scalding hot, and fry them in it until quite 
brown. Serve with drawn butter, and a little 
vinegar. 

Pig's-Head. — (^Roasted.) — Take the head of 
a half-grown pig ; clean and split it, taking out 
the brains and setting them aside in a cool 
place. Parboil the head in salted water, drain 
off this, wipe the head dry, and wash all over 
with beaten egg ; dredge thickly with bread- 
crumbs, seasoned with pepper, sage and onion, 
and roast, basting twice with butter and water; 
then with the liquor in which the head was 
boiled ; at last with the gravy that runs from 
the meat. Wash the brains in several waters 
until they are white ; beat to a smooth paste, 
add one quarter pint fine bread-crumbs, and 
season with pepper and salt ; make into balls, 
binding with a beaten tgg ; roll in flour, and 
fry in hot fat to a light brown. Arrange about 
the head when it is dished. Skim the gravy 
left in the dripping-pan, thicken with brown 
flour, add the juice of a lemon, and boil up 
once. Pour it over the head, and serve. 

Pig's-Head Cheese. {See Souse, below). — 

Pig's-Liver {Fried). — Cut the liver in slices 
half an inch thick ; pour boiling water over 
them and then drain it off ; put into a frying- 
pan and let the liver cook in its own juices, 
turning it till it looks brown on both sides. 
Take it up, and pour into the frying-pan enough 
cold water to make the desired quantity of 
gravy ; put in an onion minced fine, add a bit of 
butter, and a little salt and nutmeg, and let it 
boil up once ; put back the liver for one minute, 
then dish it, pour the gravy over it, and serve hot. 

Roast Pork. — The following are the best 
for roasting, in the order in which they are 
named: leg, loin, shoulder, spare-rib, and chine. 
When the skin is left on the joint which is to 
be roasted, it must be scored in narrow strips 
of equal width, before it is put to the fire, and 
laid at a considerable distance from it at first, 
that the meat may be heated through before 
the skin hardens or begins to brown ; it must 
never stand still for an instant, and the basting 
should be constant. Pork is not at the present 
day much served at very good tables, particu- 
larly in this form ; and it is so still less with the 
old savoury stuffing of sage and onions, though 
some eaters like it always with the leg: when 
it is ordered for this joint, therefore, prepare it 



as directed under Stuffings, and after having 
loosened the skin from the knuckle insert as 
much as can well be secured in it. A little 
clarified butter or salad oil may be brushed 
over the skin at first, particularly should the 
meat not be very fat, but unless remarkably 
lean, it will speedily yield sufficient dripping 
to baste it with. Joints from which the fat has 
been pared, will require, of course, far less roast- 
ing than those on which the c'rackhng is re- 
tained. Brown gravy, and apple or tomato 
sauce, are the usual accompaniments to all 
roasts of pork. Spare-ribs and chine-pieces 
are dryer and consequently require more care- 
ful basting (with butter if necessary) than the 
other joints. 

A leg of pork weighing 8 lbs will require 
three hours to roast ; loin or shoulder of from 
5 to 6 lbs, with the skin on, two to two and a 
quarter hours ; spare-ribs of 6 or 7 lbs, an hour 
and a half ; chine, about twenty minutes to the 
pound. 

Souse of Pig's Ears and Feet. — Take pig's 
ears and feet, clean them thoroughly, and soak 
them in salt and water several days. Boil them 
till tender and split them, and they are then 
ready for frying. If it is desired to keep them 
some time, soak as above in salt and water, and 
then turn boiling vinegar over them, strongly 
spiced with pepper-corns and inace ; cloves im- 
prove the taste but turn them a dark color. 
They will keep good in this pickle five or six 
weeks. Either fry them plain in hot fat; or 
make a batter with milk, egg, flour, and butter, 
and dip them in it before frying; or dip each in 
beaten egg and then in pounded cracker. The 
feet are excellent eaten cold. 

Souse of Pig's Head. — Boil a pig's head 
(with the ears on) until the bones come out, and 
then chop the meat up very fine'; pound about 
eight soft crackers very small, and mix them 
with the meat (or the crackers may be omitted 
altogether) ; season to taste with sweet herbs, 
spices, salt, pepper, and a little vinegar; mix 
the seasoning in thoroughly, put the souse into 
a mould, and press it for two or three days. 
The souse is then ready for use, but if it is de- 
sired to keep it several weeks, take it from the 
moulds, set it in stone jars and cover it with 
cold vinegar. It will keep then a month or six 
weeks ; if it proves too acid, pare away the out- 
side. This souse is usually sliced thin and 
eaten cold; but the slices may be warmed in 
a frying-pan with a little butter, or dipped in 
egg and cracker-crumbs and fried. 

Stevred Pork. — Bits of lean that cannot be 
used in any other way will answer for stewing. 
Cut the pork in pieces about an inch square, 
put them into a pot and pour on enough cold 
water to cover them ; cover closely, and stew 
about forty minutes; then add a few Irish 
potatoes, parboiled, skinned, and cut in thick 
slices ; season with salt and pepper, a minced 
shalot, a bunch of sweet herbs, and a table- 
spoonful of catsup ; cover again and stew 
twenty minutes longer, or until the pork is 
quite tender. 



PORRIDGE 



POTATOES 



413 



PORRIDGE.— Set a pint each of milk and 
water over the fire ; make a thin batter of a 
tablespoonful of Indian meal and a tablespoon- 
ful of flour, and pour it into the boiling milk 
and water; salt it to the taste, and boil ten 
minutes. This is excellent for the sick-room 
when stronger food cannot be tolerated. For 
oatmeal porridge, see oatmeal. 

PORT "WINE.— Pure Port is a dark purple, 
astringent, and full-bodied wine brought from 
Oporto in Portugal ; but it is so generally, we 
might almost say so universally adulterated, 
that it would probably not be possible to obtain 
in this country a bottle of it absolutely pure. 
Even the London dock Port, which claims to 
be the wine as shipped from Oporto, has been 
shown by Dr. Hassell to be adulterated and 
" doctored " to a shocking degree ; and it is 
said that more Port is sold in London alone 
than the entire vintage ever amounts to. The 
qualities of good Port are : richness of flavor 
bordering upon sweetness ; brightness of color, 
hue neither purple nor reddish, nor too deep ; 
a generous, fruity taste ; and oiliness rather 
than dryness. It should run smooth on the 
palate, and be free from all heat, harshness, and 
acidity. The wine purchased in bottles should 
be of the right age, neither too green nor too 
light {see Wines) ; they should be clear and 
bright, supposing the crust or deposit undis- 
turbed. The beeswins^ is of little moment ; it 
is a natural deposit, in which potash predom- 
inates, and can be produced at any time in new 
Port by putting the bottles into warm water, 
raising it to the boiling point, and then placing 
them in a cool cellar. Perhaps the most easily 
applied test of good Port is this : The cork, 
when it has dried, that is to say, an hour after 
it has been drawn, should be covered on its 
under surface, and part of its cylindrical sur- 
face, with crystals of tartar. If a good stock 
be wanted buy in the wood, and manage 
it yourself; if but little, buy in the bottle. 
The Port manufactured in England (and this 
is the kind usually sold here) requires to be 
kept three or four years in the wood and as 
many more in the bottle, in order to destroy 
the fiery strength of the brandy with which it 
is mixed ; but before that time elapses the 
vinous characteristics are often completely lost. 

Port should be drunk at about the temper- 
ature of the room ; at" dinner, with or after 
dessert. 

Mulled Port. — Put half a pint of water into 
a sauce-pan, with three ounces of sugar and a 
little nutmeg and cloves ; boil all together for a 
few minutes ; then add from six to twelve wine- 
glassfuls of rich port wine, and let it boil up 
once ; pour into a pitcher and it is ready for 
use. 

POSSET, Ale.— Boil a pint of new milk with 
a slice of toasted bread ; pour a bottle of mild 
ale into a bowl, sweeten and add spices, and 
then pour the boiling milk over it. A fine bead 
or froth should rise. 

Sack Posset. — Boil a pint of cream with 
some grated sweet biscuits ; add sugar and 



season with cinnamon and nutmeg; warm two 
wineglassfuls of sherry, and stir into the cream ; 
then pour the whole rapidly from one vessel to 
another until it is perfectly smooth. Or it may 
be made with eggs beat up in milk instead of 
cream. 

Treacle (Molasses) Posset. — Set half a pint 
of new milk and half a pint of water on the fire 
in a sauce-pan, stir in two tablespoonfuls of 
molasses, and boil up. Or it may be made of 
milk without water if desired very rich. 

PORTER.— Porter is made almost exactly 
like ale {see Brewing), the chief difference be- 
tween it and ale being that the former derives 
a dark color and astringent taste from the use 
of brown or highly dried malt ; that it contains 
more hops than ale, and that the saccharine 
matters have been more exhausted in the fer- 
mentation. Porter, as compared with ale, may 
be considered a dry malt liquor. It is con- 
sidered more wholesome and nourishing than 
ale, when pure ; but it is also believed to be 
more generally adulterated ; that is, the charac- 
teristic dark color is no longer produced by the 
use of brown or dried malt, but by coloring 
substances and drugs. The common American 
porter has about the same percentage of alcohol 
as ale, and is mild as compared with English 
porter. 

Brown Stout is, or ought to be, a superior 
kind of porter ; but nothing can be inferred as 
to its quality from its color, as that is artificial. 
London porter and Dublin stout are excellent 
porters, the latter being generally preferred in 
this country. All these porters are, of course, 
imported, and are sold only in bottles, 

POTS. {See Ironware.) 

POTASH.— This was formerly called the 
vegetable alkali, because it is obtained from 
the ashes of land vegetables. When the ashes 
are mixed with water the potash is dissolved, 
and the earth and impurities settle to the bot- 
tom. This water is then evaporated by boiling 
in iron pots, and the solid substance that re- 
mains is the potash of commerce, so called 
from the manner of its production. When 
this is strongly heated in a furnace, it becomes 
whiter and stronger, and is then Pearlash. 
These substances, however, are not pure pot- 
ash, for they are united with carbonic acid, 
being thus carbonate of potash. Potash de- 
prived of the carbonic acid by another process 
is called caustic potash, which instantaneously 
acts upon and corrodes animal substances, and 
is used by surgeons in some of their operations. 
The ordinary potash preserves somewhat of its 
causticity, as may be observed from its effects 
upon the skin in washing. Potash, both mild 
and caustic, is an extremely useful substance, 
being employed in medicine, and for domestic 
purposes in a great variety of ways, which are 
described under their respective heads. It is 
also extensively used in the manufacture of 
soap, in bleaching, scouring, etc. Salt of 
Tartar is an impure carbonate of potash. 

POTATOES. — Of all fresh vegetables grown 
in temperate climates none is so valuable as 



414: 



POTATOES 



the potato when we have regard to its agreeable 
flavor and its nutritive and medicinal qualities. 
A native of America, and unknown in Europe 
until introduced into England by Sir Walter 
Raleigh in 1584, it has now been adopted in 
almost every quarter of the globe. It is the 
more valuable as it grows readily in nearly 
every climate, and its culture is extremely easy. 
It will succeed well on land which will not pro- 
duce grain, and under favorable conditions a 
given quantity of land will produce many times 
more food than the same quantity sown with 
wheat. The best qualities of potatoes are 
grown in tolerably rich garden soil. Cut the 
seed potatoes up so as to leave an " eye " in 
each piece, and plant in the early spring, in 
rows about three inches deep and two feet 
apart ; heap the earth up in ridges, and when 
frost comes cover them with straw, — or when- 
ever the tops wither they may be dug and stored 
in a dry cool place, but secure from frost. Of 
the many varieties, Early Rose is as yet unsur- 
passed, both in its early ripening and in its 
prolificness ; the Peerless is one* of the best 
late potatoes in cultivation : it grows to a very 
large size, is of pearly whiteness, and has a 
delicious flavor; Jersey Peach Blows are al- 
ways good, but do not yield so plentifully. Be- 
sides these there are the Carters, Kidneys 
(black and white), Mercers, Buckeyes, Prince 
Alberts, Western Reds, Dike/nans, Yellow 
Pink-Eyes, yackson-whites, Northern-whites, 
Junes, D overs, etc. 

The first new potatoes received in the New 
York markets in the Spring are the Bermudas ; 
they arrive in April. About the first of June 
come the Charlestons ; about the 20th, the Nor- 
folks, and early in July those from New Jersey 
and Long Island. The old potatoes are at 
this time scarce, poor, and not much sought 
after. 

The sooner potatoes are placed in a dark 
cool place after they are taken out of the ground, 
the better they will be both for keeping and 
eating ; if exposed to the light and to drying 
winds, they lose flavor and are otherwise in- 
jured. 

Potato-fiour is in fact, dry starch powder 
procured from the potato, and is much used in 
French cookery in fine bread and pastry ; it is 
also sold in the stores here, but often as arrow- 
root, to which it is inferior. 

Sweet Potatoes. — The sweet potato is a 
tuberous root, of quite a different species from 
the common potato. It is also a lighter food, 
but is sweet, wholesome, and very nutritious. 
There are many varieties, differing in size 
shape, color and flavor; but it is seldom that 
more than two kinds appear in our markets — 
the red or purple, and the wliite or yellow. The 
former are mostly cultivated in the Southern 
States, and are esteemed for their large size, 
and sweet flavor : the latter are grown in the 
Northern States, chiefly in New Jersey. Sweet 
potatoes are in season from August until De- 
cember, after which they begin to lose their 
flavor, and towards Spring become spongy, and 



almost uneatable. They will keep through the 

winter, however, in cool, dry cellars ; or, as in 
the South, banked up with earth to keep out the 
frost. 

A la Creme, {Potatoes^ — Cut some cold 
boiled potatoes into small pieces. Put into a 
saucepan three tablespoonfuls of butter, three 
tablespoonfuls of parsley chopped fine, salt 
and pepper ; stir together until hot, add a tea- 
cupful of milk or cream, thicken with two tea- 
spoonfuls of flour, and stir until it boils ; add 
the cold potatoes, boil up once and serve. 

A la Maitre d' Hotel. — Cut cold potatoes 
into rather thick slices. Put two tablespoon- 
fuls of butter into a stew-pan and add a tea- 
spoonful of flour; when the flour has boiled a 
minute or two in the butter add by degrees a 
teacupful of broth or water; when this has 
boiled up put in the potatoes, with chopped 
parsley, salt, and pepper. Let the potatoes 
stew for five minutes, then take them from the 
fire, and when the boiling has subsided, add 
the yolk of an ^gg beaten up with a little lemon- 
juice and a teaspoonful of cold water ; as soon 
as the sauce has se*^*. dish the potatoes and 
serve hot. 

Baked Potatoes. — Wash and put them 
whole and unpeeled into the oven and bake 
from half an hour to an hour. Serve immedi- 
ately. 

Baked Sweet Potatoes. — Bake them long- 
er than Irish potatoes. Or, boil till about half 
done, and then transfer to the oven and bake. 
This is the best way of cooking old. potatoes. 

Boiled (Wew) Potatoes. — Procure them of 
nearly equal size, and, if young, wash them 
only ; if older, rub off the skin with a scrub- 
bing brush or coarse towel. Drop into boiling 
water and boil fifteen or twenty minutes, or till 
tender ; when dished, sprinkle a little salt over 
them, put in a lump of butter, shake up, and 
serve. 

Boiled (Old) Potatoes. — Pare or merely 
wash them as preferred, and put them into a 
sauce-pan of cold water with a teaspoonful of 
salt; boil them till they are done, which can be 
readily ascertained by sticking a fork into them ; 
then drain the water from them and hold the 
saucepan (with the lid off) over the fire for two 
or three minutes, shaking well at the end of 
the time ; put the lid on loosely so as to allow 
the steam to escape, and sprinkle a very little 
salt over the potatoes. Let them stand till 
wanted ; they may remain in this half an hour or 
more, but the sooner they are eaten the better. 

Boiled (Sweet) Potatoes. — Select them as 
nearly the same size as possible, wash them, 
and put them into cold water without any salt ; 
boil till a fork will easily pierce the largest one ; 
then take up and lay in the oven to dry for a 
few minutes. Remove the skins before send- 
ing them to the table. 

Broiled Potatoes. — Parboil, slice length- 
wise, and broil on both sides. Or, parboil, and 
then set them whole on the gridiron over a very 
slow fire, and when thoroughly done serve them 
with the skins on. 



POTATOES 



POULTICES 



415 



Potatoes Sautes. — Heat some dripping or 
lard in a frying-pan, and drop in some slices, or 
broken pieces will do quite as well, of cold 
boiled potatoes ; stir pretty constantly and in 
about ten minutes they will be browned enough ; 
then drain off the superflous fat, season with 
pepper and salt, and serve. {See Potato 
Chips, below.) 

Fried (Sweet) Potatoes. — Parboil, skin, and 
cut them into thick slices ; fry until tender in 
butter or drippings. Cold boiled potatoes may 
be sliced and fried in the same manner. 

Lyonnaise Potatoes. — Slice cold boiled 
potatoes and fry them brown, adding pepper, 
salt, a little grated onion, and parsley chopped 
fine. 

Mashed Potatoes. — To two pounds of hot 
potatoes rubbed through the colander, add a 
gill of hot milk, three ounces of butter, and salt 
to the taste ; beat it until light. Serve as a 
dish or a garnish. If wished, it may be brown- 
ed in the dish in which it is to be served. 
Pastry of Potatoes. — See under Pies. 
Potato-Balls. — Mash some boiled potatoes 
to a smooth paste with a little cream (or butter 
and milk) and a little salt ; then form them into 
flat cakes a half-inch thick, and either bake or 
fry them brown. 

A very ornamental and excellent dish can 
be made by preparing the potato as above, 
and then forming it into balls the size of 
a peach and indented like one, or into the 
shape of a pear ; warm through and brown 
slightly on one side in a quick oven. The 
pears should be served on a napkin with the 
broad end downward, and a bit of stalk stuck in 
the other end ; or they may be served in a well 
thickened brown gravy poured around, but not 
over them. 

Potato-Chips. — Wash and peel some raw 
potatoes, and slice them very thin on the pota- 
to cutter; put them, in a single layer, over the 
surface of deep hot lard ; turn with a skimmer, 
and as soon as they are a light brown place 
them on a folded brown paper in the mouth of 
the oven ; continue in this way until all are 
cooked. 

Potato-Fritters. — Boil two large potatoes, 
and mash them well ; beat the yolks of four 
eggs and the whites of three, and add them to 
the potato, with a tablespoonful of cream, an- 
other of sweet wine, a squeeze of lemon-juice, 
and a Httle nutmeg. Beat this half an hour; 
it will then be very light. Put a good quantity 
of lard into a frying-pan, and drop a spoonful 
of the batter at a time into it ; fry them, and 
serve with a sauce composed of one wineglassful 
of white wine, the juice of a lemon, one dessert- 
spoonful of peach-leaf or almond water, and 
some white sugar warmed together. 

Roast Potatoes. — Boil till about half done, 
take off the skin, and roast them in the oven 
to a light brown. Or, put them with the peel 
on in the ashes of a wood fire. This latter is 
an excellent method. 

Roast (Sweet) Potatoes.— Select them about 
the same size, wash, wipe dry, and roast until 



they yield readily to pressure. Or, roast in the 
ashes as directed for Irish potatoes. The lat- 
ter is the better way. 

Scooped Potatoes. — Wash and wipe some 
large potatoes of a firm kind, and with a small 
scoop form as many diminutive ones as will fill 
a dish ; cover them with cold water, and when 
they have boiled very gently for five minutes 
pour it off, and put more cold water to them ; 
after they have simmered a second time for five 
minutes, drain the water quite away, place the 
cover of the sauce-pan so as to leave an inch or 
more of open space for the moisture to evapor- 




Potato Scoop. 

ate, and let them steam by the side of the fire 
from four to five minutes longer. Dish them 
carefully, pour white sauce over them, and 
serve them in the second course. Old potatoes 
thus prepared, have often been made to pass 
for new ones, at the best tables, at the season 
in which the fresh vegetable was dearest. The 
time required to boil them will of course vary 
with their quality. 

Stewed Potatoes. — Pare the potatoes, 
quarter them, and soak in cold water for half 
an hour; put into a stew-pan, with enough cold 
salted water to cover them, and stew until ready 
to crumble to pieces ; then drain off half the 
water, and add a teacupful of milk ; boil three 
minutes, stirring pretty constantly, and add a 
tablespoonful of butter, and a little salt and 
pepper ; thicken slightly with flour, boil up 
once, and serve hot in a covered dish. 

Stuffed Potatoes. — Bake some large mealy 
potatoes, without skinning them. Cut a slice 
carefully off the top of each, and take out the 
insides without breaking the skin ; mash the 
potato to a smooth paste, and flavor with cream 
or milk, or butter, and salt ; return this mixture 
to the shells again, replace the piece cut off the 
top, and roast before the fire for a few minutes 
before serving. Serve on a napkin. 

POT-AU-FEU.— The following is M. Soyer's 
receipt for this famous French dish : Put six 
pounds of beef into a pot containing four 
quarts of water, set it near the fire and skim ; 
when nearly boiling add a teaspoonful and a 
half of salt, half a pound of liver, two carrots, 
four turnips, eight young or two old leeks, one 
head of celery, two onions (one of them burnt), 
with a clove stuck in each, and a piece of pars- 
nip. Skim again, and simmer four or five 
hours, adding a little cold water now and then ; 
skim off part of the fat, put slices of bread into 
a soup-tureen, lay half the vegetables over 
them, and pour in half the broth ; serve the 
meat separately with the other half of the 
vegetables. 

POTTERY. {See Earthenware.) 

POULTICES. When poultices are ordered 



41G 



POULTRY-KEEPING 



by the physician, it is of the utmost importance 
that they should be well made and properly ap- 
plied ; and before being put on the skin they 
should be smeared with sweet-oil or glycerine, 
to prevent any particle sticking. For bread 
and linseed poultices — the ones most often ap- 
plied — no better authority need be wanted than 
the celebrated Dr. Abernethy. The bread-and- 
ivater poultice he directs to be made as follows : 
"Put half a pint of hot water into a bowl ; add 
to this as much of the crumbs of bread as the 
water will cover; then place a plate over the 
bowl and let it remain ten minutes ; stir the 
bread about in the water, or, if necessary, 
chop it a little with the edge of the knife, and 
draw off the water by holding the knife at the 
top of the bowl, but do not press the bread, as 
is usually done ; then take it out lightly, spread 
it about one-third of an inch thick on some soft 
linen, and lay it upon the part." Linseed-tneal 
poultices, says the same authority, should be 
made as follows : " Scald your bowl by pour- 
ing a little hot water into it, then put a small 
quantity of finely-ground linseed-meal into the 
bowl, pour a little hot water on it, and stir it 
around briskly until you have thoroughly incor- 
porated them ; add a little more meal and a 
little more water, and then stir again. Do not 
let any lumps remain in the bowl, but stir the 
poultice well, and do not be sparing of your 
trouble. If properly made, it is so well worked 
together that you might throw it up to the ceil- 
ing, and it would come down again without 
falling to pieces ; it is in fact like a pancake. 
What you do next is to take as much of it out 
of the bowl as you may require, and lay it on a 
piece of soft linen ; let it be about a quarter of 
an inch thick, and so wide that it may cover 
the whole of the inflamed part." 

Bran Poultice. — This is often used as a 
fomentation. A linen or flannel bag should be 
made of the size required, and loosely filled 
with bran ; then boiling water should be poured 
upon it till it is thoroughly moist ; next it is to be 
wrung out in a coarse towel, and applied as di- 
rected. 

Yeast Poultice. — This is made by taking 
one pound of flour, and one ounce of yeast, 
boiling together, and spreading on linen. (^See 
Hot-Water Bag and Sponge Poultice.) 

POULTRY-KEEPING. — When properly 
managed, poultry are a source of considerable 
profit, yielding, when kept in small flocks, more 
for the food they consume than any other do- 
mestic animals, except the hog, although their 
value is not always fully appreciated. Full di- 
rections for selecting and preparing the differ- 
ent varieties of poultry for the table are given 
under the proper heads ; here we propose to 
indicate the more important rules to be ob- 
served in raising poultry, beginning with 

Chickens. — These are the most profitable 
and most generally useful of the entire feath- 
ered tribe. The hen is peculiarly an egg-pro- 
ducing bird; she has the same predisposition 
for laying that the cow has for secreting milk. 
Some breeds are better layers than others ; but 



with proper food and favorable conditions all 
will produce a reasonable quantity of eggs. 
The food of chickens may consist of the 
different kinds of grain, either broken, ground, 
or cooked ; roots, and especially boiled pota- 
toes are nutritious and economical ; and all 
kinds of green vegetables, such as cabbage, 
lettuce, chickweed, most of the grasses, clover, 
etc., are eagerly eaten by them. Though not 
absolutely essential to them, yet nothing con- 
tributes so much to their laying as unsalted 
animal food. This is a natural aliment, as is 
shown by the avidity with which they pounce 
on every fly, insect, or earth-worm which comes 
within their reach. It would* not, of course, 
pay to supply them with valuable flesh, but the 
blood and offal of the slaughter-house, refuse 
meat of all kinds, and especially the scraps or 
cruddings to be obtained at the melters' shops, 
after soaking for a few hours in warm water, 
are the most economical of foods ; mixed with 
boiled meal, the last is extremely fattening. 
Grain is better for them when cooked ; they 
will lay more, fatten quicker, and eat less, 
when it is fed to them in this state. All the 
grains are good for them, including millet, rice, 
and the oleaginous seeds, as the sun-flower, 
flax, etc. It is always better to afford them a 
variety of grains which they can procure at op- 
tion, and select as their appetite craves. They 
are also fond of milk, especially when it has 
become curdled ; and indeed scarcely anything 
edible escapes their notice. It is better to give 
them their food warm (not hot), and there should 
always be a plentiful supply before them to 
prevent gorging. The accompanying cut rep- 




Food Fountain. 

resents a "food fountain," which is very use- 
ful. The grain is placed in the hopper, which 
is closely covered, and the grain falls into the 
bottom below. It is accessible on four sides 
by spring doors, which are thrown open by 
the weight of the fowl on the connecting spring. 
One is shown as opened by the fowl in stej)- 
ping up to feed. This is a protection against 
dirt and vermin. Besides their food, chickens 
ought to be at all times plentifully supplied 
with clean water; also with egg-shells, or 
pounded oyster-shells, old mortar, or slaked 



POULTRY-KEEPING 



417 



lime. If not allowed to run at large, where 
they can help themselves, they must also be 
furnished with gravel to assist their digestion ; 
and a box or bed of ashes, sand, and dust, is 
equally essential to roll in for the purpose of 
ridding themselves of vermin. 

The hen-house should be perfectly dry 
throughout, properly lighted, and capable of 
being made warm and tight in winter, while 
affording complete ventilation, desirable at all 
seasons. In this arrange the nests in boxes on 
the sides, in such a manner as to humor the in- 
stinct of the hen for concealment when she re- 
sorts to them. When desirable to set the hen, 
these nests may be so placed as to shut out the 
others, yet open into another yard or beyond 
the enclosure, so that they can take an occa- 
sional stroll and help themselves to food, &c. 
This prevents other hens laying in their nests, 
while setting ; and it may be easily managed by 
having their boxes placed on the wall of the 
building, with a moveable door, made to open 
on either side at pleasure. Hens will lay 
equally well without a nest-egg, but when 
broken up, they ramble off and form new nests, 
if they are not confined. They will lay if kept 
from the cock. Hens disposed to set at im- 
proper times, should be dismissed from the 
common yard, so as to be out of reach of the 
nests, and plentifully fed till weaned from this 
inclination. Young chickens require to be 
kept warm and dry for a few days after hatch- 
ing, and they may be fed with hard-boiled eggs, 
crumbs of bread or pudding, and milk or water, 
and allowed to scratch i^i the gravel in front of 
the hen, which should be confined in a coop for 
the first three or four weeks. 

The diseases of chickens are not numerous 
nor complicated, and may be avoided by proper 
treatment and food, and by being kept from 
wet grass or damp ground, such as are indi- 
cated in the foregoing observations. Gapes or 
pip is generally caused by drinking unwhole- 
some or dirty water. A feather dipped in coal 
oil or a mild solution of carbolic acid, thrust 
down the throat, twisted and withdrawn, is a 
good remedy. Or compel the bird to swal- 
low a large lump of fresh butter mixed with 
Scotch snuff. After an attack, feed for a few 
days with light food, such as soaked bran and 
cabbage, or lettuce chopped fine. 

Roup, which is the most fatal of fowl dis- 
eases, springs from dirty, badly kept chicken- 
houses, and generally attacks ill-conditioned 
fowls. It resembles glanders in the horse, is 
very contagious, attacking all barndoor fowls ; 
with geese and ducks is called " Gargle." The 
best cure is prevention, keep the fowls in better 
order ; medicines are generally useless, the best 
is salt and water as an emetic. 

Flux, in fowls generally, takes the form of 
dysentery, and is best treated by feeding with 
rice or unground wheat. 

Megrim, a very common disease of poul- 
try, brought on by intestinal troubles, — may be 
recognized by dizziness, turning round, the 
chicken falling on its back and kicking, — is quite 
27 



unmistakable. The treatment is to purge gently 
with castor oil, and keep in a warm place. 

Blindness is also a common disease of 
poultry, generally accompanying " Roup " ; is 
readily cured by dropping a very weak solution 
of laudanum with water into the eye. Finally, 
in regard to the diseases of poultry it should be 
well understood that they arise from ill-kept 
houses, and require better management either 
in regard to cleanliness, ventilation or food. 
Medicines usually do no good, and often do 
much harm. 

Of the many varieties of chickens the Dorking 
is esteemed one of the best, being large, well 
formed and hardy, good layers and setters, and 
excellent for the table ; they are both white 
and speckled, and generally have five toes. The 
Poland, a very large breed, from 8 to 10 pounds, 
is both white and black, with a large tuft, gen- 
erally of white feathers, on the head ; they are 
of good size, and excellent layers, very large 
eggs, but are seldom inclined to set, which makes 
them peculiarly desirable for such as wish eggs 
only. The Cochin China, is admired for its 
large size, its handsome appearance, and the 
brightness of its colors ; but more especially 
for its laying qualities, and its gentle disposition. 
The chickens are exceedingly hardy. A first- 
class fowl should be large, square, and com- 
pact ; full in the chest ; deep in the keel, and 
broad across the loins and hind quarters. The 
head is delicately shaped, the tail short and 
horizontal, and legs very short, yellow, and 
heavily feathered. The Brahmapootra is a 
remarkably useful and hardy fowl, laying large 
eggs, foraging well when at liberty, and good 
setters and mothers. The chickens fledge 
early, grow fast, and are very hardy. These 
birds when full-grown weigh from ten to twelve 
pounds each. The chief objection is their 
tendency to roam,as they are not satisfied unless 
they have some acres of land to wander over ; 
but when thus gratified they will find food for 
themselves, and live on much less than the 
Cochins, which, though great eaters, must have 
all their food provided for them. The Domi- 
niqjie is a speckled fowl, of barely medium 
size, compact, good layers, and valuable for the 
table. The Bantam is but little larger than a 
pigeon, and is usually pure white, but some- 
times speckled ; it is very domestic, and a 
pleasant Httle bird around the premises, and is 
not unprofitable. It is generally feathered to 
the toes, but may be bred with clean legs. 
Should not weigh over one pound. The Game 
yi'w/is of medium weight, and yields good flesh, 
but is a poor layer, very quarrelsome (al- 
together the best fowl to keep for market), 
and undesirable to have where there are other 
fowls. Besides these there are many fanciful 
varieties, as the Creeper, with excessively short 
legs ; the Rumpless, without a tail ; the F7-iz- 
sled, with irregular feathers turned toward the 
head ; the Stlky or Merino fowl, with brown 
or buff down instead of feathers ; the Negro, 
with black crest, wattles, legs, and feathers; 
several varieties of the Top-knot^ and others. 



418 



POULTRY-KEEPING 



As a rule in the management of fowls, keep 
the dark ones for laying, and fatten the light 
ones for the table. 

Ducks. — The common or tame duck, as it is 
sometimes called, appears to be a domesti- 
cated variety of the mallard or wild-duck, but 
with one important difference, consisting in the 
practice of polygamy instead of the invariable 
pairing which is the habit of the wild duck. 
Ducks require water much more than geese ; 
and they do not graze, but are hearty feeders, 
devouring any thing that comes to hand, 
whether green vegetables, or meal, or potatoes, 
or meat — either raw or dressed — or, again, 
worms, slugs, and the larva; of insects. A 
drake should be allowed four or five ducks; some- 
times, however, six or seven will not be found 
too many. The female lays for more than three 
months, sometimes even producing as many as 
eighty eggs. The average, however, is not 
more than half this number. She will cover 
about twelve or fourteen, and is generally a 
steady sitter. Plenty of straw should be allowed 
her, as she always covers her eggs up when 
she leaves them, and she is often away an hour 
at a time, when the eggs are liable to be chilled 
if not well protected. The eggs are hatched at 
the end of a month, and the ducklings should 
be kept from the water for the first week or ten 
days. They are easily reared on barley-meal 
and potatoes, with a little boiled cabbage added 
occasionally. 

The varieties of ducks are almost innumer- 
able ; but the principal ones are the luJiiie 
Aylesbitiy, and the Rouen, with various crosses 
of these. The Aylesbury should be large, with 
a perfectly white plumage, yellow feet, and a 
flesh-colored bill. The Rouen is a large dark- 
colored variety, resembling the wild duck in 
all respects but size. But the most profit- 
able for domestic use \si\ie cotnmon black duck, 
which is a prolific layer. 

Geese. — -The common goose is undoubtedly a 
descendant of the wild gxey-lag, though ithas'by 
long domestication lost the power of sustained 
flight so well marked in that bird. Like it, how- 
ever, it is gregarious ; and when many flocks are 
kept together they separate at night as regu- 
larly as different families of children coming 
home from school. The domestic goose is too 
well known to need description. One gander 
is required to three or four geese, which, in 
mild seasons, lay early and sit weU. They re- 
quire a warm, dry place for their nests, and 
when undisturbed, they will sit steadily; and 
if the eggs have not been previously chilled 
or addled, they will generally hatch them all, 
if kept on the nest. To insure this, it is some- 
times necessary to withdraw the first hatched, 
to prevent the old ones wandering before all 
are out. The young should be kept in a warm 
sheltered place till two or three weeks old, if 
the weather be cold or unsettled. The best 
food for the goslings, is barley or oat, or boiled 
Indian meal and bread. Milk is also good for 
them. They require green food, and are fond 
of lettuce, young clover, and fresh tender grass; 



and after a few weeks, if they have a free range 
on this, they will forage for themselves. Geese 
are not profitable birds to raise, unless in places 
where they can procure their own subsistence, 
or at least during the greater part of the year. 
This they are enabled to do wherever there are 
extensive commons of unpastured lands, or 
where there are streams or ponds, lakes or 
marshes with shoal, sedgy banks. In these they 
will live and fatten throughout the year, if un- 
obstructed by ice. They may be fed on all kinds 
of grain and edible roots, but it is more econo- 
mical to give them their food cooked. The well- 
fattened gosling affords one of the most savory 
dishes for the table. Geese live to a great age ; 
they have been known to exceed loo years. If 
allowed a free range on good food and clean 
water, they will seldom get diseased. When 
well fed, they yield nearly a pound of good 
feathers in a season, at three or four pluck- 
ings ; and the largest varieties even exceed 
this quantity. 

There are many varieties of the goose ; but 
the coiiiDion white and gray are the best. The 
white Bremen is much larger, often weighing 20 
pounds net; it is of a beautiful snowy plumage, 
but it is not as prolific and hardy as the former. 
The China goose is small, but one of the most 
beautiful of the family, possessing much of the 
gracefulness of the swan ; it is prolific and 
tolerably hardy. The Ctiinea or African goose 
is the largest of the species, and equals the 
swan in size, often weighing over 25 pounds 
when ready for the table. 

Guinea Fowls. — The guinea-fowl is a native 
of Africa and the southern part of Asia, where 
it abounds in a wild state. Most of them are 
uniformly speckled ; but occasionally they are 
white on the breast, like the Pintados of the 
West Indies, and some are entirely white. 
They are very noisy, and so pugnacious that 
it is nearly impossible to keep them along with 
the poultry. They are of a roving disposition, 
and will not thrive except in rural districts. The 
hen must be closely watched when about to 
make her nest, which she does in the month of 
May. They mate in pairs, and the period of 
incubation is 26 days. WHien allowed to range 
at liberty over arable land, they require very 
little feeding, and hence they are kept by many 
people ; but their habits are so wild, that they 
give an immense amount of trouble. From 
the great mass of feathers, the guinea-fowl looks 
larger than it is, as when plucked its size is not 
greater than that of a common fowl. 

Pea-Fowls. — The pea-fowl is an ornamental 
bird only, and though good for the table, yet its 
habits are so rambling and it eats so much food, 
that it can scarcely be kept for the sake of its 
produce. The management is the same as for 
the turkey. 

Pigeons. — These are kept sometimes in the 
poultry yard, but unless they are allowed full 
liberty to fly at large, and pick up part of their 
living on arable land, they are not profitable 
birds. Their varieties are so numerous as to 
require a handbook to themselves, if fully des- 



POULTRY-KEEPING 



POWER OF ATTORNEY 419 



cribed ; but for economical purposes, any of the 
common sorts will be found to answer better 
than the fancy pigeons. 

Turkey. — The turkey is a native of America, 
and is found wild at the present day nearly all 
over the temperate parts of the continent, 
where it is irregularly migratory and gregarious, 
and forms a most valuable article of food. 
The domesticated turkey is very hardy, and 
braves our winters Avith impunity, preferring 
even the imperfect shelter of any convenient 
tree, to any indoor lodgings. But in severe 
frost they are not to be left out with impunity, 
as their legs and feet are liable to become 
frost-bitten ; they should therefore be com- 
pelled to enter some outhouse at such times. 
Turkeys are very fond of roaming, and will not 
long thrive without being allowed to wander 
over farm-land, where they pick and greedily 
devour insects of all kinds, as well as the ten- 
der heads of turnips, etc. The flesh of the 
turkey, both wild and domesticated, is exceed- 
ingly delicate and palatable ; and though the 
former does not possess the high game-flavor 
of the smaller wild-fowl, it exceeds them in di- 
gestibility and healthfulness. The turkey is 
useful chiefly for its flesh, as they seldom lay 
more than a nestful of eggs in one season, 
when they brood on these and bring up their 
young. If full-fed, however, and their first 
eggs are withdi-awn from them, they frequently 
lay a second time. 

In choosing turkeys for breeding, the cock 
should be selected with a broad breast, clean 
legSjWings and tail ample and well-proportioned, 
eyes bright, and the carniculated skin of the 
head and neck should be fully developed and 
changeable in color. The young cock is suffi- 
ciently mature for breeding purposes at a year 
old ; but he does not arrive at perfection till 
three years old,and lasts till he is double that age. 
The hens should be plump, lively, with plumage 
similar to that of the cock with which they are 
to be mated, so as to avoid any mixing of colors. 
One vigorous cock will suffice for a flock of ten 
or twelve hens. The laying generally com- 
mences in March, and is indicated by the hen 
assuming a degree of importance and restless- 
ness Avhich is new to her. She should now be 
closely watched, otherwise she is very likely to 
"steal her nest," as the act of laying in an out- 
of-the-way place is called. To avoid this, a 
nest of straw, lined with dry leaves, should be 
made in some quiet out-house, and the hen 
confined there every morning until she has de- 
posited her first egg. The turkey is a good 
sitter, and will sometimes lay one or two eggs 
after she has begun to sit ; these should be re- 
moved, as they will not hatch at the right time. 
Scarcely anything will induce her to leave her 
nest, and she must have food and water placed 
within her reach. From the 26th to the 31st 
day the hatch takes place, and the chicks 
should be carefully removed, by a person to 
whom the old bird is accustomed, as fast as 
they are hatched, and kept in a warm basket 
till all have made their appearance. The young 



may be allowed to remain twenty-four hours 
without food, but should then be fed with hard- 
boiled eggs, cut fine, or with crumbs of wheat 
bread. Boiled milk, curds, and buttermilk af- 
ford an excellent food. As they get stronger, 
oat or barley meal is suitable, but Indian meal,, 
uncooked, is hurtful to them while quite young. 
They are very tender, and will bear neither 
cold nor wet ; and it is of course necessary to 
confine the old one for the first few weeks. 

POWER OF ATTORNEY.— A power of 
attorney, or letter of attorney, as it is some- 
times called, is an instrument In writing, under 
seal, whereby one person authorizes another, 
called the attorney, to do some act in his stead. 
It may be in the following form : 

Know^ all Men by these Presents: — 
That I, John Doe, of the City, County and 
State of New York, have made, constituted and 
appointed, and by these Presents do make, con- 
stitute and appoint Richard Roe, of said New 
York, my true and lawful attorney for me, and 
in my name, place and stead, to (/lere insert a 
particular description of the business which the 
attorney is to transact^, giving and granting 
unto my said attorney full power and authority 
to do and to perform all and every act and 
thing whatsoever, requisite and necessary to 
be done in and about the premises, as fully 
to all intents and purposes, as I might or 
could do if personally present, with full power 
of substitution and revocation, hereby ratify- 
ing and confirming all that my said attorney or 
his substitute shall lawfully do or cause to be 
done by virtue hereof. In witness whereof, I 
have hereunto set my hand and seal the first 
day of May, in the year one thousand, eight 
hundred and seventy six. 

Sealed and delivered in presence of 

Andrew Harking, 

Richard Wright. 



John Doe. :l. s. 



The attorney may be authorized to transact 
all the business of his principal, in which case 
he has a general authority ; or to do some par- 
ticular act in behalf of his principal, as to sell 
stock, in which case he has only a special au- 
thority. Important legal consequences depend 
upon this distinction. 

The act of the attorney will bind the princi- 
pal, provided it is within the scope of the 
authority conferred upon him ; and if the at- 
torney in such case names his principal upon 
entering into contracts with third persons, he 
will not be personally bound thereby. But if 
an attorney assume to act for another without 
authority, or if he exceeds the authority con- 
ferred upon him, he is personally liable to the 
person with whom he is dealing, although he 
may have been innocently mistaken as to the 
extent of the authority delegated. 

It is the duty of the attorney to observe the 
strictest good faith in his dealings for and in 
behalf of his principal. To observe faithfully 
the instructions received ; to render just and 



420 



PRAIRIE CHICKEN 



PRESERVES 



true accounts ; not to mix the property of his 
principal with his own ; to notify his principal 
of acts done in his employment, and he is not 
allowed to retain for his own use any profit he 
may have made in the course of the business 
upon which he may have been employed. 

Any one personally competent to do an act 
may authorize an attorney to do the act in his 
behalf. Persons under twenty-one years of 
age, and married women, as a rule, are incapa- 
ble of appointing an attorney ; but they may 
act as attorneys for others. 

An ordinary power of attorney may be re- 
voked at any time by the principal, and his 
death always operates as a revocation. If, 
however, it be coupled with an interest in the 
attorney, as if he be authorized to transfer 
stock standing in the name of the principal as 
security for a debt due him from the principal, 
it is irrevocable. 

PRAIRIE CHICKEN.— Called also heath- 
hen dind pinnated groitse. Somewhat similar to 
the partridge (ruffled grouse), 
but is more regularly marked, 
or barred, on the breast. 
The tail-feathers are fan- 
like, but quite short and 
thick ; and the neck has on 
each side a feathery mane 
hanging down. They are 
in season with the partridge 
(which see), and prepared 
in the same way. 

PRAWNS.— Also called big shrimps, though 
quite differently formed, having a relatively 
larger head and eyes, with a saw-like beak or 
crest which bends upwards ; also a sharp back 
(especially near the tail), flat-sided, and the 
claws quite small. In season from April to 
November. Most of them are brought from 
the south already cooked, and sold by the 
measure. Prepare, cook, and serve like 
shrimps. 

PRESERVES.— By far the best utensil for 
preserving purposes is the porcelain-lined ket- 





Copper Preserving Pan. 

tie ; but the common bell-metal will answer if 
it is kept scrupulously clean, and scoured with 
hot vinegar each time it is used. The follow- 
ing general directions for making preserves 
apply also to jams, jellies and marmalades : 

1. Let everything used for the purpose be 
delicately clean ; cans and bottles especially 
so. 

2. It is best not to place a preserving-kettle 
flat on the fire, as this renders the preserves 
[iable to burn to it. In the ordinary kitchen- 



range what is called a low fire will answer, and 
in other cases some contrivance (as a trivet) 
which will lift the bottom of the preserving- 
kettle an inch or two from the coals should be 
used. 

3. Use granulated sugar for nice preserves i 
brown or moist sugar will affect both the color 
and the flavor. 

4. After the sugar is added to them stir the 
preserves gently at first, and more quickly 
toward the end, without quitting them until 
they are done ; this precaution will prevent 
the chance of their being spoiled through 
burning. 

5. All preserves should be carefully cleansed 
from the scum as it rises. 

6. Fruit which is to be preserved in syrup 
must first be blanched or boiled gently, until it 
is sufficiently softened to absorb the sugar; 
and a thin syrup must be poured on it at first, 
or it will shrivel instead of remaining plump, 
and becoming clear. Thus, if its weight of 
sugar is to be allowed, and boiled to a syrup 
with a pint of water to the pound, only half the 
weight must be taken at first, and this must not 
be boiled with the water more than fifteen or 
twenty minutes at the commencement of the 
process ; a part of the remaining sugar must 
be added every time the syrup is reboiled, un- 
less it should be otherwise directed in the re- 
ceipt. 

7. Never use tin, iron, or pewter spoons, or 
skimmers, for preserves, as they will convert 
the color of red fruit into a dingy purple, and 
impart, besides, a very unpleasant flavor. 

8. Let fruit for preserving be gathered 
always in perfectly dry weather, and be free 
both from the moVning and evening dew, and as 
much so as possible from dust. 

9. Put up preserves in small jars in prefer- 
ence to large, and when made keep them in a 
dark, cool closet, which is perfectly dry. 

Apples. — Select tart and well-flavored ap- 
ples ; peel and remove the cores without dividing 
them, and then parboil the apples. Make a 
syrup by adding to the apple-water three-quar- 
ters of a pound of sugar to every pound of 
apples; boil some lemon-peel and juice in the 
syrup. Put the apples into a preserving-kettle, 
pour the boiling syrup over them, and let them 
simmer (not boil, as that breaks the fruit) till 
they are tender ; turn them gently while cook- 
ing. Put them into jars, and cover with the 
boiling syrup. 

Apricots. — Choose the fruit carefully, large 
and sound, and push out the stones at the stalk 
end with a piece of wood ; take equal weights 
of fruit and sugar, half of the latter in powder 
to be strewn over the apricots and let remain 
twenty-four hours. Boil them gently a few 
minutes, and when cold, repeat the boiling at 
intervals of four or five hours, till the fruit be- 
comes clear and bright. Then take the apricots 
out, and having made a thick, clear syrup, boil 
them in it five minutes ; put them in jars, pour 
on the syrup, and tie over. 

If desired, instead of putting them in jars. 



PRESERVES 



421 



the apricots may be placed on wire drainers and 
put into a slow oven to dry ; when they cease to 
stick to the fingers if touched, they may be put 
away in boxes, with white paper between each 
layer. 

Barberries. — Pick the largest bunches of 
barberries, and put them with water to make 
the syrup into a pan, and boil them until tender ; 
then strain them through a sieve, and to each 
pint of liquor add one pound and a half of 
loaf-sugar ; boil and skim, and to each pint of the 
syrup put half a pound of the fruit in bunches, 
and boil them gently till bright. When cold 
put them in jars, pour the syrup over them, and 
tie down. 

Cherries. — Use French short-stemmed, or 
Morellas ; stone them and to every pound of 
fruit allow a pound of granulated sugar. Heat 
the cherries slowly and stew them half an hour 
in their own juice, then add the sugar and stew 
gently until clear, pour them boiling hot into 
cans taken from hot water and screw down the 
covers. 

Crab-apples. — To seven pounds of fruit al- 
low seven pounds of granulated sugar and one 
quart of hot water. Put the sugar and water in 
the preserving kettle and leave it over boiling 
water to dissolve while the fruit is being pre- 
pared. Rub the crab-apples clean,' prick them 
well with a coarse needle, nip off the remains 
of the flower, but do not disturb the stem ; 
place the syrup where it will boil, skim it well, 
then add the fruit and boil gently until it is so 
tender that a straw will reach the core. Put it, 
boiling hot, in cans taken from hot water and 
screw down the covers at once. A can need 
not be heated if a silver fork is first placed in 
it and allowed to remain until the can is filled ; 
it must be immediately withdrawn, a spoonful 
of the boiling syrup added and the cover at 
once made fast. 

Cucumbers. — Pare twenty large and green 
cucumbers, cut them into pieces, taking out the 
soft part, and put them into a jar, with salt and 
water, and set them in a warm place, to become 
yellow. Then wash them, and set them, cover- 
ed with cabbage-leaves, in a pan of water, on 
the fire ; cover the pan, to keep in the steam, 
and simmer them till of a fine green color. If 
requisite, change the water and leaves, and sim- 
mer them again. Then take them out, and 
put them into a sieve to cool, and put them into 
cold water two days, changing the water four 
times. Make a syrup of four pounds of loaf- 
sugar and one quart of water, boiling and skim- 
ming it well ; add the rinds of four lemons pared 
thin, with three ounces sliced ginger, and boil 
all together ten minutes. Remove from the 
fire, and when cool, put in the cucumbers, and 
boil them until they are clear. Then put them 
in glasses or pots, strain the syrup ovei* them, 
when cool ; and tie over. 

Damsons. — Pick over the plums carefully.^ 
but leave the stems on ; allow a pound of sugai* 
to a pound of fruit ; put the plums in the pre- 
serving kettle ; heat slowly; stew until the skins 
are tender ; add the sugar, let the whole sim- 



mer for ten minutes, then pour into glass cans 
and cover instantly. 

Figs. — Take ripe figs, with the stems on, and 
let them stand over night in cold water; then 
simmer in water enough to cover them, until 
tender, and spread out upon a sieve to cool. 
Allow a pound of sugar and a teacupful of cold 
water for each pound of the fruit ; boil them 
together until the scum stops rising; then put 
in the figs, and simmer ten minutes. Remove 
from the fire, lift the figs out with a skimmer 
and spread them on dishes to cool ; add to the 
syrup the peel of one lemon and the juice of 
two, and a little ginger (for three pounds of 
fruit) and boil it thick ; put in the figs 
again, and boil fifteen minutes ; fill the jars 
nearly full, pour in the syrup, and when cold 
tie up. 

Ginger. — Pare green ginger, and throw it 
into cold water, to keep its color ; boil it tender 
in three waters, at each change putting the 
ginger into cold water. For each pound of 
ginger allow one pound of refined sugar ; when 
cold, drain the ginger, put it into the pan with 
enough of the syrup to cover it, and let it stand 
for two days ; then pour the syrup to the re- 
mainder of the sugar, and boil it for some time ; 
when cold, pour it upon the ginger again, and 
set it by for three days ; then boil the syrup 
again, and pour it hot over the ginger. Pro- 
ceed thus till you find the ginger rich and 
tender, and the syrup highly flavored. If you 
at first pour on the syrup hot, or if it be too 
rich, the ginger will shrink and not take the 
sugar. 

Preseved ginger is now imported, in large 
quantities, from China and the West Indies; 
the best is that sold in small bottles. The 
cheaper sorts, in jars, with covers, are less 
delicate. 

Gooseberries. — Take full-grown, unripe fruit. 
Follow the rule for damsons. 

Green-gages. — I. Prick them all over with a 
pin, then put them in scalding water, let them 
simmer a few minutes, and strain them : take 
their weight in sugar, put it into a preserving- 
kettle with a quarter of its bulk of water, let it 
boil well, and skim very clear; put in the plums, 
let them boil up once, take them off, and set 
them aside till next day ; then take them out 
one by one from the syrup, boil it, and skim 
again ; put in the plums and let them boil very 
gently for twenty minutes ; take them off as be- 
fore, and let them stand till cold ; then put them 
into jars and tie up close. 

II. Gather the largest gages, free from 
specks, and just before ripe. Lay in the pan 
vine-leaves, and then the fruit in layers, with 
leaves between, and covering them, fill up 
with water, and set it to get hot on a moderate 
fire ; skim them and put the fruit m a sieve to 
cool ; then peel them and put them again into 
the water, with fresh leaves, and boil them 
three minutes, keeping in the steam; set 
them at a moderate distance from the fire, six 
or seven hours, until they become green ; then 
' put them in a sieve to drain, and boil them up 



422 



PRESERVES 



in a clear syrup once a day for three successive 
days. Take the gages out, put them in glasses 
or jars, pour over them the syrup when nearly 
cold ; and tie down. 

Groseilles. — Cut the stalks and tops from a 
gallon or more of ripe gooseberries, put them 
into a large preserving-kettle, and boil them for 
ten minutes in enough water to cover them, 
stirring often with a wooden spoon ; then pass 
both the juice and pulp through a fine sieve, and 
to every three pounds weight of these add half 
a pint of raspberry juice, and boil the whole 
briskly for three-quarters of an hour; draw the 
kettle aside, and stir in two pounds of sugar; 
when it has dissolved, renew the boiling for 
fifteen minutes longer. 

Melon (Citron). — Remove the soft pulp ; cut 
according to fancy ; pare smoothly and boil 
until tender, with an ounce of alum to four 
quarts of water. Allow a pound of sugar and 
two fresh lemons to every pound of melon. Cut 
the lemon rind in thin strips or in leaves and 
boil until tender. Make the syrup, allowing 
half a pint of water and the juice of the lemons 
to a pound of sugar. When boiling and well 
skimmed add the melon and the rind of the 
lemon ; cook until clear. Put it boiling-hot into 
air-tight cans. {See Water-melon.) 

Mi^ed. — I. Take two pounds of clear red 
gooseberry juice and boil it for three-quarters of 
an hour; add one pound of very ripe green-gages, 
weighed after they have been pared and stoned ; 
then stir to them a pound and a half of sugar, 
and boil again for twenty minutes. If the 
quantity be much increased, the time of boil- 
ing must be so likewise ; this had better be 
done before the sugar is added. 

II. Take raspberries, red currants, and white 
currants, in any proportion that may be con- 
venient, or gooseberries and black currants in 
equal quantities ; heat them together carefully, 
and stew them slowly for twenty minutes or 
half an hour, according to their weight ; then 
for each pound of fruit add three quarters of a 
pound of common moist sugar, dried and heated 
before the fire ; boil five minutes longer, and 
then put in jars. 

Oranges. — Put the oranges into water arid 
boil till a straw will penetrate the rind easily ; 
allow three-quarters of a pound of sugar and 
not quite half a pint of water for each pound of 
fruit, and make a syrup of them ; take the 
oranges from the water in which they were 
boiled, pour the hot syrup over them, and let 
them stand in it till next day ; then boil them 
in the syrup till it is thick and clear ; put them 
in jars, and strain the syrup over them. 

Orange-peel. — Allow a pound of sugar for a 
pound of fruit; peel the oranges carefully, and 
cut the peel into narrow strips ; boil it till 
tender, changing the water twice, adding hot 
water each time ; squeeze the oranges thorough- 
ly, strain the juice, and add it to the sugar, 
which put on to boil; when it is heated to 
the boiling-point, put in the peel and boil 
twenty minutes ; put into jars and pour the 
syrup over it. 



Preserve lemon-peel in the same way, allow- 
ing a pound and a quarter of sugar to a pound 
of fruit. 

Peaches. — I. ^Pare carefully large white 
Clingstones and remove the stones ; boil till 
tender in a thin syrup made of one-third of a 
pound of sugar to a pound of fruit ; put them in 
a bowl, pour the syrup over them, and let them 
stand two days in a cool, dry place ; then make 
a rich syrup, allowing three-quarters of a pound 
of sugar to a pound of the fruit; drain the 
peaches from the first syrup, put them into the 
rich syrup, and boil them until they are clear. 
Fill the jars about three-quarters full of the 
peaches and fill up with the syrup. 

11. Select the largest and freshest fruit ; not 
too ripe ; rub off the down with a piece of old 
linen, and divide the skin at the seam with a 
penknife. Put them into a jar of French brandy 
and tie them down for eight or nine days, then 
take out the fruit and boil it in a fine clear syrup 
until very bright, when put it into glasses, pour 
the syrup over it, and cover closely. 

Pears. — Allow three-quarters of a pound of 
sugar to a pound of firm, ripe fruit ; halve it and 
avoid the stem, core, pare and boil in clear water 
until tender; drop the fruit into a rich boiling 
syrup made with the sugar and a little of the 
water in which the pears were boiled; when 
clear, put the fruit in glass cans, leaving them 
in boiling water while the syrup boils, until thick- 
ened ; then fill the cans and cover at once. 

Pine-apples. — I. Select those that are ripe 
and perfectly fresh ; pare and cut, shred from 
the core with a silver fork, in large or small 
pieces to suit the taste ; allow a pound of gran- 
ulated sugar to every pound of fruit ; heat the 
pine-apple slowly and let it stew in its own juice 
until perfectly tender ; add the sugar and let it 
simmer five minutes ; put the fruit in glass cans, 
and leave them in boiling water while ihe syrup 
is thickened by rapid boiling ; drain the thin 
syrup from the cans, fill them with the thick 
boiling syrup, and close at once. 

II. After paring off all the rind, grate the 
pine-apples ; allow a pound of sugar to a pound 
of the pulp; and boil together gently for half 
an hour. This is excellent. 

Pine-apples fresh for Christmas. — Select 
large, fresh and ripe pine-apples, pare them 
carefully, removing every eye ; shred from 
the core with a silver fork; allow a pound 
and a quarter of granulated sugar to every 
pound of fruit ; put them in layers in a large 
bowl, stirring occasionally to dissolve the sugar; 
then put it in glass cans, and screw down the 
covers as tightly as possible. 

Plums (Egg). — Pour boiling water on them, 
let them stand five minutes, and then peel 
them so carefully as not to break the fruit ; 
make a syrup with a pound of sugar and not 
quite half a pint of water to a pound of fruit ; 
boil the plums in it till clear and tender, then 
remove them and lay them on a dish to cool ; 
when cool put them in jars, pour the hot syrup 
over them, and tie up closely. 

Plums, (Purple). — Make a rich syrup, allow- 



PRESERVES 



PRIMROSE 



423 



ing a pound of sugar and not quite half a pint 
of water to a pound of the plums ; boil the 
plums in it slowly until the skins begin to crack ; 
put them into jars, and pour the syrup over 
them. In three days boil a second time gently, 
and then tie them up. 

Plums {JV/iile or Green). — Preserve as di- 
rected for egg plums. Or they can be preserv- 
ed with the skins on by pricking them. 

Prunes. — Pour enough boiling water on them 
to cover them, add a lemon cut in small pieces, 
and set them where they will keep hot ; when 
swelled out to nearly the original size, put to 
each pound of the prunes half a pound of 
brown sugar, and a stick of cinnamon, or a tea- 
spoonful of ground cloves ; if there is not 
enough water to cover the prunes, etc., add 
more, and stew them in the syrup a quarter of 
an hour. Add, when taken from the fire, a wine- 
glassful of wine to every three pounds of the 
prunes, and put them into jars. 

Quinces. — I. Peel them, carefully taking 
out the parts that are knotty and defective ; cut 
them into quarters, or into round slices ; put 
them into a preserving-pan, and cover them 
with the parings and a little water; cover them, 
and boil them till tender. Take out the quinces 
and strain the liquor through a bag. To every 
pint of liquor allow a pound of loaf sugar ; boil 
the juice and sugar together, about ten minutes, 
skimming it well; then put in the quinces, and 
boil them gently twenty minutes. When the 
sugar seems to have completely penetrated 
them, take them out, put them into jars, pour 
the boiling syrup over them and cover immedi- 
ately. 

II. ( Whole.) — Wash the quinces and steam 
them until they can be pierced to the core with 
a straw ; when cold, core and pare them as 
smoothly as possible. To every povmd of fruit 
allow a pound of granulated sugar, made into a 
syrup with half a pint of boiling water : boil and 
skim the syrup, lay the fruit in it, cover the ket- 
tle and boil for ten minutes ; remove the cover 
and if the fruit is not clear leave it to simmer 
uncovered until it becomes so. Put it hot in 
jars and cover immediately with bladder. It is 
a great inconvenience that none of the glass 
fruit cans are made large enough to admit whole 
quinces, large pears or peaches. Paper dipped 
in the white of egg makes an air-tight covering, 
but it is very frail. 

Stra-wberries. — Take equal weights of the 
fruit and loaf-sugar ; lay the strawberries in a 
large dish, and sprinkle half the sugar, in fine 
powder, over ; shake the dish, that the sugar 
may touch the under side of the fruit. Next 
day make a thin syrup of the remainder of 
the sugar, using instead of water, one pint of 
red currant-juice to every pound of strawber- 
ries ; in this simmer them until sufficiently jel- 
lied. 

Or, put the fruit and sugar together into a 
preserving kettle ; set it over a slow fire until 
the sugar melts, and then boil slowly until rich 
and clear ; take out the fruit with a perforated 
skimmer and put it into jars, filling them about 



three-quarters full ; boil the syrup five minutes 
longer, pour it scalding hot on the fruit, and 
seal up at once. 

Tomatoes {Green). — Take three pounds of 
small green tomatoes, and pour enough cold 
water on them to cover them ; add the juice and 
rind of two lemons (pare the rind thin so as to 
get none of the white part), a few peach leaves, 
and half an ounce of powdered ginger (tied up 
in bags). Boil the whole together gently for 
j( of an hour, strain the liquor, and put to it a 
pound and a half of white sugar to a pound of 
the tomatoes — four and a half pounds in all ; 
put in the tomatoes and boil gently till the syr- 
up appears to have penetrated them. In the 
course of a week turn the syrup from them, 
heat it scalding hot, and turn it on the tomatoes. 
Tomatoes preserved in this manner resemble 
West India sweetmeats. 

Tomatoes {Ripe). — Procure three pounds 
of round yellow tomatoes, and peel them : add 
three pounds of sugar, and let them stand to- 
gether till next day : then drain off the syrup, 
boil it till the scum ceases to rise, put in the 
tomatoes and boil them slowly twenty minutes ; 
take them out with a perforated skimmer, and 
lay them on a dish ; boil the syrup until it thick- 
ens, adding at the same minute the juice of a 
large lemon ; put the tomatoes into jars, and 
pour the hot syrup over them. Cover at once. 

■Watermelon rind. — This as usually pre- 
served, is not only very troublesome to make, 
but is insipid to the taste, and far from whole- 
some ; but the following receipt can be recom- 
mended : — Take the rind of a melon not quite 
ripe, and cut it into moderate-sized pieces ; pare 
off the outside " skin," put it into a pan and 
cover it with salt water for three days, changing 
the water every day; then put it into clean 
water for three days, changing the water twice. 
Then make a thin syrup (a pound of sugar to a 
pint of water), and boil the melon in it fifteen 
minutes a day for three days. Next, make a 
rich syrup (a pound of sugar to not quite half 
a pint of water), add the juice and rinds (the 
latter cut into narrow strips and boiled tender) 
of one or more lemons according to the quanti- 
ty of melon, and enough of the best white gin- 
ger to make the syrup strong of it ; boil this till 
the syrup begins to thicken, and when cold, 
pour it on the melon. This will keep a long time 
and be better the second year than the first. 

PRIMROSE. — An early flowering plant, 
closely aUied to the Cowslip. There are many 
varieties, as the white, the red, the yellow-flow- 
ered, etc. The Evening Primrose, which is 
the favorite, has odorous yellow flowers, which 
open in the evening; it grows wild in many 
parts of the United States, and all the species 
are very easily cultivated, all that is required 
being to sow the seeds in any good garden soil 
early in the spring. 

The Chinese Primrose, of which there are 
single and double varieties, with white, red, 
rosy, lilac, striped, and mottled flowers, is an 
excellent plant for house culture. Sow the 
seed in July in a soil composed of one part 



424 



PRINCESSE DRESS 



peat, and one part sand. Be sure that the 
pots are well drained, and never keep the plants 
very wet. By January the plants will bloom, 
but they must not be allowed to over-bloom, as 
they are apt to do. After their blooming period 
is over, and when the weather has become quite 
warm, set them out of doors, but do not allow 
them to bloom in the summer. Let them grow 
till autumn, then repot in soil made as before ; 
and by Christmas they will begin to bloom, af- 
fording a succession of flowers till spring. 

PRINCESSE DRESS. — This garment, 
called also the Empire, and the Duchesse dress, 
is made with waist and skirt of one piece, and 
resembles the pattern of the basque, with this 
difference only, that the fronts are cut in three 
pieces each, and each part cut entirely separate. 

Having taken a length of paper sufficient to 
extend from the neck to the bottom of the skirt, 
the length to the waist is indicated by drawing 
a horizontal line, and the rest of the paper 
folded under. We then design the outlines of 
a plain waist {See Waist). Next, taking a sixth 
of the waist measure (VI.)* we lay it along the 
waist line beginning at the seam under the arm, 
and mark the other end. Then take half of 
this, or Jj of the entire waist measure and lay 
it upon the waist line, beginning at the front, 
and mark the point where it ends. We then 
draw a vertical line from the middle of the 
shoulder seam to the point first marked on the 
waist line ; and from the point last marked on 
the waist line, a curving line, similar to the 
front outline of a dart, to meet the vertical line 
about midway of its height. We then cut, fol- 
lowing these liaes, and thus divide the front 



into two pieces, cutting away a space equiva- 
lent to what in the plain waist is taken up for 
darts, and the same rule that determines the 
height of darts for persons of stouter figure 
than the average, decides here whether the 
curved line shall meet the vertical midway of 
the latter, or a little lower than that. The por- 




*See Cutting and Fitting. 



V 


piecing,'.- 








/ 


/ 


1, 
1 


^ / 













Fig. 2. 



tion of the waist towards the arm is now cu 
into two, as shown in Fig. I, for the purpose 
of obtaining sufficient fullness in the skirt. 




Fig. 3. 



PRINCESSE DRESS 



PROMISSORY NOTE 



425 



Upon the paper, when unfolded, we are able 
only to draw the first part, i, of the garment 
in full. The pattern requires to be pieced at 
the dotted line a a, for the second and third 
part. That the size and shape of these two 
parts may be perfectly clear we give the pattern 
of each in full after being pieced. Figs. 2, 3, 

In cutting the back, we proceed as for a 
basque ; frequently, however, we cut the middle 
of the back in two pieces as shown in figure 4, 
so t^at the skirt can be cut with a bias seam in the 




middle, which gives it a more graceful sweep. 
By widening the piece added at the waist, extra 




Fig- 5 



fullness can be obtained which may be laid over 
in a large, double plait, also a very graceful 
effect ; and for the Watteau plait, sometimes so 
much in favor, it is only necessary to widen the 
back from the neck and lay the material over 
in a large fold. 

In cutting the dress we allow a lining only 
for the waist and a few inches below. The 
various parts are put together in the same way 
as those composing the basque (see Waist), 
and in the order represented in Fig. 5. 

This pattern may be used for a dressing- 
gown or wrapper : in which case it requires to 
be made looser in the waist, all the other meas- 
ures remaining the same. 

PRIVET.— The Privet or Prim is one of the 
most desirable of the garden-shrubs ; its foliage 
is attractive, and its small clusters of white 
flowers add much to its beauty. It will thrive 
in any good garden-soil, and when once planted 
requires but little attention, blooming for years 
in the same spot. Its foliage and flowers, how- 
ever, will be more luxuriant if it is treated to a 
few shovelfuls of compost yearly. If this com- 
post be given in the autumn it acts as a protec- 
tion from the frost, and can be dug in around 
the roots early in the spring. It is better to 
plant shrubs in the autumn rather than in the 
spring; but if planted in the spring mulch some 
stable-litter around the roots or a few inches of 
hay. This will keep them from drying up dur- 
ing the heat of summer. 

PROMISSORY NOTE. — A promissory 
note is defined to be a written promise, by one 
person to another, for the payment of money at 
a specified time, absolutely and at all events. 

The following is a common form : 

" $525 tVo New York, May i, 1876. 

" Sixty days after date, for value received, I 
" promise to pay John Doe, or order, five 
" hundred and twenty-five ^^o dollars, at 
" the National Park Bank. 

" Richard Roe." 

The person making the note is called the 
maker, and the one to whom, or to whose 
order it is payable, is called the payee. 

It is customary to insert the words "value 
received," although it is unnecessary. 

Business men usually make their notes 
payable at some specified place, as at the bank 
where they transact their business, or at their 
store or warehouse. 

A promise to pay to the payee or order, as in 
the above form, or to the payee or bearer, ren- 
ders a note negotiable. Where payable to order, 
as in the above form, it is transferred by en- 
dorsement (the writing his name upon the back 
by the payee) and delivery — where payable to 
bearer, by deHvery only. Where a note is pay- 
able to order, and the payee endorses it by sim- 
ply writing his name upon the back of it, it is 
called a blank endorsement, and the note there- 
by becomes payable to bearer, and may be 
afterwards transferred by delivery only. ' But 
instead of writing only his name upon the back 



426 



PROMISSORY NOTE 



PRUSSIC ACID 



of the note, the payee may direct to whose order 
the note shall be payable by writing the words, 
" Pay to the order of ■ " over his signa- 
ture on the back of the note, which is called 
a special endorsement. The person to whom 
a note is transferred by endorsement is called 
the endorsee, and the person transferring, the 
endorser. Any person in possession of a 
note, and entitled to receive payment of it, is 
called the holder. 

The endorsee can endorse to a second en- 
dorsee, and so on indefinitely. 

Days of Grace. — A note payable on a cer- 
tain day or a certain time after date, is entitled 
to three days of grace, so called, and becomes 
due and payable three days after the day 
specified in the note. If the last of the three 
days of grace happens to be a Sunday 
or legal holiday, the note is payable on the day 
preceding. A note payable on demand is not 
allowed days of grace, but becomes due and 
payable on the day demand is made. 

Demand and Notice of Non-Payment. — 
When a note is payable at a bank it must be 
presented for payment during banking hours 
— in other cases it should be presented during 
business hours, or during any time of the day 
when the person who is to pay may reasonably 
be expected to be found at his residence or 
place of business. 

If a note due and payable is not paid on 
presentment, it is incumbent on the holder to 
give notice of that fact to the endorsers and 
maker. It is not necessary that the notice 
should be in writing, although this is usual, nor 
is any particular form necessary. The party 
liable must be given a correct description of 
the note, and notified of its non-payment, and 
that the holder looks to him to pay it. 

The notice of non-payment must be given 
within a reasonable time, in order to charge 
the endorser, and this is now considered to be 
not later than the first post upon the day after 
the note was due and payable. 

Endorsement. — An endorsement is an im- 
plied contract that the endorser is the bona fide 
owner, that all names before his, of maker 
and endorsers, are genuine, that the note shall 
be duly paid, and if not, that the endorser will, 
on due presentment and notice of non-payment, 
pay it himself. When, however, the words 
" without recourse " are added to the endorse- 
ment, the above contract does not arise, and 
the endorser is not liable. When a note is 
made or becomes payable to bearer, and is 
transferred by delivery only, without endorse- 
ment, the person transferring does not become 
liable upon the note. 

Overdue Notes. — Where a note is taken 
bona-fide in the regular course of business be- 
fore it falls due, the holder in a suit upon it 
can shut out almost every equitable defence ; 
but when taken after it is due, it is subject in 
the hands of the holder to all the infirmities 
attaching to it while in the hands of the payee, 
and before it was negotiated, and the maker 
may avail himself of any defence (want of con- 



sideration, for example), which he might have 
made in a suit by the payee. In this connec- 
tion it should be stated that notes payable 
on demand become overdue after the lapse of 
a reasonable time, although no demand is 
made. What is a reasonable time, depends 
upon the circumstances of each particular case. 

Protest. — A protest is defined to be " A nota- 
" rial act, made for want of payment of a promis- 
" scry note, or want of acceptance or payment 
" of a bill of exchange, by a notary publio, in 
" which it is declared that all parties to such 
" instruments will be held responsible to the 
" holder." Strictly, protest is only required of 
foreign bills of exchange and is not necessary 
in case of promissory notes or inland bills. It 
is now the common practice, however, to pro- 
test notes and inland bills, and have the notices 
of non-payment sent by the notary making the 
protest. This is a convenient way, as notaries 
keep a record of the instruments protested and 
notices sent, which renders it easy to prove 
demand and notice, if a suit is afterwards 
brought. 

PROUD FLESH.— A term applied to the 
granulations of a wound or an ulcer when heal- 
ing by suppuration. Its formation is a perfectly 
healthy process, being in fact one of the stages 
of healing, and need excite no apprehension. 
If it ceases to throw off pus, however, and 
turns bluish, it is possible that mortification 
may be indicated, and it is best to consult a 
physician concerning it with as little delay as 
possible. 

PRUNES. — These are a foreign variety of 
the plum, dried or preserved. There is a great 
difference in quality. Those from Turkey are 
generally the best, but are very seldom seen in 
our market. The best we are apt to get come 
from the south of France, and perhaps the 
very best among them are those known as the 
Yquem. If they arrive fresh and well pre- 
served, any of them are good ; but if they be- 
come heated on the passage, they "sweat," 
and are candied, which gives them a whitish 
appearance and impairs their quality. The best 
are put up in glass jars, boxes, and other small 
packages ; those which come in baskets or 
casks are usually inferior. Prunes are very 
wholesome, and have the effect of a gentle 
laxative ; on this account they are useful to 
those who suffer from constipation. They are 
also used in the preparation of certain dishes. 
{See Preserves.) Fresh prunes arrive from 
December to May. 

PRUSSIC ACID— (Technically called hy- 
drocyanic acid.) — Poison. Symptonis : Re- 
duced respiration, the patient breathing but 
about once in ten seconds. Treatment : Arti- 
ficial respiration. {See Drowning.) 

If the dose be of the undiluted acid, death 
usually occurs so speedily that there is no time 
for remedies ; sometimes ammonia is tried with 
a view to remove the prostration, but as a rule 
with small effect. If the dose be of diluted 
acid, and time permits, send to the druggist's 
for a dose of hydrated oxide of iron. 



PUDDINGS 



427 



This is one of the most virulent poisons 
known, an almost inappreciable quantity laid on 
the tongue being sufificient to produce death; 
but, like most poisons, when employed in very 
minute quantities, it is a useful medicine. 
Greatly diluted prussic acid reduces sensibility 
of the skin, so if there is much pain or itch- 
ing in the part such an application often does 
good. In skin diseases, when there is much 
itching, and the skin is not b>'oken, there can 
be no better application than a very weak solu- 
tion of prussic acid ; for this purpose add half 
a dram (fluid) to six ounces water. Moderate 
doses allay irritability of the stomach, and 
are frequently used in all painful affections of 
that organ, in ulcers, cancers, and especially 
in neuralgia. It is also used with advantage 
in certain chest affections, in whooping-cough, 
and in functional or other diseases of the 
heart. It should fiever be used, however, ex- 
cept under medical advice, and then with very 
great caution. 

PUDDINGS.— All the ingredients for pud- 
dings should be fresh and of good quality ; the 
slightest degree of mustiness or taint in any 
one of the articles of which they are composed 
will spoil all that are combined with it. The 
perfect sweetness of suet and milk should be 
especially attended to before they are mixed in 
a pudding, as nothing is more offensive than 
the first when it is over-kept, nor worse in its 
effect than the curdling of the milk, which is 
the certain result of its being in the slightest 
degree sour. 

Currants should be cleaned, and raisins stoned 
with exceeding care ; almonds and spices very 
finely pounded, and the rinds of oranges or 
lemons rasped or grated lightly off (the white 
part of the skin having no flavor), when they 
are used for this, or for any other class of 
dishes ; if pared, they should be cut as thin as 
possible. 

Batter is much lighter when boiled in a cloth, 
and allowed full room to swell, than when con- 
fined in a mould ; it should be well beaten the in- 
stant before it is poured into the cloth and put in- 
to the water immediately after it is securely tied. 
The cloth should be moist and thickly floured, 
and the pudding should be sent to table as ex- 



the boiler or stew-pan to permit the escape of 
the steam from within. 

Plum-puddings which it is customary to boil 
in moulds, are both lighter and less dry when 
closely tied in stout cloths well buttered and 
floured, especially when they are made in part 
with bread ; but when this is done care should 
be taken not to allow them to burn to the bot- 
tom of the pan in which they are cooked ; and 
it is a good plan to lay a plate or dish under 
them, by way of precaution against this mis- 
chance ; it will not then so much matter whether 
they be kept floating or not. 

A very little salt improves all sweet puddings, 
by taking off the insipidity, and bringing out the 
full flavor of the other ingredients, but its 
presence should not be in the slightest degree 
perceptible. When brandy, wine, or lemon- 
juice is added to them it should be stirred in 
briskly, and by degrees, quite at last, as it 
would be likely otherwise to curdle the milk or 
eggs. 

Many persons prefer their puddings steamed ; 
but when this is not done, they should be 
dropped into plenty of boihng water, and be 
kept well covered with it until they are ready 
to serve ; and the boiling should never be al- 
lowed to cease for an instant, for they soon be- 
come heavy if it be interrupted. 

Pudding and dumpling cloths should not only 
be laid into plenty of water as soon as they are 
taken off, and well washed afterwards, but it is 
essential to their perfect sweetness that they 
should be well and quickly dried (in the open 
air if possible), then folded and kept in a clean 
drawer. 

When a baked pudding is sufficiently browned 
on the surface (that is, of a fine amber-color all 
over) before it is baked through, a sheet of 




Pudding Mould. 

peditiously as possible after it is done, as it will 
quickly become heavy. This applies equally to 
all puddings made with paste, which are ren- 
dered uneatable by any delay in serving them 
after they are ready ; they should be opened a 
little at the top as soon as they are taken from 




Baked Pudding Mould. 

writing-paper should be laid over it, but not be- 
fore it is set. When quite firm in the centre 
it is done. 

All puddings which are solid enough to al- 
low of it should be turned on to a hot dish from 
the one in which they are baked, and strewed 
with sifted sugar before being served. 

Minute directions for the preparation and 
management of each particular pudding will 
be found in the recipe for it. 

To Mix Batter for Puddings.— Put the 
flour and salt into a bowl and stir them together; 
whip the eggs thoroughly, strain them through 
a fine hair sieve, and add them very gradually 
to the flour ; beat it well and lightly with the 



428 



PUDDINGS 



back of a wooden spoon, and after the eggs are 
mixed well, thin the batter with milk to the 
proper consistence. The whites of the eggs 
beaten separately to a solid froth, and stirred 
gently into the mixture the instant before it is 
tied up for boiling, or put into the baking-oven, 
will render it remarkably light. When fruit is 
added to the batter, it must be made thicker 
than when it is served plain, or it will sink to 
the bottom of the pudding. Batter should 
never stick to the knife when the pudding is 
served ; it will do this both when a sufficient 
number of eggs are not mixed with it, and when 
it is not cooked enough. About four eggs to 
the half pound of flour will make it firm enough. 
Sauces for Puddings. — The following com- 
prise some of the best for sweet puddings: 

I. (Brandy Sauce.) — Place on the fire two 
ounces of sugar and onetablespoonful brandy; 
stir with a wooden spoon until of a rich, dark 
brown ; then add one half pint of water, six 
ounces sugar, one thinly pared lemon rind, four 
cloves, one inch of stick cinnamon, and one 
teaspoonful cornstarch dissolved in a little cold 
water ; boil fifteen minutes, strain, add one gill 
of brandy, and serve. 

II. (Cream Sauce.) — Heat a pint of cream 
slowly in a vessel set in a sauce-pan of boiling 
water ; let it just reach the boiling-point, with- 
out boiling ; remove it from the fire, and add 
four tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar and the 
whites of two eggs beaten to a froth ; mix well, 
and flavor with a teaspoonful of nutmeg, and a 
teaspoonful of vanilla. Set the bowl in hot 
water till the pudding is served. 

III. (German Sauce.) — Boil together one half 
pint of milk, one half pint of cream, the very 
thinly pared rind of half a lemon, one inch stick 
cinnamon, six cloves, one quarter inch va,nilla. 
bean, and a teaspoonful of dissolved cornstarch, 
until the sauce is very strongly flavored. 
Strain and pour it slowly on the yolks of four 
eggs well beaten with five ounces of sugar 
and a pinch of salt. Return it to the fire, 
placed in a larger stew-pan containing boiling 
water. Whisk the sauce well until nearly the 
boiling-point is reached ; when it should have 
the appearance of a thick cream highly frothed, 
and when about to serve add two tablespoon- 
fuls white rum, and send to table at once. 

IV. (Another German Sauce.) — Dissolve in 
half a pint of sherry or of Madeira, from three 
to four ounces of fine sugar, but do not allow 
the wine to boil ; stir it hot to the well-beaten 
yolks of six fresh eggs, and mill the sauce over 
a gentle fire until it is well thickened and highly 
frothed ; pour it over a plum, or any other kind 
of sweet boiled pudding, of which it much im- 
proves the appearance. Half the quantity will 
be sufficient for one of moderate size. This is 
a delicious sauce for any rich pudding. 

V. (Hard Sauce.) — Work one and a half tea- 
cupfuls of powdered sugar into half ateacupful 
of butter, and beat them white ; add a wine- 
glassful of sherry or any white wine, the juice 
of half a lemon, and spice to taste. Keep cold. 

VL (Lemon Sauce.)-— Beat a heaping teacup- 



ful of powdered sugar and half a teacupful of 
butter to a light cream ; add an ^^z, well beaten, 
the juice and half the rind (grated) of a lemon, 
and a teaspoonful of nutmeg, or nutmeg and 
mace mixed ; beat hard for several minutes, 
and add (a spoonful at a time) three tablespoon- 
fuls of boiling water. Put the bowl into a sauce- 
pan of boiling water, and heat the sauce very 
hot, but do not let it boil. Stir constantly. 

VII. (Liquid Sauce.) — Boil I pint water, 6 oz 
sugar, 4 oz cornstarch, dissolved in cold water; 
2 cloves, a small piece of whole ginger, i blade 
of mace, for 15 minutes. Strain, add prepared 
cochineal to pink it, 8 drops of essence of bitter 
almonds, and a glass of brandy. 

VIII. (Pineapple Sauce.)— Pare a nice ripe 
pineapple and grate enough of it to make the 
quantity of sauce required ; add a very little 
water, and simmer it quite tender ; then mix 
with it, by degrees, from half to three quarters 
of its weight in sugar, give it five minutes more 
of gentle boiling, and pour it over the pudding. 

IX. (Rexford Sauce.) — Dissolve half an ounce 
of cornstarch in a little cold water, add two 
gills of boiling water, with eight ounces brown 
sugar, boil ten minutes ; remove from the fire, 
add two gills of good, strong cider, \ cup apple 
sauce, the yolk of an t.^^, and 2 oz butter. 

X. (Vanilla Sauce.)— Put half a pint of 
milk to heat over boiling water; when scalding 
hot, add the yolks of two eggs well beaten with 
half a pint of powdered sugar, and stir until as 
thick as boiled custard. Set it aside, and when 
cool flavor highly with extract of vanilla ; just 
before serving whisk the whites to a stiff froth 
and beat them very gently in the sauce. 

XI. (Sherry Wine Sauce.) — Proceed as for 
brandy sauce, substituting sherry for brandy. 

XII. (Port Wine Sauce.) — Proceed as for 
brandy sauce, substituting port for brandy. 

XIII. (Sauce Duchesse.) — Dissolve 2 ozs of 
finely grated chocolate in i wineglass of cog- 
nac, then add gradually H pints of cream in 
which \ a vanilla bean has been boiled, beat 
in the yolks of 2 eggs, make scalding hot, strain. 

XIV. (Sauce au Quatre Fruits.) — Pare very 
thinly the rind of i lemon, and i orange, then 
strip off every bit of white skin, remove the 
pips of each, and then cut into small dice. 
Peel and core 3 apples, and also cut in dice, 
add a cupful of sultana raisins, and i oz of cit- 
ron cut very small. Make a spice sauce (No. 
15), strain, add to the apple as soon as tender, 
add the rest of the fruit, with + of each lemon 
and orange cut in small strips. Serve hot. 

XV. (Spice Sauce.) — Place on the fire H pts 
water, 10 ozs sugar, 8 cloves, 2 blades mace, i 
nutmeg, 2 inches cinnamon, a small piece of 
root ginger, and \ teaspoonful caraway seeds ; 
simmer gently half an hour, strain, and serve. 

Albert Pudding, (Boiled.) — 7ir/{-^ .-Butter, 
powdered sugar, flour, stoned raisins, each \ 
lb ; eggs, 5. 

Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, and 
add first the yolks and then the whites of the 
eggs beaten separately ; then strew lightly in 
the flour, dried and sifted, and last of all the 



PUDDINGS 



42^ 



raisins, weighed after they are stoned. Put 
these ingredients, perfectly mixed, into a well- 
buttered mould, or floured cloth; and boil for 
three hours. Serve it with a rich sauce. A 
little powdered mace, or the grated rind of a 
small lemon will vary the flavor of this very ex- 
cellent pudding: when a mould is used, slices 
of candied peel should be laid rather thickly 
over it after it is buttered. 

Almond Pudding (Baked). — Take .--Bread 
crumbs, 2 oz ; cream, i pint : pounded almonds 
Yz lb : bitter almonds 6 ; yolks of 7, whites of 
3 eggs ; sugar, 6 oz ; butter, 4 oz : brandy, i 
wineglassful, or \ glass of noyeau. 

Bring the cream to the boiling point, pour it 
over the bread-crumbs and let them stand till 
nearly cold : then mix in very gradually the 
sweet and bitter almonds pounded to the 
smoothest paste with a little orange-flower water 
(or a few drops of plain water will answer); 
stir to them by degrees the yolks and then the 
whites of the eggs, the sugar (sifted), and the 
butter ; turn the mixture into a very clean stew- 
pan, and stir it without ceasing over a slow fire 
until it becomes thick, but on no account allow 
it to boil. When it is tolerably cold, add the 
brandy or noyeau, pour the pudding into a dish 
lined with a very thin puff-paste, and bake it 
half an hour in a moderate oven. 

Apple Pudding (Baked). — Take .--Apples, i 
lb ; sugar, 6 oz ; wine, i wineglassful ; butter, 3 
oz ; lemon, juice and rind of i ; eggs, 5 ; flour, 
I dessertspoonful. 

Select good cooking apples, pare and core 
them and weigh out a pound ; stew them to a 
perfectly smooth marmalade with six ounces of 
sugar and a wineglassful of wine ; stir them 
often that they may not stick to the pan. Mix 
with them, while they are still quite hot, the 
butter, the grated rind and strained juice of a 
lemon, and lastly, stir in by degrees the well- 
beaten yolks of the eggs, and a dessertspoonful 
of flour, or macaroni crushed small. Bake for 
half an hour in a moderate oven, or longer if 
the pudding should not be quite firm in the 
middle. Send to table with sugar sifted over 
the top. 

Apple Pudding, {Dtwipling). — I. In one 
quart of flour sifted with five even teaspoonfuls 
of baking powder, rub two ounces of butter 
and a pinch of salt ; mix with three gills of milk 
and roll it into a sheet half an inch thick ; pile 
the centre with sour apples, pared, quartered, 
and cored ; lap the crust over them, pressing 
in the edges ; turn it upside down on a plate ; 
put it in the steamer and leave it over boihng 
water for one hour. Eaten with sugar ana 
cream, or plain butter and brown sugar. 

II. — Trti/I'^ .--Apples, pared, cored, and sliced, 
l|lbs; flour, i lb; suet, 6 oz; lemon, i. 

Mince the beef suet very fine and make a 
light paste of it and the flour; roll the paste 
thin, and fill it with the apples ; add the grated 
rind and strained juice of the lemon, tie it in a 
cloth, and boil it from an hour and a quarter to 
an hour and a half. Grated nutmeg, or a little 
powdered cinnamon may be substituted for the 



lemon when either is preferred. To convert 
this into a richer pudding use half a pound of 
suet for the crust, and add to the apples a 
tablespoonful or two of orange or quince mar- 
malade. 

Arro-wroot Pudding (Baked). — Make as 
directed for corn-sta«-ch pudding. 

Batter Pudding (Baked). — 7a>^^ .--Flour, 6 
oz ; eggs, 3 ; milk, i pint ; salt, i saltspoonful. 

Mix the salt thoroughly with the flour, and 
add very gradually the eggs, which must pre- 
viously have been beaten to a light froth ; beat 
up the batter well, and stir to it by degrees the 
milk, which should be perfectly fresh ; pour the 
batter into a buttered dish, and bake three- 
quarters of an hour in a moderate oven. If 
properly managed this pudding will be ex- 
tremely light and dehcate, and the surface will 
be crisp. Serve with preserved or stewed 




Pudding served with Preserves. 

fruit. The same mixture maybe baked in but- 
tered cups from twenty to thirty minutes, turned 
out, and served with sugar sifted thickly over. 

Batter Pudding, (Boiled.)— I. Take .--Flour, 
6'oz ; milk, I pint ; eggs, 2 ; salt, ^ teaspoon', 
ful. 

Beat the eggs smooth, mix half of the milk 
with them, and pass the whole through a sieve; 
add this very gradually to the flour, and when 
the batter is perfectly smooth, thin it with the 
rest of the milk. Shake out a wet pudding- 
cloth, flour it well, pour the batter in, tie it se- 
curely (leaving room to swell), and put it imme- 
diately into plenty of fast boiling water. Boil 
it an hour and ten minutes. Send it to table 
the instant it is dished, with wine sauce, a hot 
compote of fruit, or raspberry vinegar. To 
render this pudding very light, a portion of the 
whites of the eggs, or the whole of them, 
should be whisked to a froth and stirred into 
the batter just before it is put into the cloth. 

II — Take:-¥\our, sifted, 3 gills ; eggs, 3 ; 
salt, I teaspoonful ; milk, from ^ to a whole 
pint. 

Mix the yolks of the eggs and the flour to a 
smooth batter, thin with milk till it is of the 
consistence of cream ; whisk the whites of the 
eggs separately, stir them into the batter, and 
boil the pudding in a floured cloth, or in a but- 
tered mould or bowl, for an hour. Before it is 
served, cut the top quickly with a large dice 
half through the pudding, pour over it a small 
jarful of currant, raspberry, or strawberry jelly, 
and send it to table instantly 



430 



PUDDINGS 



Berry Pudding (Boiled). — Make a stiff bat- 
ter with flour and cold water, adding a little 
salt; beat it well until quite smooth, and then 
mix in as many berries (blackberries, raspber- 
ries, huckleberries and currants) as it will hold ; 
flour a pudding-cloth, pour in the batter, and 
tie up tight. Boil it four hours. Serve with 
liquid sauce. 

Bird's-nest Pudding (Baked). — Pare tart, 
well-flavored apples, and core without dividing 
them; put them in a deep dish with a table- 
spoonful of sugar and a small bit of mace or 
grated lemon-peel in the opening of each apple. 
Mix as much custard as will fill the dish ; allow 
seven eggs to a quart of milk, and season with 
sugar and lemon, or peach-water. Fill the dish 
quite full, set it into a pan with a little water, 
and bake one hour. Serve with wine sauce. 

Brandy Pudding (Boiled). — Line a mould 
with raisins, stoned, or dried cherries, then 
with thin slices of French roll ; next add ratafias 
or macaroons; then again fruit, rolls, and cakes 
in succession until the mould be full, sprinkling 
in two wineglassfuls of brandy. Beat four eggs, 
yolks and whites ; put to a pint of milk or 
cream, lightly sweetened, half a nutmeg, and 
the rind of half a lemon finely grated. Let the 
liquid sink into the solid part ; then flour a 
cloth, tie it tight over, and boil one hour. Keep 
the mould the right side up. 

Bread Pudding (Baked). — I. Take .--Bread- 
crumbs, 6 oz; butter, i oz ; milk, l pint ; sugar, 
3 oz; eggs, 5 yolks, 3 whites ; candied orange- 
peel, 2 oz ; a little nutmeg. 

Pour the milk boiling hot over the bread- 
crumbs, add the butter, and let them stand till 
the bread is well soaked ; then stir to them the 
sugar, eggs, orange-peel, and a flavoring of nut- 
meg. Pour this into a dish, and place it in the 
oven ; when nearly baked, place lightly over 
the top the whites of three eggs beaten to a 
firm froth and mixed at the instant with three 
heaping tablespoonfuls of sifted sugar. Bake 
the pudding half an hour in a moderate oven. 
The icing may be omitted, and an ounce and a 
half of butter, just warmed, put into the dish 
before the pudding, and plenty of svigar sifted 
over it just as it is sent to the oven. Or^ it 
may be made without either, and served with 
liquid sauce. 

II. — 77z/&^ .--Bread-crumbs, 8 oz; milk, i pint; 
butter, 3 oz; sugar, 402; currants, 6 oz; cream, 
I ,gill ; candied orange or citron, i >^ oz ; eggs, 5. 

Mix the milk and cream together, boil them, 
and pour them scalding hot on the bread-crumbs 
and butter ; cover with a plate and set aside for 
half an hour; then stir to them the sugar, 
currants, orange or citron, and eggs. Bake 
half an hour. 

Bread Pudding (Boiled.) — Take :-WCik, i 
pint; sugar, 3 oz; butter, i oz; salt, a pinch; 
bread-crumbs, Yz lb ; eggs, 4 ; nutmeg or lemon- 
peel to taste. 

Dissolve the sugar in the milk, throw in a 
pinch of salt, and pour it boiling hot on the 
bread-crumbs ; add the butter, and cover with 
a plate ; let them stand half an hour, and then 



stir to them the eggs, well-beaten ; flavor with 
nutmeg or lemon-peel, and pour the mixture 
into a thickly-buttered mould or bowl, which 
holds a pint and a half, and which should be 
quite full ; tie a paper and a cloth over the top, 
and boil the pudding an hour and ten minutes. 

This is quite a plain pudding, but by omitting 
two ounces of the bread, and adding more but- 
ter, another egg, a wineglassful of brandy, the 
grated rind of a lemon, and as much sugar as 
will sweeten the whole, a very rich pudding will 
be obtained. Candied orange-peel has a good 
effect when thinly sliced in it ; and half a pound 
of currants is a still further improvement. 

Bread and Butter Pudding (Baked). — 
I. Z<7/&d? .--Bread and butter; milk, i^ pints; 
sugar, 4 oz; eggs, 4; yi nutmeg; currants, 
3 oz. 

Dissolve the sugar in the milk, and stir it 
into the eggs well beaten ; grate half a nutmeg 
over them, and pour the mixture into a dish 
which holds about three pints, and which is 
filled almost to the brim with layers of stale 
bread and butter, between which the currants 
have been strewed. Bake from three-quarters 
of an hour to an hour. The currants may be 
omitted from this receipt ; and orange-flower 
water or grated lemon-peel may be substituted 
for the nutmeg, if preferred. 

II. {Rich) — Take:-W\W, i pint; rind of I 
lemon ; bitter almond, 6 (or \ drachm of cin- 
namon); cream, )i pint; sugar, 40Z; eggs, 6; 
brandy, I wineglassful ; bread and butter, 3 
layers ; currants, 4 oz ; candied orange or 
lemon-peel, i^ oz. 

Put the bitter almonds, bruised, (or lemon- 
peel, or cinnamon, as may be preferred,) into 
the milk, and simmer till the latter has a good 
flavor; then strain the milk, mix it with the 
cream, sweeten it with the sugar, and stir into 
it while still hot the weH-beaten eggs ; throw in 
a few grains of salt, and then add the brandy, 
stirring the mixture briskly. Have ready in a 
thickly-buttered dish three layers of thin bread 
(Tjuttered), with the currants and finely-sliced 
candied peel strewed between and over them ; 
pour the milk and eggs on them by degrees, 
letting the bread absorb one portion before 
another is added. It should soak for a couple 
of hours before being taken to the oven. Bake 
half an hour in a moderate oven. The cream 
may be omitted from this pudding, and milk 
alone used ; or, cream may be substituted for 
the entire quantity of the milk. 

Cabinet Pudding (Boiled). — I. Take .--Rais- 
ins or dried cherries, 3 dozen ; penny sponge- 
cakes (or remnants of sponge-cake), 3 oz; 
macaroons, 4; ratafias, 2 oz; candied citron, 
i>^ oz; eggs, yolks of four, whites of three; 
milk, % pint; cream, \ pint; sugar, 7.%. oz. 

Split and stone the raisins, or take an equal 
number of dried cherries, and place either of 
them regularly in a sort of pattern in a thickly- 
buttered quart mould or bowl ; next, slice and 
lay into it the sponge-cake ; add the macaroons, 
ratafias, and candied citron (sliced thin) ; then 
the yolks and the whites of the eggs beaten 



PUDDINGS 



431 



separately, mixed with the milk, strained into ! 
the cream, and sweetened with the pounded 
sugar ; these ought nearly to fill the mould. 
Steam the pudding, or boil it very gently for an 
hour; let it stand a few minutes before it is 
dished, that it may not break; and serve with 
brandy or wine sauce. This pudding may be 
made with remnants of light biscuits, sponge- 
cake, macaroons, etc. 

n. {Very Fine) — 7a^^/-Dried cherries or 
raisins, 3 to 4 oz ; sponge-biscuits, Yz lb ; rata- 
fias, 4 oz; thin cream, or cream and milk, i 
pint ; sugar, 3 oz ; vanilla, ^ pod or thin rind 
of Yz lemon, and six bitter almonds, bruised ; 
eggs, yolks of 6, whites of 2 ; brandy, i wine- 
glassful ; preserved ginger and candied citron 
to taste. 

Butter thickly a quart mould or bowl, and 
ornament it tastefully with the cherries, or with 
the finest muscatel raisins, opened and stoned; 
lay lightly into it the biscuits cut in slices and 
intermixed with the ratafias. Add the sugar in 
lumps to the milk, and flavor lightly with the 
vanilla, or the lemon peel and bitter almonds ; 
strain and pour this hot to the eggs, well- 
beaten, and when nearly cold stir the brandy in 
gradually ; when quite cold, pour it gently, and 
by degrees, into the mould, and steam or boil 
the pudding gently for an hour. Serve it with 
wine-sauce. Never omit a buttered paper over 
any sort of custard-mixture ; and remember 
that quick boiling will spoil the appearance of 
this pudding. 

Cherry or Currant Pyramid (boiled). — 
Wash and stem the cherries, or pick the stems 
off the currants. Make a light paste (see Pies, 
roll it out a quarter of an inch thick, and cut for 
the bottom crust a round piece about the size of 
a tea-plate ; spread a layer of the fruit upon this, 
leaving a half-inch margin all round, and sprinkle 
with sugar; roll out a second sheet, an inch 
smaller than the first, lay it carefully on the 
fruit, and turn up the margin of the lower crust 
over the edge of this ; spread this in turn with 
the fruit and sugar, and cover with a still 
smaller round ; proceed in this manner until the 
sixth and last crust is no more than three inches 
in diameter. Have ready a pudding-bag of the 
size and shape of the pudding and long enough 
to meet and tie under the base without cramp- 
ing the pudding, dip it in boiling water, flour it 
well inside, and draw it carefully over the pyra- 
mid. Boil it for two hours, and serve with either 
hard or liquid sauce. To aid in handling, form 
the pyramid on a plate, and tie the bag under- 
neath ; serve the pyramid on the same plate, if 
liked, with a napkin placed between it and a 
larger plate. 

Cocoanut Pudding (baked). — Take :- 
Cocoanut, butter, and sugar, equal parts ; eggs, 
5 ; cream, one teacupful ; grated lemon peel. 

Grate the cocoanut, and allow the same 
weight of butter and also of fine white sugar. 
Stir the butter and sugar to a light cream, and 
add the eggs, well beaten, the cream, the milk of 
the cocoanut, and enough grated lemon-peel to 
flavor the whole. Line a dish with a rich paste 



put in the pudding, arid bake it an hour in a 
moderate oven. Cover with letter-paper if the 
top browns too rapidly. 

Corn-starch Pudding (baked). — Take:- 
Corn-starch, 4 tablespoonfuls ; milk, i quart; 
eggs, 4; sugar, % teacupful; butter, i table- 
spoonful ; cinnamon and nutmeg to taste. 

Heat the milk to boiling ; dissolve the corn- 
starch in a little cold milk, stir it in, and boil 
three minutes, stirring constantly ; remove from 
the fire and while still very hot, add the butter ; 
set aside till cold. Beat the eggs very light, 
the whites and yolks separatel)', mix the sugar 
and seasoning with them, and add to the corn- 
starch ; beat the whole thoroughly to a smooth 
custard; turn into a buttered dish, and bake 
half an hour. This pudding should be eaten 
cold with powdered sugar sifted over it. 

Cracker Pudding (baked). — Take :-Q.xzzk' 
ers, finely pounded, 10 oz; sugar, 3 or 4 table 
spoonfuls ; melted butter, 2 tablespoonfuls ; 
wine, I wine-glassful; half a nutmeg; a little 
salt ; eggs, 8 ; milk 3 pints. 

Mix the crackers (which should be very finely 
pounded) with the sugar, butter, wine, nutmeg, 
and salt, — and put into a buttered dish ; beat 
the eggs to a froth, stir in the milk, and turn 
them on the rest of the ingredients. Let the 
pudding stand till the crackers are swollen and 
soft ; then bake it half an hour in a moderate 
oven. 

Custard Pudding (baked). — Take-.-Y.gg?,^ 7 ; 
sugar, Yz lb ; milk, i quart ; peach-water or es- 
sence of lemon to taste. 

Beat the eggs and sugar together, stir them 
into the milk, and season to taste with the peach- 
water or lemon ; pour it into a buttered dish 
that will just hold it; set a pan half full of 
water into the oven, and set the pudding-dish 
into it. Bake three quarters of an hour. 

Custard Pudding (boiled). — ( Take .--Eggs, 3; 
milk, I pint; sugar; lemon or orange. 

Beat the eggs very light, put them into a pint 
bowl, and add to them enough milk to fill it ; 
then strain, flavor, and sweeten it with pounded 
sugar; boil the pudding very slowly for half an 
hour, let it stand a few minutes, and dish ; serve 
it with sugar sifted over, and sweet sauce in a 
tureen, or send stewed currants, cherries, or 
gooseberries to table with it. For flavoring this 
pudding the sugar (in lumps) with which it is 
sweetened may be rasped on a lemon or an 
orange, then crushed and dissolved in the milk ; 
from an ounce and a half to two ounces will be 
sufficient for general taste. 

Delmonico Pudding (baked). — Take:-W\Vis., 
r quart; corn-starch, 4 tablespoonfuls ; eggs, 4; 
sugar, 9 tablespoonfuls ; flavor to taste. 

Dissolve the corn-starch in a little cold milk, 
add it to the rest of the milk, and boil three 
minutes ; beat the yolks of the eggs with six 
tablespoonfuls of sugar, stir in the milk and 
corn-starcli, and flavor to taste ; beat the whites 
of the eggs to a stiff froth, add three table- 
spoonfuls of powdered sugar and flavor ; set 
the pudding in the oven and as soon as it stiff* 
ens, spread the icing (white of eggs and sugar) 



432 



PUDDINGS 



over the top, and bake to a light brown. Eat 
cold with cream. 

Dutch Custard, or Raspberry Pudding 

(Baked).— T^z/t^ .--Raspberries, i ;^ pints; sugar, 
6 oz ; eggs, 6. 

Line a tart-dish with puff-paste and lay in the 
raspberries well mixed with three ounces of the 
sugar ; beat the eggs with the remaining three 
ounces of sugar, and pour it over the fruit ; 
bake the pudding from twenty to twenty-five 
minutes in a moderate oven. 

Farina Pudding (Baked).— Make as direct- 
ed for corn-starch pudding. 

Fruit Pudding (Boiled). — Make a light 
rich suet paste, and roll out into one sheet ; 
lay apples, pared, cored, and sliced, or 
peaches, or raspberries, in the centre ; sweeten 
freely with sugar, and close the paste snugly 
over them ; dip a pudding-cloth in hot water, 
flour the inside, tie the pudding up in it and 
boil two hours and a half. Serve with either 
hard or liquid sauce. 

Gooseberry Pudding (Baked). — Take ;- 
Green gooseberries, i lb ; sugar, 5 oz ; butter, i^ 
oz ; water, X pint ; bread-crumbs, 2 oz ; eggs, 4. 

IBoil the sugar and gooseberries together in 
the water, from ten to twelve minutes ; then 
beat the fruit to a mash, and stir in the butter ; 
when nearly or quite cold, add the bread-crumbs 
(very fine), and the well-beaten eggs. Bake in a 
slow oven from a half to three-quarters of an 
hour. To make a richer pudding of this kind, 
press the fruit through a sieve, mix it with four 
or five crushed crackers, and use double the 
quantity of butter. 

Green Corn Pudding (Baked). — Having 
grated sweet corn from eighteen good sized 
ears, add half a gill of sugar, four ounces of 
butter, a little salt and six well beaten eggs ; 
stir in a pint of hot milk, pour the whole into a 
buttered baking dish, and bake nearly an hour. 

Or, to corn from twelve ears add two ounces 
of butter, a pinch of salt, two well beaten eggs, 
a pint of hot milk and half a gill of sugar; bake 
three-quarters of an hour. Instead of grating 
the corn, slit every row lengthwise ; cut off the 
rounding part and with the back of the blade, 
push out the eyes and the cream. 

Hasty Pudding. — Put a quart of water and 
a teaspoonful of salt over the fire ; when hot 
(not boiling) take out half a pint and mix it 
with half a pint of corn meal, when the water 
boils pour this in and stir until it thickens 
enough for the spoon to stand up in it, 
then let it boil slowly (stirring occasionally) 
for an hour and a half. It is nice the next day 
cut in slices and fried, but for this must be 
made stiffer; a gill of meal should be added. 
It must be perfectly cold before it is fried ; 
then cut it in slices half an inch thick, flour 
them and fry them brown in a little lard. 

Huckleberry Pudding (Boiled) Mix a 

teaspoonful of soda in a pint of molasses (dis- 
solving it first in a spoonful of the molasses) stir 
in a quart or three pints of huckleberries, and 
sift in one quart of flour ; tie it in a floured bag, 
leaving a little room, and boil or steam it from 



three to four hours. Eaten hot with sauce ; 
spices may be added, if liked. 

Indian-meal Pudding (Baked). — 1 Take : 

— Boiling milk, i pt.; corn meal, 3 gills; molasses, 
3 gills ; ginger, i tablespoonful ; cinnamon, i 
teaspoonful ; salt, y^ a teaspoonful ; drippings 
(or butter), i oz ; eggs, 3 ; lemon (grated rind),i. 

Pour the milk on all the ingredients but the 
eggs ; cover for an hour ; add the well-beaten 
yolks and the whites whisked to a stiff froth ; 
bake about three-quarters of an hour, stirring 
occasionally during the first quarter. 

II. {Without Eggs). — 7a/&i? .-Indian meal, 
7 heaping tablespoonfuls ; butter or lard, 2 
tablespoonfuls ; salt, i teaspoonful ; molasses, 
I teacupful ; ginger or cinnamon, 2 teaspoonfuls ; 
milk, I quart. 

Pour the milk boiling hot to the other ingre- 
dients, and mix together thoroughly; put into 
a buttered dish, and at the moment of setting it 
in the oven, stir in a teacupful of cold water ; 
bake three quarters of an hour. 

Indian-meal Pudding (Boiled). — Take :- 
Indian-meal, i quart; milk, i quart; eggs, 3; 
sugar, 3 heaping tablespoonfuls ; beef-suet 
minced very fine, J^ lb ; salt, i teaspoonful. 

Pour the milk, boiling hot, upon the meal 
and stir in the suet and salt ; set aside to cool ; 
beat the yolks of the eggs with the sugar, add 
them to the batter, and then add the whites ; 
tie in a floured cloth, leaving room to swell one- 
fourth and boil five hours. Serve hot with 
butter and sugar. 

Lemon Pudding (Baked). — Take .--Butter, 
30Z; sugar,,! lb; eggs, 9; lemons, 2; flour, 
\\ even teaspoonfuls; milk i pt. 

Beat the yolks and sugar until very light; 
add the butter with which the flour has been 
smoothly mixed ; then the juice and grated 
rind of the lemons; stir in the milk, and then 
beat in very gently and thoroughly the whites, 
whipped to a stiff froth; line a dish with very 
thin puff-paste, pour in the pudding, and bake 
in a slow oven three-quarters of an hour. 

Lemon-suet Pudding (Baked). — Take :- 
Bread-crumbs, ^ lb ; beef suet, 6 oz; pounded 
sugar, 3 ^ oz ; lemon, large one ; currants, 6 oz ; 
eggs, 4 large or 5 small. 

Mince the suet very fine, and mix it with the 
breadcrumbs ; add the sugar, the currants, the 
grated rind and strained juice of the lemon, and 
the well beaten eggs ; mix together thoroughly, 
put into a thickly buttered dish and bake in 
a brisk oven for an hour, drawing the dish to- 
wards the mouth of the oven when the pudding 
is of a fine brown color. Turn it from the 
dish before it is served, and sift sugar over it 
or not, at pleasure. Two ounces more of suet 
may be added if a very decided flavor of it 
is liked ; the pudding is good without the cur- 
rants. 

Macaroni Pudding (Baked). — Take :- 
Macaroni, i teacupful, broken into pieces an 
inch long; milk, I quart; eggs, 4; sugar, ^ 
teacupful ; butter, 2 tablespoonfuls ; lemon, Yz- 

Simmer the macaroni in half the milk, until 
tender ; beat the yolks of the eggs up with the 



PUDDINGS 



433 



sugar, and stir them into the hot macaroni, then 
the butter, the lemon, the milk , and lastly the 
whites of the eggs beaten to a stiff froth ; put 
into a buttered mould and bake half an hour, 
or until browned. 

Marrow Pudding (Baked or Boiled). — 
Take .--Beef-marrow, %. lb ; milk, i quart ; the 
crumbs of a French roll or of six penny sponge- 
cakes ; currants yi\h ; candied citron, 3 oz ; 
brandy, 3 tablespoonfuls ; grated nutmeg, i ; 
eggs, yolks of 8 and whites of 3 ; salt, h tea- 
spoonful ; lemon, peel of i ; cinnamon. 

Boil the lemon-peel and a small piece of cin- 
namon in the milk ; strain it, and pour it boiling 
hot upon the bread or cake-crumbs, and cover 
it up till cool ; then stir in the beef marrow, 
chopped fine, the currants, the candied citron, 
sliced, the brandy, the nutmeg, the yolks and 
then the white of the eggs, with the salt mixed 
in them. Bake three-quarters of an hour in 
a dish edged with paste, and serve with loaf- 
suo-ar sifted over it. Or boil two hours, and 
serve with sweet sauce. 

Orange Pudding (Baked). — Cream an ounce 
of butter and stir in the grated yellow rind of 
two oranges, the juice and soft pulp of three, 
half a pint of sugar, four and a half even table- 
spoonfuls of rolled and sifted crackers, four well 
beaten eggs and half a pint of milk ; mix well 
and bake in deep plates lined with paste. Or, 
use half a pound of sugar, quarter of a pound 
of butter, six eggs, (the wliites beaten to a stiff 
froth), the grated rind and juice of two oranges 
and a pint of cream. 

Pine-apple Pudding (Baked). — Take:- 
Pine-apple, i ; sugar, equal weight ; butter, 
half its weight ; cream, i teacupful ; eggs, 5. 

Pare the pine-apple, carefully cutting out all 
the specks, and grate it fine ; weigh it and allow 
an equal vveight of sugar, and half the weight 
in butter ; stir the sugar and butter to a cream, 
and add it to the pine-apple ; then add the eggs, 
weli beaten, and the cream ; the dish may t)e 
lined with crust or not, as preferred. Bake 
half an hour in a moderate oven. 

Plum Pudding (Baked). — Trt'/^^. --Beef 
suet, \ lb ; stoned raisins, | lb ; currants, \ lb ; 
sugar, \ lb; flour, \ lb; eggs, 4; milk, i tea- 
cupful ; brandy, i wineglassful ; candied citron, 
and lemon or orange-peel, I oz each ; nutmeg or 
powdered ginger, to taste ; a small pinch of 
salt. 

Beat the above ingredie'nts together very 
lightly, pour it into a well-buttered mould or 
cake-tin, and bake in a moderate oven from one 
to one and a half hours. Serve with very 
sweet sauce, or with marmalade. 

Plum Pudding (Boiled).— I. Take :-'Eg^?,, 
4 ; milk, i pint ; salt, i teaspoonful ; beef-suet, 
chopped very fine, \ lb. ; raisins, stoned and 
chopped, I lb ; currants, \ lb ; brown sugar \ 
lb ; nutmeg i grated ; candied lemon or orange- 
peel, sliced, I oz ; brandy, i wineglassful ; 
white wine, i wine-glassful ; flour. 

Beat up the eggs well, and add to them first 
half a pint of the milk and a teaspoonful of salt ; 
then mix in the beef-suet, the raisins, currants, 
28 



sugar, nutmeg, and candied peel ; stir all well 
together, and add the rest of the milk ; next 
beat in sufficient flour to make it a stiff paste ; 




Plum Pudding. 

adding the brandy and wine ; tie it up close, and 
boil it, if in a mould five hours, if in a cloth, 
four. 

For Sauce melt some butter ; stir in enough 
loaf-sugar to make it very sweet ; add a wine- 
glassful each of brandy and white wine ; boil it 
up once, and pour half over the pudding, and 
serve the rest hot in a sauce-boat. 

Plum puddings may be made a fortnight or 
longer before they are wanted, and will be all 
the'better for keeping, if hung up in a dry place 
where they will not mould. 

Potato Pudding. (Baked). — I. Take :- 
Potatoes, 1)4 lbs ; butter 3 oz ; sugar 5 or 6 oz ; 
eggs, 5 or 6; lemon-peel, i ; salt, a few grains. 

Boil the potatoes very dry and mash them 
perfectly smooth while hot ; mix with them first 
the butter, then the sugar, eggs, salt, and grated 
lemon-peel ; pour the" mixture into a well but- 
tered dish, and bake in a moderate oven forty 
minutes. It should be turned out of the dish 
and sent to table with fine sugar sifted over it ; 
or for variety, red currant jelly, or any other 
preserve, may be spread on it as soon as it is 
dished. 

When cold, this pudding is like cake. 

l\.{Richer).— Take :-?o\.2Xo^?>, 14 oz; butter, 
4 oz ; sugar, 4 oz ; eggs, 5 ; lemon-peel, i ; 
brandy, % wineglassful; candied peel, ij< to 2 
oz ; a little salt. 

Beat up as before, and pour into a thickly 
buttered dish or mould, ornamented with slices 
of the candied orange or lemon-peel ; pour a 
little melted butter "on the top, and then sift 
plenty of white sugar over it. Bake 40 minutes. 

Quince Pudding (Baked).— T^/^^.-Ouinces, 
6 large ; sugar ^ lb ; eggs, 6 ; cream, h pint. 

Pare and gratelhe quinces ; beat the eggs and 
add them, together with the sugar and cream ; 
flavor with rose-water and bake in a buttered 
dish three quarters of an hour. 

Raisin Pudding (Baked).— I.-7'a/&t' .--Flour 
34: lb ; stoned raisins, }i lb ; beef-suet, 6 oz ; 
salt, small pinch ; eggs, 3 ; milk ]i pint ; nut- 
meg, \ teaspoonful. 

Beat the eggs thoroughly, stir the milk in, and 
add to the rest of the ingredients ; pour the 
whole into a buttered dish, and bake it an hour 
and a quarter. For a large pudding, increase 
the quantities one half. 

n. (-ff/V//^r).— 7}?^^ .--Stoned raisins, i lb; 
beef-suet, minced fine, 10 oz ; flour, % lb ; salt, 



434 



PUDDINGS 



a small pinch ; nutmeg, Y^ grated or the grated 
rind of a lemon ; eggs, 4 ; milk. 

Mix the above ingredients lightly together 
using as much milk as is necessary to make the 
whole into a very thick batter ; bake an hour 
and twenty minutes. The addition of sugar to 
this pudding will be found no improvement, as 
it will render it much less light. 

Raisin Pudding (boiled). — I. Take :- 
Flour, ;4 lb ; bread-crumbs, 4 oz; beef suet, 
chopped fine, i lb ; stoned raisins, i lb 6 oz ; 
candied-peel, i>^ oz; nutmeg, yi ; eggs, 4 or 5; 
butter, salt and ginger ; milk. 

Mix the above ingredients together, using 
enough milk to make the whole into a very 
thick batter ; pour the mixture into a well- 
floured cloth of close texture, which has previous- 
ly been dipped into hot water, and wrung out ; 
boil in plenty of water for four hours and a half. 
Serve with very sweet wine or punch sauce. 

II. {Simpler.) — Take:-Y\ovir, i ptand 3 gills; 
sweet milk, j pt ; chopped suet, A pt ; chop- 
ped raisins, \ pt; molasses, ^ pt; soda, \ tea- 
spoonful; salt, i teaspoonful. 

Mix thoroughly together, adding the soda 
dissolved in a little of the milk before putting 
in all of the flour. Boil or steam it, in a 
mould or bag, for three hours. To be eaten 
with a rich sauce. 

Raspberry Pudding. {See Dutch Cus- 
tard Pudding.) 

Rice Pudding (baked). — 1. Take .-Rice 6 
oz ; milk, i quart ; sugar, 3 oz ; eggs, 3 large or 
4 small ; flavoring of nutmeg, lemon-peel, or 
cinnamon. 

Throw the rice into plenty of cold water, and 
boil it gently from eight to ten minutes ; drain 
it jvell in a sieve or strainer, and put it into a 
sauce-pan with the milk ; let it stew from three 
quarters of an hour to an hour ; then sweeten 
it with the sugar, and stir to it gradually the 
eggs beaten and strained ; flavor it with nutmeg, 
cinnamon, or lemon-peel, and bake it in a slow 
oven for an hour. 

II. {Without Eggs.) — TrtXv.'-Rice, 6 oz ; 
milk, 3 pts ; butter, i oz ; sugar, 4 oz ; salt, i 
teaspoonful. 

Wash rice in several waters; add in other in- 
gredients, place in oven, allow over two hours 
for baking. When butter is melted, stir until 
mixed. Bake slowly and be sure to take it out 
at the right moment. It is done when on tip- 
ping the dish, the rice and milk move together. 

Rice Pudding (boiled). — I. 7"^,^^ .--Rice, 6 
oz ; raisins, 3^ lb ; or apples, i lb. 

Wash the rice carefully, mix it with the rais- 
ins, tie them in a floured cloth, giving them 
plenty of room to swell ; boil them three- 
quarters of an hour,' and serve with very sweet 
sauce. This is an excellent pudding for 
children. A pound of apples, pared, cored, and 
quartered, may be used instead of the raisins ; 
boil It to f| hours. 

ll.{Richer) — Take :-Bac&, 4^ oz; milk, i^ 
pints; sugar, 3 to 4 oz ; salt, a few grains; 
bitter almonds, 4 to 6; lemon, peel of ^; eggs. 
4. Put the rice into the cold milk, beat it grad- 



ually, and boil slowly till it is quite soft and 
thick ; while still quite hot, add the sugar, and 
stir in the grated lemon-peel, the bitter-almonds 
pounded to a paste, and the well-beaten eggs ; 
let the mixture cool, and then pour it into a 




Rice Pudding Mould. 

thickly-buttered mould or bowl, which should 
be quite full; tie a buttered paper and a floured 
cloth over it, and boil exactly an hour. Let it 
stand two or three minutes before it is turned 
out ; and serve it with sweet sauce, fruit syrup, 
or a compote of fresh fruit. An ounce and a 
half of candied orange peel will improve this 
pudding ; and a couple of ounces of butter 
may be added to enrich it, when the receipt is 
considered too simple without. 

Rice-flour Pudding (baked.) — Ti/i'^? .--Rice- 
flour (ground rice), 5 oz ; milk, i quart ; butter, 
4 oz ; sugar, 5 or 6 oz ; salt, % saltspoonful ; 
eggs, yolks of 8, whites of 2 ; lemon, peel of i ; 
brandy, i large wine glassful. 

Mix the I'ice smooth in half a pint of the 
milk, and pour it into the rest of the milk, which 
should be boiling fast ; set over a gentle fire ten 
or twelve minutes, stirring constantly to keep it 
from burning to the pan ; before taking it from 
the fire, add the butter, sugar, and salt ; turn it 
into a pan and stir it a few minutes, to prevent 
its hardening at the top ; then mix with it by 
degrees, but quickly, the yolks and then the 
whites of the eggs, the grated lemon-peel, and 
the brandy. Lay a border of rich paste round 
a buttered dish, pour in the pudding, strain a 
little melted butter over the top, moisten the 
paste with a brush, or small bunch of feath- 
ers dipped in cold water, and sift plenty of 
sugar over it, but less over the pudding itself. 
Bake in a slow oven for three quarters of an 
hour. This is a rich and delicious pudding. 

Rhubarb Pudding (baked). — Prepare the 
rhubarb as directed for pies ; butter a pudding- 
dish thickly, and cover the bottom with buttered 
slices of bread ; cover with the rhubarb cut 
into short pieces ; sprinkle freely with sugar ; 
then put on another layer of bread and butter, 
and proceed thus until the dish is full. Cover 
closely and bake for an hour and a half, remove 
the lid, and bake ten minutes, or until browned. 
Serve with sweet sauce. 

Sago Pudding (baked). — Take :~Szgo, ^ 
lb ; milk, i quart ; cinnamon or mace, i stick ; 
melted butter, ^ teacupful ; sugar, 4 heaping 
tablespoonfuls ; eggs, 6 ; Zante currants. 

Wash the sago in hot water, and boil it till 
soft, with the cinnamon or mace in the milk ; 
stir it often, or it will burn ; when soft, add 
the melted butter, the sugar and the well-beaten 



PUDDINGS 



435 



eggs ; pour into a buttered dish, and just as it is 
going into the oven, strew some Zante currants 
over the top. Bake in a moderate oven half 
an hour. The currants may be omitted from 
this receipt without injuring the pudding. 

Sister Jonathine (Steamed).— Rub an ounce 
and a half of lard and half a teaspoonful of 
salt into half a pound of flour that has been sift- 
ed with two and a half even teaspoonfuls of 
baking powder ; mix with a gill and a half of 
milk. Have fine sour apples pared, quartered 
and cored, and placed closely in a pie tin ; roll 
out the crust and lay it over them, make a cut 
in the centre ; steam for three quarters of an 
hour, then turn it upside down and serve at 
once, with brown sugar and cream, or a rich 
sauce. 

Snow Pudding. — Milk, i pint ; isinglass, ^ 
oz, or 2 strips ; sugar, lo oz ; eggs, 5 ; lemons 
(rind and juice), 2. 

Soak the isinglass two hours, or over night, 
well covered, in cold water ; take it out and 
pour over it one pint of boiling water ; add the 
yellow rind cut in long parings, the juice and 
the sugar ; place on ice and when partly stif- 
fened take out the rind and beat in thoroughly 
the whites of four eggs beaten to a froth : pour 
in moulds wet with cold water and leave on ice 
for several hours. Serve with a custard made 
of the remaining egg, the four yolks and the 
milk flavored with vanilla. 

Sponge-Cake Pudding (Baked). — Sponge 
biscuits, 3 ; candied lemon or orange peel, i 
oz ; eggs, 6 ; milk, i;i pints ; sugar, 3 oz ; lemon, 
peel of, I ; brandy, ^ wineglassful ; butter, j^ 
oz ; sifted sugar, i^ oz. 

Slice into a well-buttered tart-dish three 
penny sponge-biscuits, or an equal amount of 
sponge cake, and place on them the candied 
orange or lemon-peel cut in strips. Beat the 
eggs thoroughly, and stir to them the boiling 
milk, in which the sugar has previously been 
dissolved ; grate in the lemon-peel, and when 
they are somewhat cooled, add the brandy ; 
while just warm, pour the mixture over the 
cakes and let it remain an hour ; then strain 
an ounce and a half of melted butter over the 
top, or strew pounded sugar rather thickly over 
it ; bake in a slow oven for three-quarters of 
an hour or more. 

Squash Pudding (Baked). — Cut half a win- 
ter squash into several pieces, take out the 
seeds, steam until tender, scrape the pulp from 
the rind, press it through the colander and to 
one quart add five ounces butter, one pound of 
brown sugar, two tablespoonfuls of ginger, and 
four of cinnamon, the yolks of eight eggs well 
beaten, a pinch of salt and a quart of boiling 
milk ; mix well, add the whites of the eggs, 
beaten to a stiff froth, mix gently, pour in paste- 
lined pie-plates and bake at once in so moder- 
ate an oven that the mixture will not bubble. 
As some squashes absorb more milk than 
others it is well to know that the mixture should 
be about the thickness of ordinary boiled cust- 
ard. Pumpkin pudding may be made in the 
same way. 



Suet Pudding (Boiled).— I. Take : -Flour, 
2} teacupfuls ; beef-suet chopped very fine, i 
teacupful ; milk, i teacupful ; molasses, i tea- 
cupful ; fruit, I teacupful ; saleratus, i teaspoon- 
ful ; salt, to taste. 

Mix the suet with the flour, add the other in- 
gredients and mix to a thick paste ; tie closely 
in a well-floured cloth, and boil hard for three 
hours. Serve with brandy sauce. 

II. — Take:-Sta\e bread-crumbs, | lb; flour, 
f lb; beef-suet chopped extremely fine, 10 to 
12 oz; salt, I teaspoonful; nutmeg, rather less 
than 4 teaspoonful; eggs, 2; milk. 

Mix the above ingredients, using enough 
milk to make them into a somewhat lithe but 
smooth paste. Boil two hours and a quarter. 

Sunderland Pudding (Baked). — Take :- 
Eggs, 6; boiling milk, i pint; flour, 3 table- 
spoonfuls ; salt, a small pinch. 

Beat the yolks of the eggs and mix them 
with the flour; add the milk and salt ; whip 
the whites to a stiff froth, stir them in ; 
pour into a buttered dish, and bake half an hour 
in a moderate oven. Serve with liquid sauce. 

Sweet Potato Pudding (Baked). — Take:- 
Sweet potatoes, ^ lb ; sugar, 6 oz ; butter, 6 
oz ; eggs, 8 ; lemon, i ; wine, i wine glassful ; 
nutmeg, i. 

Parboil the sweet-potatoes and grate them 
fine , stir the sugar and butter to a cream, and 
add them to the potatoes ; then add the beaten 
yolks of the eggs : mix together well, and add 
the grated peel and juice of the lemon, the 
wine, and the grated nutmeg ; lastly, add the 
whites of the eggs whipped to a stiff froth ; 
put into a buttered dish, and bake three-quar- 
ters of an hour in a moderate oven. 

Tapioca Pudding (Baked).— T^y^e. --Tapi- 
oca, I teacupful ; milk, i quart ; sugar, 2 table- 
spoonfuls ; melted butter, 2 tablespoonfuls ; 
eggs, 5- 

Cover the tapioca with cold water, and soak 
two hours ; drain off what water is not ab- 
sorbed, and soak the tapioca two hours longer 
in the milk ; when the tapioca is quite soft, beat 
the sugar and butter to a cream ; add the yolks 
of the eggs, then the tapioca and milk, and 
lastly the whites of the eggs. Stir well to- 
gether, pour into a buttered dish, and bake half 
an hour. Serve with hard or liquid sauce. 

II. ( With Apples.) — Soak half a pint of tapi- 
oca over night in cold water ; cover the bottom 
of a baking dish with cored sour apples filled 
with sugar ; bake until soft and brown ; add to 
the tapioca half a pint of cold water with the 
yellow rind of a lemon ; boil and add half a 
pint of boiling water, the juice of the lemon and 
a gill of sugar ; boil a moment, pour it over the 
apples and bake slowly one hour. 

III. — 7"a/^^.--Tapioca, i teacupful; water, i^ 
pints; salt, i teaspoonful; apples, 6. 

Put the tapioca into a pint and a half of wa- 
ter, add the salt, and let them stand five hours 
in quite a warm place (not to cook, however), 
pare and core the apples, put them in a pud- 
ding-dish,and fill the holes with sugar, in which 
has been grated a little nutmeg or lemon-peel ; 



436 



PUDDINGS 



PUMPS 



add a tcacupful of water, and bake an hour ; 
then pour the tapioca over the apples, and bake 
another hour. Serve with hard sauce. 

Vermicelli Pudding. — Make as directed for 
Macaroni Pudding. 

"Welcome Guest's Pudding (Boiled).- Trtfyf^.- 
Bread-crumbs, yi lb ; milk or cream, i- pint ; 
beef-suet, minced very fine, }4 ^'^ > salt, a small 
pinch ; ratafias, coarsely crushed, 3 oz ; candied 
citron and orange-peel, sliced thin, 3 oz ; lemon, 
I large ; eggs, 4 ; sugar, ^ lb. 

Boil the milk or cream, and pour it scalding 
hot on one-half the bread-crumbs ; lay a plate 
over the bowl and let them remain till cold ; 
then stir to them the remainder of the crumbs, 
the beef-suet, the salt, the ratafias, the candied 
citron and orange-peel, sliced thin, and the 
grated lemon-peel. Beat the eggs well and add 
the sugar to them by degrees ; continue to beat 
them until it is dissolved, and they are very 
light ; then stir them to, and beat them well up 
with the other ingredients ; pour the mixture 
into a thickly buttered mould or bowl which 
will hold nearly a quart, and which it should 
fill to within half an inch of the brim ; lay first 
a buttered paper and then a well-floured cloth 
over the top, tie tightly and securely, and boil 
two hours. Let it stand for a minute or two 
before it is dished, and serve it with wine sauce. 
This is a very light and wholesome pudding. 

Yorkshire Pudding (Baked). — Take .--Eggs, 
6 ; flour, half a pint ; milk, i pint ; salt, i tea- 
spoonful. 

Beat the eggs well, strain, and mix them 
gradually with the flour ; then pour in as much 
milk as will reduce the batter to the consist- 
ence of rather thin cream. The tin which is to 
receive the pudding must be greased with some 
of the drippings from a joint of beef that has 
just been put down to roast ; pour in the batter, 
nearly an inch deep, place it in the dripping 
pan and let the beef rest on skewers above it ; 
bake about three quarters of an hour, cut in 
oblong pieces and serve as a garnish for the 
beef. If the piece of beef is roasting in a small 
pan the batter may be baked in the same ; the 
only reason for using an inner pan is to have 
the pudding of the right thickness. May be 
served with sweet sauce. 

Young "Wife's Pudding (Baked).— T^/^e .•-, 
Eggs, 4 ; surar 2>^ oz. salt, a small pinch ; 
lemon, peel of i ; milk, i pint ; stale bread. 

Beat the eggs up lightly for five minutes, and 
add the pounded sugar by degrees, and the 
salt ; beat the mixture well, and then grate in 
the lemon-peel ; stir in a pint of cold milk, and 
pour the pudding into a well-buttered dish. 
Cut some stale bread in slices rather more 
than a quarter of an inch thick, and with a very 
small cake-cutter cut from it enough rounds to 
coyer the top of the pudding ; butter them 
thickly, lay them upon the pudding with the 
buttered side uppermost, sift sugar thickly on 
them, and set the pudding into a slow oven. 
Bake one hour. This is a simple, but very nice 
pudding. 

PUFF PASTE. {See PlES.) 



PtTPFS. — To make a dozen plain puffs, take 
a pound and a quarter of flour, a pound of but- 
ter, and one tgg. Put them together as directed 
for puff-paste {See Pies). Divide it when made 
into three equal portions ; roll one of them 
out half an inch thick, and cut it into cakes 
with a tumbler ; roll out the rest of the pastry, 
cut it into strips with a jagging iron, and lay 
the strips round those that were cut with the 
tumbler so as to form a rim. Lay the puffs on 
buttered flat tins ; bake them to a light brown 
in a quick oven ; then fill them with any small 
preserved fruit that may happen to be conve- 
nient. 

German Puffs. — Take .--Sweet almonds, 2 
oz ; bitter almonds, 6 ; eggs, yolks of 6, whites 
of 3 ; cream, ^ pint ; butter, 4 oz ; sugar, 2 oz ; 
brandy or orange-flower water, ^ wineglassful. 

Pound the almonds (sweet and bitter) to a 
perfectly smooth paste ; mix with them grad- 
ually the yolks and then the whites of the eggs ; 
heat the cream, and dissolve in it the butter 
and sugar ; pour these hot to the eggs, stirring 
them briskly together, and when the mixture 
has become cool, add the brandy or orange- 
flower water. Butter some cups thickly, and 
strew into them a few slices of candied citron 
or orange-peel ; pour in the mixture, and bake 
twenty minutes in a slow oven. 

Raspberry Puffs. — Roll out thin some fine 
puff-paste, cut it in rounds or squares of equal 
size ; lay some raspberry jam into each, moisten 
the edges of the paste, fold and press them to- 
gether, and bake the puffs from fifteen to eigh- 
teen minutes. Strawberry, or any other jam will 
serve for them equally well. 

Spanish Puffs.— Place on the fire i pint of milk, 
2 oz butter, 2 oz sugar, a pinch of salt. "When it 
boils fast, stir in 8 oz sifted flour. When this 
mixture leaves the bottom and sides of the stew- 
pan, take it from fire, beat in 2 whole eggs, one 
at a time, and 3 yolks, one at a time ; lastly, add 
2ozof chopped, blanched Jordan almonds. Form 
intoround pieces witha spoon, as large as a wal- 
nut, and fry in hot lard to a light brown color. They 
should swell 3 times in volume. When all fried, 
make a small incision with a knife, introduce a 
little bright-colored jelly with a small spoon, 
roll in sifted sugar, and serve on a folded napkin. 

PUMPKIN. — There are several varieties of 
the pumpkin, among the best of which are the 
cheese, West hidia, suga?-, and striped j any of 
these are excellent for pumpkin pies, bread, etc. 
The season for pumpkins commences in Sep- 
tember and lasts until January ; but if peeled, 
cut in strips, and dried in the sun, and then laid 
away in a dry place, they can be kept all the year. 
They will also keep until spring in a natural 
state if put in a dry place and protected from 
the frost. Pumpkins are sometimes cooked and 
eaten plain like squashes ; but their principal 
use is in pastry, etc. {See Bread, Pies, and 
Puddings.) 

PUMPS. — The pumps generally used in 
dwelling houses are the common suction and the 
forcing pump. The sjictiott pump is that em- 
ployed in ordinary wells not exceeding 28 feet in 



PUMPS 



PUNCH 



437 



depth. When the air is withdrawn from a pipe 
with its lower end in water, the water will rise 
from 28 to 31 feet. It requires something 
heavier than air to keep the valves of this 
pump closed ; therefore to start it, fill the 
cylinder with water poured from above ; the pis- 
ton then descends through this water, as on be- 
ing pushed down its valve opens and being lift- 
ed the water closes its valve effectually, and 
it creates a vacuum in the cylinder between 
two valves, which can only be filled up by the 
water ascending through the suction pipe. The 
force-pump needs to be better made than the 
ordinary suction pump. But its valves are 
more easily kept closed : therefore it does not 
need water poured in to start it. 




PUNCH.-Ordinary punch is made of any dis- 
tilled liquor with water, hot or cold, sugar and 
lemons. The proportions and the use of rind 
and juice are matters of taste. The following 
rules are quite generally agreed upon : ist. It 
should not be too sweet, else it will cloy upon 
the appetite. 2d. Not too strong else it will 
go to the head and produce drunkenness. 3d. 
Too much water will ruin the best punch ever 
made. 4th. The oil in the yellow rind of the 
lemon is essential, and the best way to extract 
it is to rub the rind of the lemon with a lump 
of sugar. 5. The water should not boil nor 
should it have been boiled before. 6. The sugar 
powdered will make it creamy. 7. Stir in each 
ingredient as it is added. 

Champagne Cup. I. — Take a bottle of Krug 
champagne, a pint of tea, a gill of brandy, 
sweeten to taste and ice well. 

Champagne Cup. II. — Take a bottle of spark- 
ling champagne that is iced, a bottle of 
plain soda, two ounces powdered white sugar, 
juice and thin peel of one lemon, three thin 
slices of cucumber ; let stand until the sugar 
is dissolved, then add a lump of ice and serve. 

Francatelli's Rum Punch. — Take: — Bran- 
dy, I quart; rum, i quart: arrack, yi pint; 
strong-made green tea, Y^ pint ; lemon, juice of 
12, rind of 4; nutmeg, i (grated); cloves, 12 
(bruised) ; cinnamon i stick (powdered) ; corian- 
der seeds, 30 (bruised) ; pine apple, 2 lbs. 
(sliced) ; lumi>sugar, 9 lbs. ; boiling water, 2 
quarts ; milk, 2 quarts. 

Put all the above ingredients except the 
milk into a pitcher holding two gallons, stir them 
together, and tie a bladder closely on top ; let it 
steep undisturbed for two days ; then boil the 



milk, add it to the other ingredients, aud mix 
thoroughly ; an hour afterwards filter the punch 
through a clean muslin bag, bottle at once, and 
cork down tight ; keep the bottles in a cool 
cellar. It should be iced for use. 

Gin Summer-Punch. — Take .--Gin, ^ pint; 
lemon, i ; maraschino, i wineglassful ; water, 
i}i pints ; sodawater (iced), 2 bottles. 

Pour the gin on the lemon-peel, add a little 
of the lemon-juice, and the rest of the ingredi- 
ents in the order named. 

Grandison Punch. — The thinly-pared rinds 
of two China and one Seville orange and three 
limes infused for an hour in a half pint of thin 
cold syrup, then add the juice of the fruits, a 
pint of cold strong well sweetened green tea, 
a glass each of best old Jamaica rum, brandy, 
Colombo arrack, pine apple syrup, and two 
bottles of champagne ; strain through a fine 
lawn sieve. Bottle, and ice before using. 

Maitrank. — A May drink pleasant and anti^ 
bilious only to be made in perfection in May 
when the shoots of the woodroof aspertda odo~ 
rata (wald-meister) are plentiful. The stalka 
of this plant preserve their fragrance when 
dried, but only communicate it fully to the bev- 
erage when used fresh. Pour a bottle of white 
Rhine wine into a bowl, and infuse into it as 
many young shoots of the woodroof, cut about 
an inch in length, as will fill a tablespoon. If 
the wine be not sweet, add an ounce of finely 
powdered sugar, cover the bowl, and let it stand 
twelve hours. Serve in green glasses. Never 
introduce orange, lemon or any extraneous 
essence. 

Milk Punch. I. — Put 2 tablespoonfuls of rum 
or brandy, and i heaping tablespoonful of 
sugar into a glass of iced milk. Stir and grate 
nutmeg on top. 

II. — Pare six lemons very thin, steep the peel 
three days in one pint of old rum, then add 
one quart of old brandy, the juice of three 
oranges and three lemons, one quart of water, 
one pound of loaf sugar and half of a grated nut- 
meg ; when the sugar is dissolved, mix thor- 
oughly ; add one quart 0^ scalded milk ; cover, 
and let stand two hours ; then strain. Ice well 
before drinking. It will keep bottled. 

Ill — 7«^^.--Lemon-juice, i pint ; rum, 2 or 
2^ quarts ; water, 2 quarts ; milk, i quart ; 
loaf-sugar, i^ lbs. 

_ Mix the lemon-juice, rum, and water, and 
dissolve the sugar in them ; then pour in the 
milk, boiling hot, and add the peel of 4 lemons. 
In a few minutes taste it, and if it is not to your 
taste make it so by adding more of any ingredi- 
ent apparently deficient. Strain it through a 
bag, and bottle it. It is fit for use immediate- 
ly, or it may be kept in a cool cellar. 

Norfolk Punch. — 7rt;>^d? .--Lemons, 6; Se- 
ville (bitter) oranges, 3 ; brandy, 2 quarts : white 
wine, I quart; milk i quart; sugar, i >^ lbs. 

Pare the lemons and oranges very thin, and 
squeeze the juice of both into a large jar ; 
add the other ingredients, mix, and cover for 
24 hours ; then strain through a bag till clear, 
and bottle. 



438 



PUNCH 



QUAIL 



Nuremberg Punch. — Take a half pound of 
loaf sugar, press upon it, through muslin or a 
silver strainer, the juice of three large oranges ; 
add a little of the peel, cut very thin ; pour 
upon this a quart of boiling water, a pint of 
^ood old Batavia arrack and a quart of substan- 
tial claret, stir these together well, let it cool 
and stand a day or two. Ice before using, 
remembering that ice melting will weaken the 
punch. 

Pine apple Cardinal. — A sliced pine apple 
put in a deep bowl with two pounds of pounded 
sugar candy and then left for three hours ; 
then pour over it one bottle each of sherry, 
Rudesheimer and champagne. 

Regent's Punch. — 1,-Take .--Oranges, rind 
and juice of 2 ; lemons, 3 ; cold sugar-syrup, ^ 
pint ; strong green tea, sweetened, i pint, best 
old Jamaica rum, arrack, French brandy, and 
pine-apple syrup, each i wineglassful ; cham- 
pagne, 2 bottles. 

Pare the oranges and lemon as thin as pos- 
sible and steep the rinds for an hour in »^ pint 
of cold thin syrup ; then add them to the juice 
of the oranges and lemons; add the tea (quite 
cold) to the fruit and syrup, stir in the rest of 
the ingredients, and pass the whole through a 
fine lawn sieve until it is perfectly clear ; then 



bottle, and put it into ice until dinner is served. 
This is the genuine receipt for the punch of 
George IV. 

IL Take four ounces of clarified sugar, thin 
peel of one lemon and one orange, one bottle 
of dry champagne, a half bottle of good brandy, 
a half gill of rum, one wine glass of maraschino, 
a few slices of pine apple, and one quart of 
green tea well iced. Mix thoroughly. 

Roman Punch. — 71(2^^ .--Lemonade (strong 
and sweet), 3 large teacupfuls ; rum, i wineglass- 
ful ; champagne, i wineglassful ; oranges, juice 
of 2 ; eggs, whites of 2 ; powdered sugar, yi lb. 

Beat the whites of the eggs stiff, with the 
powdered sugar.and mix with the rest of the in- 
gredients. Ice abundantly, or freeze. {SeeQ\.K- 

RET.COBBLER, JULEP, SHERBET, and SHERRY.) 

PURGATIVES.— (56'6' Cathartics.) 
PURSLANE. — A common wild plant which 
is sometimes cultivated, and then becomes 
much larger and better. The young growth, 
cut 6 inches long, and served like spinach, is 
good. It is used in salads, pickles, etc. 

PUTTY. — To remove from a window-sash — 
apply a soldering iron or poker heated (but 
not red-hot), slowly over the putty. To re- 
move putty from window-panes, see Clean- 
ing. 



Q 



QUAHAUG. {See Clams.) 

QUAIL. — Quails (known at the South as 
partridge) are among the best-flavored of game- 
birds ; their flesh being white, tender, and ex- 
tremely delicate. Their size is about one-third 
that of the partridge or ruffed grouse. They 
are generally very plentiful in the markets 



throughout the winter months, except when 
the preceding winter has been unusually 
stormy, cold, and snowy. Many thousands are 
sent from the West to the Eastern markets in a 
frozen state, and generally arrive in good con- 
dition ; but those which are killed near by are 
to be preferred. A quail is old when it has a 




QuaiL 

white bill and bluish legs ; when young, the bill I Baked Quails. — Clean, and truss as directed 
is of a rather dark gray color, and the legs are | for chicken, or simply tie the legs down to the 
yellowish. The more fresh quails are when 1 rump with a strong thread, letting the feet stand 
cooked, the better. I up ; place the birds on their backs in a baking- 



QUASSIA 



QUININE 



439 



pan with a piece of butter the size of a hazel- 
nut on each ; just cover the bottom of the pan 
with cold water, and set in a quick oven; baste 
now and then ; when about half done, put 
the Hver of the birds well pounded in the bak- 
ing-pan, and continue basting till the quails are 
done. Garnish with parsley or water-cress. 

Broiled Quails. — Clean, wash, and split 
down the back ; lay in cold water half an hour ; 
then dry carefully with a towel, season with salt 
and pepper, and broil on a gridiron over a 
bright fire, laying them breast downwards at 
first and turning when brown. When done, 
lay on a hot dish, butter well on both sides, 
and serve at once. 

Pie, (Quail.) — Make as directed for pigeon- 
pie. (See Pigeon.) 

Roast Quails. — Prepare as for baking ; 
dredge them with a little flour ; and roast before 
a good fire fifteen or twenty minutes, basting 
freely with butter. Garnish with parsley or 
water-cress. 

QUASSIA. — The wood of a tree growing in 
the West Indies called Picroena excelsa. The 
wood is tough, but not very heavy, and is usu- 
ally sold as chips. Sometimes drinking-vessels, 
carved out of the wood, are sold. These are 
to be filled with water at night, allowed to stand 
till morning, and the contents then drunk. The 
quassia wood is intensely bitter, and yields its 
bitterness readily to water. The medicinal 
preparations from it are an extract, a tincture, 
and an infusion. Of these the infusion is most 
used, chiefly as a vehicle for administering 
more nauseous medicines, for which it is excel- 
lent, being one of the very few bitters which 
contains no tannin, and so does not blacken with 
iron. Quassia is a pure bitter, but not an 
agreeable one. It is used sometimes in indi- 
gestion, but calumba has here mostly superse- 
ded it ; in indigestion, accompanied with loss 
of power and irritability of the stomach, it may 
well be given along with either an acid or an 
alkali, according to the period of digestion. It 
is probably most useful as a tonic after pros- 
trating illness, but even then it is better to com- 
bine it with a preparation of iron and an acid. 

QUILLIWG. — A narrow border of lace or 
edging, plaited in such a manner that when 
done up it will resemble a row of quills ; as, 
the quilling oi a woman's cap. An instrument 
for doing up quilled edging is sold in the house- 
furnishing stores. 

QUINCE.— There are many varieties of this 
excellent fruit, the most esteemed being the 
a/yJ/^^-quince, /ear-quince, and Poriugal-qu'mce. 
The apple, or orange-quince as it is sometimes 
called, is the tenderest and has an excellent 
flavor ; the Portugal quince is quite scarce ; and 
the pear-quince is quite hard and tough, but is 
the most perfect in appearance, and has a flavor 
equal to any. In selecting, choose the large 
smooth ones ; the small knotty ones are tough, 
worm-eaten, and wasteful. Quinces are in 
season from October to December. They may 
be kept for some time by wiping off the fur 
and laying them some distance from each other 



on a shelf in a cool dry closet. Quinces are 
never eaten raw, but they are cooked in a variety 
of ways. {See Compotes, Jelly, Marma- 
lade, Preserves, and Puddings.) 

Cordial, (Quince.) — Select ripe and sound 
quinces, wipe off the fur, and grate them ; put 
the pulp in a strong cloth and press out every 
drop of the juice ; to each quart of this juice, 
add two-thirds of a quart of French brandy, a 
pound and a half of white sugar, a hundred 
bitter almonds or peach-kernels, and a dozen 
cloves ; put it in a stone pot, cover it tight, and 
keep it a week in a warm place ; then skim and 
bottle it, and let it remain a year before using it. 

QUININE. — This is the most important 
constituent of cinchona bark, and has now al- 
most entirely superseded the crude substance 
as a remedy. Pure quinine is not employed in 
medicine, being quite insoluble in water; but 
the sulphate takes its place. Sulphate of qui- 
nine is pure white and crystalline, the crystals 
being feathery ; it possesses the curious prop- 
erty of fluorescence, /'. e., certain rays of light 
falling in a solution of quinine, though them- 
selves invisible, cause the solution to yield light. 
The effects of quinine are manifold. Applied 
to the white corpuscles of the blood, and all 
bodies resembling them, it arrests their motion 
and apparently kills them ; it also, within cer- 
tain limits, arrests putrefaction even more pow- 
erfully than creosote. On the digestive tract 
quinine acts as do most other bitters ; it gives 
rise to an increased flow of mucus, and to a 
small extent also that of the gastric juice. 
Especially will it be serviceable to arrest the 
putrefactive changes of food which has been 
retained in the stomach without being digested, 
thus giving rise to flatulence, acidity, etc. 
Quinine, after being swallowed, passes into the 
blood, and in great measure is evacuated by 
the kidneys, almost unchanged. The effect of 
quinine on the sense of hearing is peculiar. If 
taken in large doses, it speedily gives rise to 
noises in the head, singing in the ears, and 
sometimes deafness ; sight, too, may become 
dim or even blindness for a time ensue : head- 
ache is also produced, frontal in site and severe 
in character; generally the pain is of a dull 
heavy kind, the face is flushed and hot, and the 
eyes suffused. These effects of large doses of 
quinine go by the name of cinchonistn. More- 
over, in large doses, quinine has the power 
of markedly reducing temperature ; for this 
reason it has been largely given in acute rheu- 
matism, pyxmia, and some forms of fever. 
Sometimes quinine in these cases has been 
given in enormous doses, 20 grains, frequently 
repeated, being not uncommon. It is true that 
in these cases the temperature has sometimes 
been reduced, but the patient has died all the 
same. 

The most important use of quinine seems to 
be in malarious fevers, remittent or intermit- 
tent. The best plan of giving the remedy in 
these diseases is to wait for a remission, then 
to give a full dose, at least 5 or 10 grains, and 
keep up the effect by an hourly administration 



440 



QUINSY 



of the remedy thereafter ; 2 grains will gener- 
ally suffice as a dose for tliis purpose, but to 
arrest the paroxysm it is best to give a much 
larger quantity. Certain forms of neuralgia, of 
a distinctly remittent type, are best treated by 
quinine. A large dose should be given just be- 
fore the expected attack: lo to 20 grains should 
suffice. Even ordinary neuralgias are fre- 
quently benefitted by doses of quinine given 
during an intermission. Quinine is commonly 
prescribed in most forms of convalescence 
from acute disease. It is then ordinarily given 
in a dose of i or 2 grains dissolved in water or 
orange wine by a few drops of dilute sulphuric 
acid. In this way it is of undoubted service. 

QUINSY. — A common and troublesome af- 
fection, consisting of inflammation of the tonsils 
and adjacent parts of the fauces or back part 
of the mouth. It may occur at any age, but is 
most common in young people ; and when once 
any one has been subject to it, it is very likely 
to recur on exposure to cold, so that some have 
an attack every year. Although painful at the 
time, no serious results need be feared. The 
sy})iptojns of quinsy are a stiff and painful 
feelir.p^ in the throat after exposure to wet or 
cold ; the tongue becomes furred and white ; the 
appetite is bad ; there are often headache and 
pains in the limbs ; the temperature of the body 
rises rapidly, and all the symptoms of a fever 
come on. The tonsils enlarge, so that the act 
of swallowing is accomplished with difficulty, 
and the tonsils may be so large as almost to 
meet in the middle Hne and quite prevent any 
solid food being taken : at the same time there 
is sweUing outside, just below the ear, which is 
painful w-hen pressed. The enlarged tonsils 
may become full of pus and when they burst 
they discharge much matter, and at once afford 
decided relief. The febrile symptoms last four 
or five days, and then subside quickly ; in most 
cases the- inflammation goes away without the 
formation of any matter; generally, also, one 
side of the throat is more affected than the other. 



Treatment. — The patient should at once go 
to bed, or at least keep in a room with a moist 
and warm atmosphere ; any attempt to go out 
in the air only increases the malady, and makes 
the throat more sore than before. No solid 
food can be taken, and therefore beef tea, hot 
milk and soups must be given, and the thinner 
the fluid the more easily is it swallowed. Port 
wine is very valuable, and three or four glasses 
should be taken every day, and will be found to 
give great relief. Steam should be frequently 
inhaled by placing the mouth over a jug full of 
boiling water, but not over the mouth of a 
kettle, as the patient's mouth may be scalded. 
Gargles are of no use, as they do not go far 
enough back, and the effort of gargling is dis- 
tressing to the patient. A hot bran or linseed- 
meal poultice should be placed round the throat 
at night, while during the day hot flannels should 
be worn. Sponging the outside of the throat 
with hot water will give great relief; the inside 
of the throat may be sponged with some astrin- 
gent lotion, as tannic acid or iron and glycerine, 
by which it may be kept constantly moist. A 
mixture containing chlorate of potassaand bark 
is most useful in this affection, and it should be 
continued for some time until convalescence is 
established. Puncturing the tonsils with a 
small and narrow knife is very useful, even if it 
does not cause matter to escape. In some 
cases a leech or two behind or below the ear is 
useful, but blisters do no good. People who 
are liable to quinsy should be very careful to 
avoid, as far as possible, foggy and damp 
weather, as the disease is then very liable to 
recur. This affection might at first.be mistaken 
for scarlet fever ; but the fever lasts for a shorter 
time, and there is no rash, nor is it followed by 
dropsy or swelling of the glands. In diphtheria 
there is less fever, but much more prostration, 
while a membrane forms over the nostrils and 
a fatal result often happens. 



R 



RABBIT.— The "hare" of the Southern 

States, and the " rabbit " and " gray hare " of 
the Northern are the same animal. Rabbits are 
killed in immense numbers and are generally 
very plentiful in the markets from September 
to January, after which they begin to breed and 
are unfit to eat. They are in the best condi- 
tion in November. The flesh of the rabbit, 
when over a year old, is dark, dry, and some- 
what tough ; the young, when nearly full grown 
and fat, are tender and rather delicate eating. 
A young rabbit has soft paws, which are not 
much opened ; but an old one has them open, 
hard, and worn. The ears of a young one are 
very soft, while those of an old one are stiff 
and comparatively rough. A rabbit, like al- 
most every other kind of game, has a better 



taste when a little " seasoned, " or when the 
flesh is what is called " high " ; but it must not 
be too much so. As long as the body is rather 
stiff it is good ; but when limber, and when the 
flesh has a black-bluish appearance, it is neces- 
sary to examine it carefully, as it is probably 
tainted. 

The domestic or tame rabbits are often found 
in the markets (both alive and dead), but they 
are unfit to eat unless they have been kept in a 
large place, well fed, free from any manure or 
dirt, and with plenty of room to burrow in a 
dry soil. When these conditions have been 
complied with, however, they are much superior 
to the wild rabbit, being more juicy and tender, 
and better flavored. They are best for the 
table when from three to twelve months old. 



RABBIT 



441 



Baked Rabbit. — Clean and wash carefully, 
and place the rabbit in a baking-pan, with a few 
slices of onion and carrot ; salt, pepper, and but- 
ter it ; cover the bottom of the pan with cold 
water and set it in a quick oven ; after ten or 
fifteen minutes, turn the rabbit over, baste and 




Rabbit for Baking. 

cover it with a piece of buttered paper ; con- 
tinue basting till done. When about half done, 
if the water and juice are boiling away, add 
more water or broth, and when done, turn the 
gravy over the rabbit through a strainer. Gar- 
nish with water-cress, and sprinkle a few drops 
of lemon-juice or vinegar over the top as it is 
sent to table. 

Broiled Rabbit. — Select a young rabbit for 
this purpose, clean and wash carefully, cut off 
the head, slit it open all the way down the front, 
and lay it in salt and water with a plate over it 
to keep it down, for half an hour ; then wipe 
dry, make eight or ten deep gashes across the 
thickest part of the back, and broil over a hot 
clear fire ; turn the rabbit often, and when it is 
browned nicely on both sides, lay on a hot dish, 
salt and pepper well, and spread plenty of but- 
ter over it. Garnish with parsley. 

This dish is improved, if, after the rabbit is 
dished and seasoned as directed above, it be 
set in the oven for five minutes, and then 
anointed with a sauce made by heating two 
tablespoonfuls of vinegar and mixing with it a 
tablespoonful of made mustard. 

Fricasseed Rabbit. — Select two young rab- 
bits, clean them, cut into joints, throwing away 
the head and neck, and soak them an hour in 
salt and water ; put into a sauce-pan with a pint 
of cold v/ater ; add half a pound of fat salt pork 
cup into slips, a bunch of sweet herbs, an onion 
minced fine, pepper, a pinch of nutmeg, and a 
pinch of mace ; cover closely, and stew until 
tender. Take out the rabbits and set in a dish 
where they will keep warm; add to the gravy a 
teacupful of cream or milk, two well-beaten 
eggs stirred in gradually, and a tablespoonful 
of butter ; thicken with a little flour wet in cold 
milk, boil up once, and remove the saucepan 
from the fire ; squeeze in the juice of a lemon, 
stirring all the time, and turn over the rabbits. 

Fried Rabbit. — Young rabbits only are fit 
for frying. Clean, cut into joints, and soak in 
salt and water for an hour ; then dip in beaten 
egg, roll in cracker crumbs, and fry to a nice 
brown in plenty of lard or dripping. Serve 
with onion sauce. 

Larded Rabbit. — Clean, cut into joints 
(leaving out the head and neck), lard with slips 
of fat pork (see Larding), and fry till about 
half done. Have ready some strained veal or 
beef gravy, put it with the rabbit into a sauce- 



pan; add a minced onion, a bunch of sweet 
herbs, and pepper ; cover closely, and stew half 
an hour, or until tender. Take out the rabbits 
and lay in a hot covered dish ; strain the gravy, 
add a tablespoonful of butter, and the juice of 
a lemon, and thicken with flour ; boil up well, 
and pour over the rabbit. 

Pie, (Rabbit.) — Make as directed for Pigeon 
Pie. 

Roast Rabbit. — Clean, and lay in salt and 
water for an hour. Make a stuffing of bread- 
crumbs, minced beef-suet, lemon-peel, grated 
nutmeg, pepper and salt, and any sweet herb 
that may be liked ; stuff the rabbit with this, 
sew it up, and skewer it into proper form. 




Rabbit for Boiling. 

Rub the outside of the rabbit over with butter, 
flour it slightly, and roast, basting often. It 
ought to be done in from forty-five minutes to 
an hour. Make a gravy with a small piece of 
beef, or the livers of the rabbits if they were 
not roasted inside, a whole onion, some whole 
peppercorns, a blade of mace, a clove or two, 
and a small crust of bread toasted very dry and 
brown, but not burnt; when the gravy has 




Rabbit for Roasting. 

boiled enough, strain it, add a little catsup and 
flour mixed together, boil up once, and serve in 
a tureen. If the gravy is liked very rich, a 
wineglassful of port wine may be added. 

Stewed Rabbit. — L Clean, cut off the head, 
and soak in salt water for an hour ; then put 
into a saucepan, pour on enough cold water to 
cover them, add a little salt, and stew until ten- 
der. Slice in another pot three or four onions, 
and boil in a little water until thoroughly done; 
drain off the water, and stir the onions into a 
gill of drawn butter, pepper to taste, and when 
it simmers, add the juice of a lemon. Dish 
the rabbit, pour the hot sauce over it, and set 
in a warm place, closely covered, for five min- 
utes before sending to table. 

11. Clean, cut into joints, and fry in three 
ounces of butter until they are turning rather 
brown ; then take out the rabbit, and add to 
the gravy a small carrot and two or three 
onions, sliced, a few slices of turnip, half a 
dozen sprigs of parsley, two of celery, and one 
of thyme (the last tied together with a string), 



442 



RACCOON 



RASH 



salt and pepper, two or three cloves, and half a 
pint of sherry or madeira wine , cover the 
whole with broth or water, and boil till half 
done ; then add the rabbit, and continue boil- 
ing gently till the whole is done, stirring now 
and then. Dish the rabbit ; mash the onions, 
carrot, and turnip through a colander ; and put 
them all around the pieces of rabbit ; strain the 
gravy over the whole, and serve warm. 

RACCOON. — This animal is more frequently 
seen on the table at the South than in other 
parts of the country, but it occasionally makes 
its appearance in our markets, sometimes in a 
live state. It is in season during the fall and 
winter months. The full-grown raccoon weighs 
from seven to twelve pounds, and its flesh is 
both rank and tough : the young are better, but 
even these are not good u very fat. Prepare, 
cook, and serve as directed for Opossum, 

RADISH. — The radish is supposed to be a 
native of China, but has long been cultivated 
here. It contains little else than water, woody 
fibre, and an acid substance which resides in the 
external part ; it cannot, therefore, be very nutri- 
tive, but it is an agreeable relish and stimulant. 
There are various varieties of radishes, but 
they are generally divided into the turnip, or 
round, and the spindle-rooted. Many are forced 
for the early market, and they are one of the 
first vegetables to make their appearance in the 
spring. Their season commences in April, and 
continues with a succession of crops till cold 
weather; the black Spanish and other winter 
varieties can be buried in dry sand for the 
winter's use, and in fact can be kept till the 
new radishes appear. The young seedling 
leaves of the radish are sometimes used as a 
salad ; the seed-pods also, when green, are 
often pickled along with string-beans. The 
color of radishes varies greatly ; passing from 
white to red, and through every shade to a dark 
purple, approaching to black. They will grow 
in almost any soil, but they flourish best and 
attain a larger size in a deep, sandy soil. The 
seeds should be sown in rows about a foot 
apart, as soon as the frost is out of the ground ; 
or they may be started in a hot-bed and trans- 
planted to the garden. Of the early turnip- 
shaped varieties, the scarlet, olive-shaped, and 
the ivltite turniphrooted are the best. The lo7ig 
scarlet short top, and the long white N^aples are 
the most desirable of the long-rooted sorts. 
The rose-colored Chinese is good for winter 
forcing. 

RAIL. — There are several varieties of this ex- 
cellent little bird, but none of them are very 
abundant in the Northern markets. The clap- 
per-rail, or jneadoTV-hen, is the most plentiful, 
and though inferior to the sora, is very tender 
and well-flavored when in good condition. It j 
is best in September and October. The sora, 
or Carolina rail, is seldom seen for sale, al- 
though it is much sought after. Its flesh is of 
an exceedingly dehcate flavor, unsurpassed io- 
quality by that of woodcock. It is in best 
condition in September. The Virginia rail, or 
little mud-hen, is occasionally found in the 



markets in April and May, and again in Sep- 
tember and October. It is considered best in 
the latter months, but its flesh is not very deli- 
cate , at any time. Prepare, cook, and serve 
rails as directed for Ortolans. 

RAISINS. — These are merely grapes dried 
in the sun, or by stove-heat. The former, called 
sim-dried raisins, are the most highly prized ; 
but many sold as such are not dried entirely 
without the aid of artificial heat. The Malaga, 
or "muscatel," which comes from Spain, is the 
best raisin for table use. The Sultana, with- 
out seed, and the Smyrna are also choice va- 
rieties. The common raisins are made from 
ordinary grapes with little care ; they have an 
acid taste, which is much less agreeable than 
the flavor of the choicer kinds, and they are 
cften mixed with a great quantity of refuse 
matter and dirt. Raisins are in season through- 
out the year, but are best from January to 
June, when they are fresh. In buying, take the 
small boxes, as raisins lose quality by keeping. 

Wine of Raisins.- — First boil the water 
which is to be used for the wine, and let it again 
become perfectly cold ; then put into a sound 
sweet cask eight pounds of fine Malaga raisins 
for each gallon that is to be used, taking out only 
the quite large stalks ; the fruit and water may 
be put in alternately until the cask is fnll, the 
raisins being well pressed down in it ; lay the 
bung lightly over, stir the wine every day or 
two, and keep it full by the addition of water 
that has, like the first, been boiled, but which 
must always be quite cold when it is used. So 
soon as the fermentation has entirely ceased, 
which may be in from six to seven weeks, press 
in the bung, and leave the wine untouched for 
twelve months ; draw it off then into a clean 
cask, and fine it, if necessary, with isinglass, 
tied in a muslin and suspended in it. 

RAPE. — A plant of the cabbage species, with 
fleshy stem aiid leaves, which are sometimes 
used in the same manner as spinach, in salads, 
etc. It is hardly fit to use until touched by 
frost. The taste is warm and aromatic ; but it 
is not cultivated in this country to any consider- 
able extent, and consequently is seldom obtain- 
able in the markets. The chief value of the 
plant lies in the oil which is expressed abund- 
antly from the seed, and extensively used in 
lamps and machinery. 

RASH. — There are several rashes to 
which young children are subject. The most 
common one is the red gum. {See Red Gum.) 
Another rash is one which sometimes leads 
parents to dread the accession of measles or 
scarlet fever. It is a red blush, most observa- 
ble on the extremities, but attended with little 
fever. Measles is preceded by running from 
the nose and a peculiar cough, and scarlet 
fever by sore throat, and the absence of 
these symptoms from the rash now men- 
tioned generally points out its real nature. 
Another rash, presenting dull, red patches, 
chiefly on the legs, with here and there small 
swellings, is also sometimes seen. All these 
rashes "are of course mere symptoms, and, ex- 



RASPBERRY 



REED-BIRDS 



443 



I 



cept in the case of red gum, require no special 
treatment. {See Nettle Rash.) 

RASPBERRY.— This is one of the best of 
fruits for the dessert, especially the choicer va- 
rieties, among which are the red and the yellow, 
or white, the Antwerp, the Franconia, the Fas- 
tolff, etc., which ripen from the 5th to the loth 
of July. The common red raspberry ripens a 
little earlier ; and the black-cap, or common 
black raspberry, which is the original variety of 
the fruit, ripens later and lasts about six weeks. 
During favorable seasons raspberries are 
found "in the markets from about the middle of 
June to the middle of August. The fruit is 
sub-acid and cooling. Its flavor is extremely 
volatile, and if the fruit is kept for two or three 
days, will be almost entirely gone. 

Brandy (Raspberry). — To one gallon of 
brandy, allow two quarts of raspberries ; bruise 
them in a little of the brandy and add them to 
the rest ; let them steep, covered closely, for 
ten or twelve days ; then strain through a seive 
and put to the liquor three-quarters of a pound 
of white sugar ; when it is fine, bottle it. 

Vinegar (Raspberry). — Take red or black 
raspberries, 5 qts. for three successive days ; 
best cider \inegar, 5 qts. ; crushed sugar I lb. 
to every pint of juice. 

In the morning put five pounds of raspberries 
and all of the vinegar in a four gallon crock ; 
the next morning put five pounds of fresh fruit 
in another crock the same size ; tie a strainer 
over it drooping several inches ; empty the first 
crock into the strainer and drain, leave un- 
touched until the next morning, when the 
drained fruit is thrown away and the process 
repeated ; this brings you to the fourth day ; 
then tie the strainer over the empty, clean 
crock, pour in the raspberries and let them 
drain until the next day. Measure the liquid and 
add an equal quantity of vinegar ; put it in the 
preserving kettle and let it simmer ; skim and 
while hot Jill the bottles, cork and seal them ; 
have the corks soaking in hot water when the 
vinegar is simmering. Pound the cork well in, 
holding the bottle wrapped in a towel, in the 
hand. Cut the cork eveti with the top of the 
bottle, turn it upside down and give it a turn 
or two in melted cement. This syrup will keep 
for years and makes a most delicious drink. 

Wine (Raspberry). — Make as directed for 
red currant wine ; but, as the fermentation 
subsides, add a small quantity of the pure juice 
of the raspberries, or suspend some fresh 
fruit in the cask, and the flavor of the wine will 
be greatly improved. 

RATS, To Destroy. — The methods sug- 
gested for destroying mice also apply to rats. 
{See Mice). 

RATAFIA. {See LIQUEURS.) 

RAY can rarely be had except at one or 
two stands in Washington Market, New York. 
It is very large, and the parts sold are only the 
fleshy side-fins. The flesh is rather tough, 
glutinous, and somewhat insipid in taste ; but 
it improves with keeping. The following re- 
ceipt for cooking it is French : 



To Cook. — Clean the fish, put it in a pot, 
cover with cold water, and boil till tender ; then 
dish it, and sprinkle it with salt and pepper. 
While it is boiling, put about two ounces of 




butter to each pound offish in a frying-pan, set 
it on a quick fire, stir now and then, and when 
brown, throw into it about six sprigs of parsley, 
and take them off immediately with a skim- 
mer ; as soon as the parsley is taken off, pour 
the butter over the fish quicklj, put two table- 
spoonfuls of vinegar in the'frymg-pan while on 
the fire, give one boil, and pour also over the 
fish ; then send at once to table. Frying the 
parsley and boiling the vinegar cannot be done 
too fast, as the fish must be served hot. 

RAZOR. {See Shaving.) 

RECEIPT. — A receipt is a written acknowl- 
edgment that money or some other thing has 
been received from another person. 

When an account or bill (see Bill) is paid 
it is customary for the creditor to write the 
words " Received Payment " with the date, 
beneath the items, and affix his signature, which 
gives to the account or bill the character of a 
receipt. 

A receipt in full may be in the following 
form : 

" Received, New York, May i, 1876, of John 
" Doe, fifty J^Q (50-tVo) f^ollars in full of all 
"demands to this date. Richard Roe." 

A receipt, although expressed to be in full 
of all demands, is not conclusive evidence of 
the facts attested by it. If obtained through 
fraud, accident or mistake, or without the arti- 
cle having actually been delivered, it will not 
prevent the person giving it from suing for the 
article. (See Bill and Law). 

RED GUM. — A simple and harmless skin 
eruption which occurs in infants within the 
first year of life, from hot rooms and bedding, 
hard under clothing, new flannel, all sorts of 
local irritation, and in the mildest feverish dis- 
eases. The rash is best marked on the back, 
as a profusion of minuie red splotches, attend- 
ed by a trifling itching ; sometimes it may come 
out all over the body. 

Treatment: — Very simple diet, consisting of 
milk, or milk and lime-water, without thicken- 
ing the food at all . A little rhubarb and mag- 
nesia to act as a gentle purgative, and bathing 
in tepid water. Should the rash not yield to 
this, apply zinc ointment. 

REED-BIRDS. — These excellent little birds 



444 



REFRIGERANTS 



RESPIRATION 



are usually brought to market dead, and picked 
and strung together in bunches like peppers. 
They are most abundant in the Philadelphia 
markets, Philadelphia being near their feeding 
grounds. They are commonly known there as 
reed-birds, but in the Charleston and Savanah 
markets, where they are also abundant, they 
are called rice-birds. They are in best condi- 
tion for the table in September and October. 
Prepare, cook, and serve as directed for 
Ortolans. 

REFRIGERANTS. — These are what are 
commonly called cooling medicines ; also some- 
\\m.&^ febrifuges ; they include such saline and 
acid substances as are popularly regarded of util- 
ity in diminishing febrile action. Refrigerants 
are of at least two kinds,those which have proba- 
bly the power to diminish temperature, and those 
vi^hichseemonly to allay thirst. Acid fruits seem 
only to possess refrigerant powers by allaying 
thirst, for a dry parched mouth is one of the 
most prominent indications of fever, and this 
being relieved there is often a belief that the 
bodily temperature is actually lessened. 

( d; ) Carbonate of soda or potass, 20 grains ; 
sweet spirits of nitre, 30 drops ; syrup of orange- 
peel, I drachm; water, i oz. Mix and give 
with 15 grains of citric or carbonic acid, or a 
table-spoonful of lemon juice, while efferves- 
cing. (This is the common medical efferves- 
cing draught.) 

(^) Nitrate of potass, i drachm ; sweet spirits 
of nitre, 3 drachms ; tincture of henbane, 2 
drachms ; liquor of acetate of ammonia, i ounce ; 
camphor mixture, enough to fill up an 8 ounce 
phial. Give two tablespoonfuls every four 
hours. (A good common febrifuge mixture.) 
If cough is present, add ten or fifteen drops of 
ipecacuanha wine to each dose. 
REGISTER. {See Warming.) 
RENNET. — A substance used in coagulating 
the milk in making cheese {see Cheese). To 
understand its operation we may observe that it 
is the nature of the gastric juice secreted in the 
stomach of all animals to coagulate the milk 
taken into it, as is well known to those accus- 
tomed to young children. The prepared 
stomach of ruminating animals is found best 
for this purpose, and that of a young calf that 
has been killed before the the digestion is com- 
pleted is generally preferred for rennet. To 
prepare, wash the bag (or stomach) clean, and 
salt it thoroughly inside and out, leaving a 
coat of salt over every part of it ; put it into an 
earthen jar or other vessel, and let it stand 
three or four days, in which time it will 
have formed the salt and its own natural juice 
into a pickle ; take it out of the jar, hang it up 
for two or three days, and let the pickle drain 
from it ; re-salt it, and place it again in the jar; 
cover the top of the jar with a paper pierced 
full of pin-holes. It ought to remain in this 
state twelve months undisturbed ; but it may 
be used a few days after it has received the 
second salting. 

When wanted for use, soak the rennet in 
water, to which a little lemon and cloves may 



be added to do away^ with any disagreable 
smell. The strength of the liquid will of course 
be in proportion to the length of time the bag 
remains in it. 

REP.— A thick, twilled, and durable cloth 
extensively used in furniture, especially for 
window-curtains and for covering chairs, sofas, 
etc. It is made of worsted or silk, or of 
worsted and silk combined, and in various colors. 
The silk rep is a very rich fabric, but is 
less durable than the worsted, which is scarcely 
inferior in appearance when of good quality. 
I'he mixed fabric is undesirable. Rep is 
manufactured in pieces a yard, and sometimes 
two yards wide. 

RESIN. — Resins are solid substances of vege- 
table origin, highly inflammable, giving much soot 
by combustion, insoluble in water, but soluble 
in essential oils and in alcohol. The resin of 
commerce is the natural product of the pine ; 
and immense quantities of it are made in the 
Southern States, especially in North Carolina. 
It is to this that reference is made whenever 
resin is mentioned in any of the receipts in 
this book. 

To remove the taste of Resin from New- 
Tin. — Take a hot live coal from a wood fire, or a 
piece of burning charcoal, put the coal into a tin 
vessel, and shake it about awhile. Repeat 
this, if necessary, with a fresh coal each time ; 
then wash out the vessel with boiling water. 
Or, boil in the vessel some potash dissolved 
in water ; afterwards wash out the vessel, and 
boil pure water in it. 

RESPIRATION. — The process by which 
the air enters and emerges from the lungs, and 
in doing so causes the aeration of the blood, con- 
verting the black venous blood into the red arter- 
ial blood. Respiration consists of two parts, in- 
spiration and expiration, and as a rule an in- 
dividual breathes fifteen times a minute. The 
lungs always contain air, and no expiratory 
effort, however forced, can empty them ; this 
air which cannot be got rid of is called the 
Residual air, and is on the average from 75 to 
100 cubic inches. About as much room in 
addition to this remains in the chest after an 
ordinary expiration, and is called Supplemental 
air. In ordinary breathing, from 20 to 30 cubic 
inches of air pass in and out of the chest — this 
is called the Tidal air ; thus at the end of an 
ordinary inspiration, about 230 cubic inches of 
air are contained in the lungs ; in addition, by 
taking a very deep inspiration, another loo 
cubic inches, called Complemental air, may be 
added. Of these 230 cubic inches, about one 
seventh goes out at every expiration and is 
taken in again at the next inspiration, and so 
on; from "this it will be seen that it is highly 
important that the air in a room should be con- 
stantly renewed, for otherwise the occupants 
will be breathing over again their expired air, 
which is very injurious {see Air). The mech- 
anism of respiration need not be fully described 
here. During inspiration the diaphragm 
descends, and the depth of the chest from above 
downwards is thereby increased ; at the same 



RESPIRATOR 



RHEUMATISM 



Uo 



time the ribs run upwards and outwards, so as 
to increase the cavity of the chest from side 
to side, and from front to back. Thus the chest- 
walls expand in three directions during inspi- 
ration, and at the same time the lungs follow 
the expansion and become inflated with air. Dur- 
ing expiration, tlie lungs being elastic, retract, 
and the reverse movement of the diaphragm 
and chest-walls takes place. Anything, such 
as tight-lacing, which interferes with the 
due expansion of the chest, is therefore very 
injurious ; any deformity of the chest, a habit 
of stooping, a curved spine, a pigeon breast, 
these all have the effect of diminishing the 
breathing area of the lungs. As a rule, the 
broader and fuller the chest, the better is the 
health, and the greater is the capacity for ex- 
ertion. Gymnastics, drilling, rowing, etc., are 
all excellent means of expanding the chest and 
promoting good respiration. For methods of 
artificial respiration, see Drowned. 

RESPIRATOR. — An instrument worn on 
the mouth by those who wish to avoid exposure 
of the lungs to the night air, in cases of con- 
sumption, winter cough, etc. In this way 
warmer air is conveyed into the lungs, thus 
preventing the irritation of the wind-pipe which 
provokes the cough. There are several patent 
respirators, but a handkerchief will serve all 
practical purposes. 

RHEIM'S PAPER. — Make a strong tinc- 
ture of capsicum-pods (red peppers) by steep- 
ing them for several days, in a warm place, in 
twice their weight of rectified spirits of wine. 
Dissolve gum-arabic in water to about the con- 
sistency of molassos ; stir equal quantities to- 
gether with a small brush or large camel's hair 
pencil ; take sheets of good tissue-paper, coat 
them with the mixture ; let them dry, and then 
coat again ; let that dry, and if the surface is 
shining, there is enough of the peppered gum ; 
if not, give a third coat. This paper, applied 
in the same way as court-plaster to chilblains 
not broken, and burns not blistered, speed- 
ily relieves and cures them. It is good 
for cuts and discolored bruises ; and allays 
rheumatic pains. It keeps long. 

RHEUMATISM is now considered a slight 
inflammation of the sheaths of the muscles, 
and though its treatment somewhat corres- 
ponds to that of the severer disease, called 
Acute Rheumatism or Rheumatic Fever, 
it is a comparatively trifling disorder. It indi- 
cates itself by dull pains, not unlike toothache, 
in various muscles, frequently in the lumbar 
muscles, the small of the back, when it is 
known as Lumbac^o. Allcock's porous plastei, 
or Rheim's paper, is apt to stop it. Intern- 
ally, take, every hour or two, a swallow from a 
glass of water ii^ which has been dissolved a 
tablespoonful of Rochelle salts. 

Acute Rheumatism is characterized by 
high temperature, profuse sour sweats, and 
swelling and reddening of some of the larger 
joints, most frequently of the knee and ankle. 
These are intensely painful, but generally get 
well by themselves. Rheumatic fever most 



frequently arises from cold and damp, especi- 
ally if the individual has suffered from fatigue, 
improper food, and the like. It bei^ins with 
restlessness and fever, with white or creamy 
tongue, and bowels either constipated or re- 
laxed. Presently the joints begin to ache, the 
pain increases till there is swelling and great 
tenderness all over one or more of the large 
joints of the body ; the hip joint, however, is 
not very often affected. There is by this time, 
in most cases, a high temperature, 102° or 103*^ 
F., but it gradually increases, and in many 
cases becomes excessive. This, indeed, con- 
stitutes one of the chief changes of the disease, 
for when the temperature rises above 105'^ 
there is always more or less danger to the pa- 
tient; by the time 108'' is reached recovery is 
as nearly as possible hopeless, and at 109° may 
be said to be quite so. In those cases where 
a high temperature developes itself, the sweat, 
which is ordinarily very profuse and of a 
strong acid odor, disappears, and its reappear- 
ance may be said to be the first sign of real 
improvement. The pain and tenderness in the 
joints, too, are very great. The patient can 
hardly bear the weight of the bed-clothes, 
much less can he bear the swollen limbs to be 
touched ; he himself dare not move, and he 
even dreads the movements of others. The 
pulse is quick and full, and, except the heart 
be affected, regular. The thirst is extreme ; 
and the urine is high-colored and full of a 
brickdust sediment. It is difficult to say, too, 
when the patient has seen the worst, for joint 
after joint may be affected, and even when 
the patient seems fairly on the road to recov- 
ery he may suffer a relapse. But the great 
risk of rheumatic fever is the danger ol heart 
complication. Most cases of heart disease 
do, in fact, date their onset from an attack of 
rheumatism. 

Treat7nciit. — Get a good doctor, if possible. 
Bicarbonate of potash maybe given, either by 
itself, or effervescing with citric acid, in large 
doses — 30 grains or so every four hours, con- 
tinuing it until the pain begins to abate and 
the urine is rendered alkaline. The joints 
ought at the same time to be wrapped in cot- 
ton-wool, but in some cases great benefit is 
derived from applying warm alkaline lotions 
(an ounce of bicarbonate of potash to a pint 
of water) to the skin, and putting cotton-wool 
over that. Woollen clothing or cloths should 
also be worn next the skin, but should not be 
allowed to remain too long. Lemon juice is 
also believed to be an efficient remedy. The 
diet should be light, — beef-tea, and the like. 
As the patient improves, fish may be given, 
but too early use of meat may bring on a fresh 
attack. The patient should have plenty ol 
drink ; common lemonade is best, or soda or 
potass water may be given. Wine is forbid- 
den, and above all things, beer. In convales- 
cence, give quinine or bark and ammonia, after- 
wards iron and cod-liver oil. 

Chronic Rheumatism is quite a different 
affection from rheumatic fever, for though the 



446 



RHINE WINES 



RHUBARB 



latter may pass into the chronic stage, most fre- 
quently the one is quite independent of the other. 
Most old people, especially if they have led a 
life of exposure and fatigue, are more or less 
affected with rheumatism, sometimes so far as 
to completely cripple them. The constitutional 
disturbance is slight, but the pain is sometimes 
great, both night and day, so as to wear out the 
patient by continual harassing. Medicines are 
of little effect in this form of rheumatism, and 
their use can only be ventured upon by the 
physicians acquainted with the particular case. 
Iodine paint to the affected joints sometimes 
does good, but not so much as hot alkaline 
lotions. All patients should wear flannel next 
the skin, and be careful in their diet. Beer, 
porter, and full-bodied wines must not be in- 
dulged in. 

RHINE WINES.— The wines of the Rhine 
form a class different from all others. Some 
of the lighter kinds bear a considerable resem- 
blance to the vins de Graves ; but they are, in 
general, dryer than any French wines. They 
are generous, finely flavored, and characterized 
by a delicate aroma that is peculiar to them. 
Though they do not contain much alcohol, yet 
from the completeness of their fermentation 
they will keep longer (continuing to improve 
with age) than the potent wines of the South 
with double their alcoholic strength. From a 
peculiar tartness which they possess it has been 
thought that these wines are acid, and the in- 
ferior kinds no doubt are to a certain degree ; 
but this is by no means a constant character of 
Rhine wines, many of which have not, in good 
years, any perceptible acidity to the taste. 
The most celebrated of these wines are fer- 
mented in casks, by which the fine aroma is 
preserved, and then, after being repeatedly 
racked (see Wines), are kept for years in very 
large vessels to mellow. When in market, the 
time for racking is past. 

The first of the Rhenish wines for fine flavor 
and absence of acidity is the Johannisberger, 
produced on the south side of a hill of that 
name, a little below Maintz. The choicest of 
all is called Schloss Johannisberg, from a vine- 
yard now the property of Prince Metternich. 
Little of this ever comes into the market ; but 
other vineyards in Johannisberg give wines of 
the first class. The produce of the Stienberget- 
vineyard is considered next in rank ; it is strong, 
with much sweetness and delicacy of flavor. 
Rjidesheijii and Grcefenberg are also among the 
first of these wines. Of second quality are 
those of Afarcobrunner, Roth, and Konisbach, 
etc. Perhaps the best of the cheaper wines to 
be procured in this country is the Nicrsteiner. 
Old Hock, though generous and durable, is 
considered less heating, and at the same time 
more exhilarating than many other wines. {See 
Hock and Wine.) 

Rhine wines of little bouquet may be drunk 

iced ; though, in the usual place of the lighter 

kinds, with raw oysters before dinner, they 

should be of the temperature of the room. 

RHODODENDRON.— This highly orna- 



mental plant grows wild in the Middle States 
out has been greatly improved by cultivation' 
and is now one of the most beautiful of the 
smaller shrubs. They should be planted in a 
bed specially prepared, where they can be shel- 
tered from the winter's sun. The proper soil 
is peat, leaf-mould, and sand, in the proportion 
of one part of the latter to four of the former. 
They are perfectly hardy, and will yield their 
large, brilliant clusters of flowers year after 
year with little attention except keeping the 
soil in proper condition. 

The varieties are very numerous, and we can 
mention only a few of the more desirable : — R. 
Airhhnedes, bright rose, light centre ; R. 
Airosangiiinei(7n, intense blood red, fine fol- 
iage ; R. Barclayanunt, deep rose, fine foliage ; 
R. Blandyaman, deep crimson ; R. Bryaniirn, 
rosy scarlet, light-centre, fine foliage ; R. Chan- 
cellor, spotted purplish lilac ; R. Cofregio, dark 
crimson ; R. Delicatissi7nji7ii, white, edged with 
pink; R. Due de Brabant, yellowish white, 
spotted with red, semi-double; R.Everestianuin, 
rosy lilac, spotted and fringed ; R. Gigantenm, 
bright-rose, good foliage ; R. Leopardy, rosy- 
lilac, intensely spotted ; R. Nero, dark rosy 
purple, spotted ; R. Roseutii elegans, fine rose ; 
R. Superbnin, rose, late-blooming ; R. Crandi- 
doj-iij/!, the same. 

RHUBARB.— This is one of the most 
wholesome of all the productions of the garden 
that are used in pies, puddings, etc. It was 
comparatively little known until within the past 
twenty or thirty years, but it is now cultivated 
in almost every garden. The part used is the 
footstalks of the leaves, which are peeled and 
cut into small pieces for cooking. When quite 
young they are much better not peeled. The 
leaves are considered poisonous, and eaten in 
any considerable quantity may prove fatal. 
Among the many varieties, the Giant and Vic- 
toria are generally preferred, as they produce 
the largest, finest, and most succulent stalks. 
Rhubarb is in season from April until Septem- 
ber. The stalks may be dried in the sun, and 
will then keep a long time ; they shrink a great 
deal and become like dry soft wood, but if 
soaked over night before using swell out to 
their original dimensions, with little loss of 
flavor. Rhubarb is used in the preparation of 
many wholesome and delicious articles of food. 
{See Jelly, Pies, Preserves, Puddings, and 
Tarts.) It is often called Pie-Plant. 

Rhubarb, as employed in medicine, consists 
of the roots of several plants growing in Cen- 
tral Asia. The medicinal preparations from it 
are an extract, an infusion, a syrup, tincture 
and wine, with a compound pill, and a compound 
powder. The compound pill, which is the pill 
in most general use as a laxative, contains rhu- 
barb, aloes, myrrh, hard soap, and oil of pepper- 
mint. It is a most useful preparation. The 
compound powder, better known perhaps as 
Gregory's powder, consists of rhubarb, mag- 
nesia, and ginger ; it is a great and deserved 
favorite in the nursery. In small doses, rhu- 
barb acts as a kind of tonic to the stomach and 



RICE 



RICKETS 



447 



bowels, in larger doses it is purgative, but is 
apt to be followed by constipation, as it has a 
kind of astringent effect subsequent to its pur- 
gative action. On this account, rhubarb, es- 
pecially in the form of wine or tincture, is often 
prescribed in the early stage of diarrhoea, in 
order that it may carry off any irritant sub- 
stances giving rise to the diarrhoea, and subse- 
quently arrest the too violent action of the irri- 
tated bowel. Children are apt to eat things 
which disagree with them, producing diarrhoea 
and the like ; in such cases Gregory's powder 
is an invaluable remedy. The purgative dose 
of rhubarb is 20 to 30 grains. 

RICE. — There are very many varieties of 
rice, but the only kind used in this country, 
and the best produced anywhere, is what is 
known as the Carolina rice. Though a larger 
portion of the earth's population subsist upon 
it than upon all the other seeds combined, rice 
is by no means equal to wheat in its nutritive 
properties, since it consists almost exclusively 
of starch, and is relatively deficient in nitrogen- 
ous elements. New rice is much inferior in 
quality to old, and is liable to produce indiges- 
tion, diarrhoea, and rheumatism. It should not be 
eaten for at leas-t six months after it has been 
gathered ; the seeds are then very dry and 
hard, and have a yellowish tinge, while the new 
rice is perfectly white. 

Rice Flour, or ground rice, is made of 
broken rice, well dried and ground to different 
degrees of fineness. It is ground, generally, 
somewhat roughly, so that the grains are per- 
ceptible and impart a rough and dry taste to 
the food. Ground rice is not necessarily of the 
best quality, but its value is determined by its 
color and thickening properties. Both rice and 
rice-flour are prepared for the table in many 
ways. {See Bread, Cake, Croquettes, Gruf.l, 
Puddings, Soups, etc.) 

Boiled Rice. — Pick out all the unhusked or 
defective grains from a pint of rice, and wash 
it in plenty of cold water ; put it into a porce- 
lain-lined stew-pan, pour to it three quarts of 
boiling water, add half a teaspoonful of salt, 
and boil it just seventeen minutes from the 
time it begins to boil ; then drain off all the 
water and set the rice over a moderate fire to 
steam fifteen minutes with the lid off. 

Or, clean the rice as above, put to it three 
quarts of cold water and a teaspoonful of salt ; 
set it on the fire and boil it fifteen to twenty 
minutes ; then drain off the water, add a little 
milk and cream, and let it boil a few minutes 
longer. It should not be so soft that the grains 
lose their form. 

Fried Rice. — Boil the rice quite soft the day 
before, so that it will adhere together well. 
Next morning cut it in slices an inch thick, and 
cook it on a griddle with enough lard to fry brown. 
This is an excellent breakfast dish. Cold rice 
left over from dinner may be used in this way. 

Water (Rice). — This is a very useful bever- 
age in the sick-room. Boil half an ounce of 
rice in a quart of water till it is quite soft ; then 
strain the water off through a coarse sieve. 



RICE-BIRD. {See Reed-birds.) 

RICKETS. — 1. A name given to a constitu- 
tional disease characterized by an unhealthy 
state of the system, which precedes for several 
weeks or months a peculiar disease of the 
bones, and of some other organs of the body; 
there is curvature of the bones of the arras 
and legs and enlargement of their extremities. 
The disease is found chiefly among the children 
of the poor and is produced by improper or de- 
ficient diet, impure air, warrt of cleanliness and 
sunlight ; cold, moisture, and deficient clothing. 

At first the most ordinary symptoms are diar- 
rhoea alternating with constipation, enlargement 
of the abdomen, and more or less of emaciation. 
The child is dull, languid and peevish; the appe- 
tite is bad and the sleep disturbed at night ; if it 
tries to walk it falls ; it is thirsty and will drink a 
great deal of water; it has pain in the bones; a pale 
face and a flabby skin; the hair on the head is 
thin and the veins marble the surface by 
their prominence ; the fontanelle remains open. 
In the next stage three symptoms are chiefly 
noticeable : l. A profuse sweating of the 
head and neck and upper part of the chest ; 
this sweating is worse at night, when beads of 
perspiration may be seen on the head while the 
lower part of the body is dry and hot. 2. There 
is a desire on the part of the child to kick off 
the clothes, as if with a wish to be cool. 3. 
There is general tenderness, so that the child 
cries when moved about. The urine is thick 
and deposits a pale sediment on cooling. The 
next set of symptoms are those connected with 
the deformity of the skeleton. These deformi- 
ties are numerous, and need not be specially 
mentioned here. Death results in very few 
cases, with the exception of those in which the 
peculiar softening of the bones extends to the 
skull. In these cases the brain is liable to 
suffer, convuteions are very frequent, and the 
child may die with the symptoms of water on 
the brain. In those rickety children who 
recover and grow up to adult life the deformity 
remains to a certain extent ; the general health, 
however, may not suffer at all in after life. In 
fact, rickety persons will frequently show an 
unusual amount of physical strength and intel- 
lectual capacity in advanced years. They are, 
however, mostly under size. Many of the 
dwarfs are examples of recovery from rickets. 

Treatment. — Improvement of the general 
health is the first thing to be aimed at. The 
child should be placed in a warm and dry 
atmosphere, with good ventilation and pure air. 
The diet is most important and should be in 
accordance with the rules laid down in the arti- 
cles on Infants and Children, adapting it of 
course to the age of the patient. On fine days 
the child should be wrapped up warm and car- 
ried out into the open air. It should sleep 
alone, and the bed-clothes should be kept dry 
and clean. A warm salt-water bath should be 
given every morning if the child can bear it. 
Steel wine or the syrup of the phosphate of 
iron, either alone, or in conjunction with cod- 
liver oil, are very valuable remedies. Change 



448 



RINGWORM 



ROASTING 



of air such as a visit to the seaside, may bring 
about excellent results, if the patient can afford 
it. Cod-liver oil should be given after a meal. 
Raw meat, pounded in a mortar, is a good 
thing; milk must form one of the principal 
articles of food. It ought to be given in con- 
junction with barley-water or oat-meal gruel. 
Lime-water may be mixed with the milk if the 
latter curdles on the stomach. 

RINGWORM.— An eruption in the form of 
a circle, or part of"& circle,which occurs on the 
face, head, shoulders, or neck, and sometimes 
even on the lower parts of the body. Two 
eruptions are popularly confounded under this 
name. One of them {herpes circinatus) is 
arranged in smooth shining rings of a red 
color, with a center of sound skin, and occurs 
chiefly on the face; this is not contagious, and 
does not cause loss of the hair. The other 
{porrigo scutulata) appears chiefly on the scalp, 
but sometimes on the forehead and neck, the 
ringworm appearance being presented only 
in its early stage. It is a parasitic disease, 
highly contagious, and the rings consist of 
minute pustules which are of a paler red color 
than the first kind; in the center is a patch of 
skin not very diff"erent in appearance from the 
surrounding healthy parts, but also found, on 
close examination, to be covered with small 
pustules. The hair ultimately falls off from 
the spot, leaving a shining bald patch. 

Treatment. — The treatment of the two kinds 
of ringworm is quite different, the first merely 
requiring the application of any astringent, such 
as common ink or blue stone, or a solution of 
nitrate of silver, or, better still, of chloride of 
zinc (two grains of either of the two last to an 
ounce of distilled water). In treating the other 
kind {porrigo scutulata) the first thing to be 
done is to cut off the hair and loosen the scabs, 
so that the application can reach the skin it- 
self; a large linseed-meal poultice will accom- 
plish this. Then apply an ointment composed 
of i6 grains of iodide of mercury and i ounce 
of lard; let it remain on twenty-four hours, 
then work it off with yellow soap, and apply 
the ointment again. Repeat this every day, 
using iodide of sulphur, made of half the above 
strength, on alternate days, if the mercury 
causes too much irritation, in which case also 
a poultice of linseed-meal maybe applied over 
it. Usually, however, the mercury acts like 
magic, and reduces the disease to a mere scurf. 
But this must not be considered as a cure until 
the skin is sound and the hair comes out again, 
as it will always do in the course of time. 
When there is nothing but a little scurf re- 
maining, a wash composed as follows may be 
used instead of the ointment :-Take of chloride 
of zinc ID or 12 grains ; glycerine, 2 ounces; 
rose-water, 6 ounces; mix. If the general health 
is reduced, it must be supported by good living 
and tonics, or local remedies will be useless. 

ROACHES, To Destroy.— Roaches, cock- 
roaches, or croton-bugs, as they are variously 
called, are a troublesome kind of household 
vermin which frequent sinks, water-closets, and 



other places where water is constantly kept. 
They breed with prodigious rapidity, and un- 
less exterminated or driven off, will soon swarm 
all over the house, penetrating into everything, 
even the beds. Prevention in the case of 
roaches is better than cure, and as soon as any 
of them are seen, powdered borax, or Persian 
insect powder, or arsenic, should be sprinkled 
around the spots they seem to frequent, and 
they should also be scalded out twice a week. 
Hellebore, rubbed over with molasses, and put 
round their resorts is also a very effectual 
poison for them. 

ROASTING.— As it is usually practiced, 
roasting is fixing meat upon a spit, or suspend- 
ing it before a fire, and causing it to move 
round ; but this motion is not essential to the 
process of roasting. It is sufficient that all 
sides of the meat should be, by some means or 
other, exposed to the radiant heat of a fire, 
while, at the same time, a current of air passing 
over the meat carries off all the steam and 
other volatile substances that are raised by the 
process. This species of cookery is therefore 
divided into roasting before an open fire, and 
roasting by enclosing the meat in a heated ves- 
sel, furnished with a contrivance by which hot 
air can enter and pass out again. We should 
add, however, that in many contrivances for 
cooking, merely enclosing the meat in a heated 
part of an apparatus, without any current of 
air passing through it, is improperly termed 
roasting ; it is only baking. The first change 
undergone by the meat in roasting is the melt- 
ing of the fat exposed to the heat of the fire, 
while at the same time the watery fluids on the 
external part are converted into vapor ; but as 
the heat penetrates deeper into the meat, the 
juices undergo important alterations. The 
change takes place first on the outside, and it 
requires a considerable time before the heat 
can penetrate completely to the centre of the 
meat ; but it does so at last, and the steam which 
is formed in consequence, coming from the in- 
terior and bursting out upon the surface, breaks 
and rends the fibres of the meat, loosens their 
texture all through the mass, and permits some 
of the gravy to come out and fall into the drip- 
ping-pan along with the melted fat. As the loss 
of this would render the meat less savory, it is 
continually returned upon the joint seasoned 
with a little salt, a process known as basting, 
without which a good roast cannot be effected. 
When the meat is about half done, the intense 
heat begins to carbonize the outside, so as to 
form a kind of crust, which is prevented from 
increasing too much by turning round, and 
managing properly the heat of the fire, and by 
repeating the basting sufificiently often. Dredg- 
ing a little flour over the meat to produce a 
froth is the last part of the process. The drip- 
ping-pan should be carefully protected from 
coal or ashes falling into it. 

When meat is very lean, a slice of butter, or 
a small quantity of clarified dripping, should be 
melted in the pan to baste it with at first ; 
though the use of the latter should be scrupu- 



ROASTING 

lously avoided for poultry, or any delicate 
meats, as it imparts a flavor which is to many 
persons peculiarly objectionable. Let the spit 
be kept bright and clean, and wipe it before 
the meat is put on ; balance the joint well upon 
it, that it may turn steadily, and if necessary 
secure it with skewers. A cradle-spit which is 
so constructed that it contains the meat in a 
sort of framework instead of passing through 



ROBIN 



449 



it, may be often very advantageously used in« 
stead of an ordinary one, as the perforation of 
the meat by the latter must always occasion 
some escape of the juices ; and it is, moreover, 
particularly to be objected to in roasting joints 
or poultry that have been boned and filled with 
stuffing. The cradle-spit is much better suited 
to these, as well as to a sucking pig, sturgeon, 
salmon, and other large fish ; but it is seldom 




Cradle Spit. 



to be found in our kitchens, most of which are 
singularly deficient in the conveniences which 
assist the labors of the cook. 

For heavy and substantial joints, a quarter of 
an hour is generally allowed for every pound 
of meat ; and with a good fire and frequent 
basting will be found sufficient when the pro- 
cess is conducted in the usual manner. Pork, 
veal, and Iamb should always be well roasted; 
but beef and mutton are generally preferred 
rather underdone. Joints which are thin in 
proportion to their weight require less time to 
roast than thick and solid ones. Ribs of beef, 
for example, will be sooner ready to serve than 




Bottle Jack. 

an equal weight of the rump, round, or sirloin, 
and the neck or shoulder of mutton, or spare- 
rib of pork, than the leg. 

Large kitchens are usually furnished with a 
smoke-jack, by means of which several spits 
can, if needful, be kept turning at the same 
time ; but in small estabhshments a roaster 
which allows of more economy in point of fuel 
is commonly used. The " bottle-jack " shown 
in the cut is of very advantageous construction 
in this respect, as a joint may be cooked in it 
with a comparatively small fire, the heat being 
strongly reflected from the screen upon the 
meat ; in consequence of this it should never 
29 



be placed very close to the fire, as the surface 
of the meat would then become dry and hard. 
A more convenient form of roaster is the 
" Imperial Spring Jack"; it is turned by means 
of a wheel and chain, of which the movement 
is regulated by a spring contained in a box at 




Imperial Spring Jack. 

the top. Some object to this apparatus as well 
as to the one figured above, that the meat cooked 
in either derives from the tin by which it is 
closely surrounded, the flavor of baked meat ; 
but the bottle-jack, with a common roasting- 
screen containing shelves for warming plates 
and dishes, is not liable to the same objection. 

ROBIN. — This bird, also called the red- 
breasted thrush, is generally found in large 
numbers in the Northern markets during the 
months of September and October when it is 
in season ; and in the Southern markets during 
the winter months. A few also aj^pear in the 
former in the spring months but no one should 
then purchase them, as it encourages the killing 
of them just at their pairing-time. Robins 
are among the best of the smaller game-birds. 
They are prepared, cooked, and served like 
Woodcock. 

English Robins, known also as cedar-birds, 
yellow-birds, chatterers, etc., etc., are occasion- 
ally found in our markets in large numbers. 
They are but a morsel of delicate eating, and 
in season only in the fall months. Prepare, 
cook, and serve as directed for Ortolaus. 



450 



ROCHELLE SALTS 



ROSE 



ROCHELLE SALTS.— This salt is tech- 
nically known as tartrated soda ; i. e., cream 
of tartar neutralized by bicarbonate of soda. 
However known, the substance is a valuable 
remedial agent, too little used perhaps. It is 
most frequently administered effervescing as a 
seidlitz powder. Each of these powders con- 
tains two drachms of Rochelle salts with a 
sufficiency of bicarbonate of soda in the blue 
paper to cause effervescence when mixed in 
tvater with the contents of the white paper 
(tartaric acid). For most people such a quan- 
tity of the salt is quite sufficient to open the 
bowels easily and freely ; others require more. 
This can easily be managed by telling the drug- 
gist to add more of the Rochelle salt to the 
blue paper of a seidlitz powder. The effervesc- 
ing material requires no addition. 

ROCK-BASS. — This fresh-water bass is a 
smaller fish than the black-bass, to which it is 
nearly allied, but is almost equal to the latter 
for table purposes. The color is of a very dark 
green above, sides of a golden-copper, with 
several rows of dark spots, and the fins of a 
bluish-green. The nose is also inclined to 
turn up. They are usually from half a pound 
to a pound in weight ; and are in season from 
October to April, though seldom plentiful. 
Prepare, cook and serve as directed for Bass. 

ROCK TlS'H.—Roc-k, rock-fish and rock- 
hass are the names given in the Southern mar- 
kets to the fisli known as striped bass or 
streaked bass in the Northern markets. It is 
in season very nearly throughout the year, and 
is one of the best of fishes either for boiling, 
broiling, or frying. {See Bass.) 

ROCK-SALT. {See Salt.) 

ROLLS. — Nice dinner or breakfast rolls may 
be made as follows : — Crumble down very small 
indeed an ounce of butter into two pounds of 
the best flour, and mix with them a large salt- 
spoonful of salt ; put into a bowl a dessert- 
spoonful of strong brewers' yeast, and half a tea- 
spoonful of pounded sugar ; mix these v/ith half 
a pint of warm milk ; hollow the centre of the 
flour, and pour in the milk and yeast gradually, 
stirring to it enough of the surrounding flour 
to make a thick batter; strew more 'flour on the 
top, cover the pan with a thick double cloth, 
and let it stand in a warm place to rise ; in win- 
ter it should be placed within a few feet of the 
fire. In about an hour, shovild the leaven have 
broken through the flour on the top, and have 
risen considerably in height, mix one lightly- 
whisked egg, or the yolks of two with nearly 
half a pint more of quite warm milk, and wet up 
the mass into very smooth dough. Cover it 
over as before, and in from half to three-quar- 
ters of an hour, turn it on to a paste-board, and 
divide it into 24 portions of equal size ; knead 
these up as lightly as possible into small round 
or olive-shaped rolls ; make a slight incision 
round them, and cut them once or twice across 
the top, placing them as they are made in 
slightly floured baking-pans, an inch or two 
apart; let them stand fifteen or twenty minutes 
to prove, then wash t!ie top with yolk of egg 



mixed with a little milk, and bake them in a 
rather quick oven from ten to fifteen minutes. 
An additional ounce of butter and another egg 
can be used for these rolls when richer bread 
is liked. A teacupful of good cream substituted 
for the butter will render the rolls exceedingly 
delicate both in appearance and flavor. 

French Rolls. — Take .--Flour, 3 pints ; milk 
I quart ; yeast, i teacupful ; ^gg, i ; melted 
butter, 2 tablespoonfuls ; salt, i teaspoonful ; 
soda, yi a teaspoonful; sugar, i tablespocnful. 

Make a light sponge of the flour, milk, and 
yeast ; and then work the beaten ^^g, melted 
butter, salt, soda dissolved in hot water, 
sugar, and enough flour to make a soft dough ; 
let this stand four or five hours ; then roll out 
pieces of the dough very lightly into round 
cakes, and fold them not quite in the centre (or 
simply shape into balls) ; set these close to- 
gether in the baking-pan, and let them rise one 
liour ; just before putting them into the oven, 
cut deeply across each roll with a sharp knife. 
Bake half an hour. 

Geneva Rolls. — Take :-Y\oy\r,2 lbs; but- 
ter, 3 oz ; brewers' yeast, i large tablespoonful ; 
milk, I pint ; eggs, 2 ; water i gill. 

Break the butter down very small into the 
flour ; add a little salt and make it into a 
sponge with the yeast, which should previously 
be mixed with some of the milk and water; let 
it rise in a warm place for an hour, then stir two 
well-beaten eggs to as much hot milk as will 
render them lukewarm, and work the sponge 
with them to a lithe light dough ; let it stand 
from half to three-quarters of an hour longer, 
mould it into small rolls, place them in buttered 
pans, when light brush them with beaten yolk 
of egg, and bake them from twenty minutes to 
half an hour. To be eaten hot. If any are 
left, the prudent housewife will find them 
very nice for puddings or to grate for cro- 
quettes. 

ROSE. — The rose is the loveliest of flowers, 
and whether indoors or in the garden every 
floriculturist should assign them a large space. 
The treatment of roses in indoor culture is the 
same as for other plants ; the soil should be 
rich, the pots large enough to give room for 
growth, and plenty of sunlight should be 
secured. Their treatment in the garden is 
very simple. They need a deep, rich, well- 
manured soil, rather moist, but never wet. The 
best soil is fresh loam, enriched with well-rot- 
ted cow manure, with a little sand ; if a top- 
dressing of this compost is given every spring 
before the buds start, the branches will make 
fine growth. The finest clusters of flowers are 
always produced on new wood, and close prun- 
ing will cause more new wood to grow; the 
knife, therefore, should be used freely. Cut 
all the old growth out, and prune in last year's 
branches somewhat ; thus pruned, the roots 
will throw up new shoots from which will come 
the first roses of the garden. As soon as the 
plants are done flowering, thin out the wealc 
shoots, and even some of the stronger ones, if 
they are too crowded ; each shoot left should 



ROSES 



451 



be exposed on every side to air and sun. The 
summer-flowering kinds thus treated will con- 
tinue their growth from the main stem, and 
bloom much finer another year; while the 
autumnal flowers push forth their buds the 
entire length of the stalk, and the second flower- 
ing is perfected. The flower-stalk should al- 
ways be cut off ; it exhausts the plant to form 
seeds, and consumes the strength that should 
go to forming new shoots. Cut them off as 
soon as the leaves fall ; then remove the soil 
to the depth of three or four inches all around 
the bush, and spread over, almost next to the 
stem, a spadeful of rotted cow manure ; throw 
back the soil that was removed, and, if the 
weather is hot and dry, water occasionally, 
and a vigorous growth and profuse flowering 
will be the result. When roses are planted in 
lawns they should have no sods near the roots, 
for the grass will absorb the moisture, and also 
prevent the air from reaching the soil. The 
best time to plant hardy roses is in October or 
November, according to the climate. The 
spring months are better for planting half-hardy 
and tender roses, as if parted in autumn their 
roots will not get started before the winter sets 
in. In the mild climate of the Southern States, 
however, they can be planted either in spring 
or autumn. When first set out they should be 
mulched with coarse manure, and watered 
occasionally, if tlie weather is warm and dry. 

Roses are propagated chiefly by cutting, 
layers, and buds. Cuttings of the hardy roses 
will strike easily in July and August. Hybrid, 
Perpetual, Chinese, and Bourbon, with all the 
other kinds, will grow readily if the young 
shoot or cutting is cut off so close as to contain 
a piece of the old wood. Three, four, or even 
six eyes can be left above ground. Plant them 
in wet sand ; a dozen cuttings may be set an 
inch apart close to the side of the pot, and 
the sand should not be allowed to dry at all. 
In two or three weeks they will commence to 
grow, and may then be transplanted. Roses 
grown as dwarfs or bushes are the best kind 
for layering. Loosen the soil around the 
plant, choose a good shoot, strip off a few 
leaves from six inches to two feet from the 
point of the shoot ; insert a sharp knife just 
behind an eye on the upper side of the shoot, 
and pass it carefully upwards, cutting about 
half through the stem, and from an inch to two 
inches in length ; open the soil, bend down the 
shoot, press it in, and peg it down with a hair- 
pin or a bit of wood two or three inches below 
the surface, and cover it firmly. Each layer 
should be tied to a stake to prevent the wind 
from disturbing the roots. June, July, and 
August are the best months for layering. If 
the weather is dry and hot, water frequently ; 
about October or November they will be ad- 
vanced enough to take away. Cut them off 
within two inches of the root, and transplant 
them wherever they are desired ; in the follow- 
ing spring, prune down the stem to three or 
four eyes, and they will bloom finely. B^idding 
is a more difficult process than either of those 



above mentioned, and is lesslikely to be success- 
ful; weshall not, therefo re, takespace to describe 
it. (For general principles, see Budding.) 

Slugs constitute the chief difficulty in the 
culture of roses. Before the buds are formed, 
minute white spots appear on the under surface 
of the leaves ; these change rapidly into green 
worms which devour all the green part of the 
leaves and also the buds and flowers. If taken 
in season they may be destroyed. The " Graf- 
ton Mineral Fertilizer," scattered over the 
leaves before the dew is dried off, will drive 
them away; the first application should be 
made in May, a second early in June, and a 
third after the plant has finished blooming. 
Powdered lime, if scattered over the leaves 
while the dew is on, will also keep them off. 
White hellebore sprinkled on through a dredg- 
ing-box, and flour of sulphur similarly applied, 
are also efficacious. There are two crops of 
slugs ; the first comes in May, and when the 
worms are fully developed, they burrow in the 
ground, and lie in a chrysalis state until 
August, when they appear with wings, and lay 
a crop of eggs for the ensuing summer. If the 
first crop are not entirely destroyed, it is well 
to repeat the application in August, so as to 
diminish their numbers for the next season. 

The varieties of the rose have increased with 
such rapidity of late years, that it Avould per- 
haps be literally impossible to enumerate them. 
From the thousands of varieties offered in the 
florists' catalogues, we can only select a few of 
the most desirable. 

Bourbon Roses : — Archduke Charles, rosy 
crimson ; Bourbon Queen, rich blush ; Blanche 
La/lite, pale flesh color, beautiful; Duchesse 
Furringe, white ; Empress Eugenie, deep rose ; 
Jupiter, dark purple ; Hennosa Pink, a profuse, 
bloomer, with lovely buds ; Malniaison, blush, 
large and fine ; Omar Pasha, deep carmine ; 
Paxton, bright rose, crimson shaded ; Som- 
breuil, white. 

China Roses : — Agrippina, deep crimson ; 
Archduke Charles, changeable; Eugene Beau- 
harnais, rich crimson ; Indica Alba, white 
daily ; Madam Peron, fine rose ; Lucullus, 
dark crimson ; Pink Daily j Louis Philippe, 
crimson and rose ; Sanguinea, blood-red. 

Hybrid Perpetuals : — Achille Gonaud, 
bright carmine; Alex. Bachmeteff, deep bril- 
liant rose, large and fine ; Baron Prevost, rich 
rose color; Cardinal Patrizzi, dark, velvety 
crimson ; Comte Litta, velvety purple ; Caroline 
de Sattsal, pale flesh color ; Eugene Appert, 
scarlet crimson; Gen. Jacqtieniinot, brilliant 
red, very large; Joh)i Hopper, rosy-crimson, 
extra ; Jules Margottin, carmine, shaded to 
purple ; La Peine, clear rose, large cupped, 
superb; Lady Emily Peel, white, edged with 
rose ; Mad'tle Bonnaire, pure white, tinged 
with rose at the centre ; Mad. Freematt, white, 
with yellowish shade ; Pa'onia, deep brilliant 
crimson; Peine des Violets, reddish violet; 
Victor Verdier, large, full carmine, one of the 
best. 

Moss Roses (Annual) : — English Moss, 



452 



ROSEMARY 



RUE 



old variety, very mossy; Adelaide, crimson; 
Glory of Mosses, rose color, fine ; Alice Leroy, 
pale lilac ; Liixemboiirg, crimson ; Henry Mar- 
tin, brilliant carmine. 

Moss Roses (Perpetual) : — Madame Ed- 
ward Ory, deep rose ; Matipertius, dark 
velvety-red ; Perpetual White, very fine ; 
Raphael, blush, large clusters; Salct, bright 
rose ; Souvenir de Pierre Vibert, dark red, 
shaded with violet. 

Noisette Roses : — Augusta, pale yellow ; 
Annie Vibert, pure white; Beauty of Greett 
Mount, deep rose ; Gloire de Dijon, bronze 
yellow, with orange centre ; Lainarqtie, large, 
pure white, very fine ; La Pactole, pale yellow ; 
Setitta, light pink ; Solfaterre, yellowish 
white ; Souvenir de Anselm, clear carmine, 
very fragrant ; Washitigton, white. 

Prairie Roses (Hardy Climbers) :- — Balti- 
more Belle, nearly white ; Gem of the Prairies, 
rich rose-crimson, very fragrant ; Quee>i of the 
Prairie, rosy red ; Seven Sisters, crimson, 
shading to white. 

Tea Roses : — Alba Rosea, white, with rose 
centre; Amabilis, rose color; Belle Flamande, 
blush ; Bon Silene, purple, shaded to carmine ; 
Botigere, salmon rose, bronzed ; Cor?ielia Cook, 
canary yellow ; Devoniensis, creamy white ; 
Leveson Goiver, rosy salmon ; Madame Falcot, 
nankeen yellow ; Madame de Vatrey, carmine 
rose ; Marechal Neil, golden yellow, very frag- 
rant ; Pauline Lebonte, light blush ; Safrano, 
bright buff; Triomphe de Luxembottrg, rose 
color. White Tea, pure white, blooms freely. 

ROSEMARY. — A pleasant aromatic plant 
which is a native of the south of Europe, and 
derives its name from its beautiful appearance 
when glittering with dew. Its leaves have a fine 
aromatic fragrance like camphor, of which, in- 
deed, its oil contains one-fourth. The common, 
or green-leafed rosemary is sometimes put in 
soups and stews, and infusions of the leaves 
are put in some drinks ; but its chief use is in 
the flowers giving their fragrance to Hungary 
water, and also sometimes to Eau de Cologne. 
Some varieties of the plant — as the gold and 
silvej-stripcd — are quite ornamental. 

ROSEOLA. — This disease, also called rose 
rash -ssid. false measles, resembles the eruption 
of measles in a good many respects, but is 
neither infectious nor contagious, and there is 
no watering at the eyes, and no cough. The 
skin is mottled of a rose-color, the patches 
being small and of irregular shape ; sometimes 
the eruption appears as a cross of small, slightly 
raised, rose-colored spots. At first the eruption 
is bright red, but gradually it fades and disap- 
pears in from three to six days. The constitu- 
tional symptoms are slight ; sometimes the 
throat is affected slightly as in scarlet fever, 
which has led some to believe that the disease 
IS a mixture of scarlet fever and measles, but 
of that there is no proof whatever. Various 
maladies give rise to Roseola, the most im- 
portant of these being syphilis. Syphilitic 
roseola ordinarily consists of a number of rose- 
colored spots completely isolated and even with 



the surface, but sometimes they are fused to- 
gether so as to produce patches which are 
raised above the surface, and so merge imper- 
ceptibly into the eruption which commonly fol- 
lows in secondary symptoms of syphilis ; at 
the same time the fauces present a rim of red- 
ness corresponding to the external rash. Bella- 
donna sometimes presents a roseolar-rash, but 
not often. In infancy, stomachic derangement 
or dentition often gives rise to such an erup- 
tion, and it occasionally precedes the eruption 
of small-pox. 

Treatment. — Little in the way of treatment 
is necessary. The bowels had better be opened 
by a saline purgative (Rochelle or Epsom salts), 
and the diet restricted ; after that a few doses 
of any alterative tonic will suffice to restore 
wonted health. 

ROTTENSTONE. — This is an earth of an 
ash-brown color, found only in England. It is 
very light, moderately hard, dry, and useful as 
a polishing powder. It may be used either wet 
or dry. 

ROUGE. — A well-known red paint for the 
face, so named from the French word for red. 
There are several kinds of rouge, but they are 
all composed of some vegetable color and talc 
or powdered French chalk. The most common 
kind is produced from the coloring matter of 
the safflower precipitated upon a layer of finely- 
powdered talc, and afterwards triturated with 
a few drops of olive-oil. The fineness of the 
talc and the proportions of the coloring matter 
occasion the difference in the price of the 
article. Another and better kind of rouge is 
made by reducing French chalk to a fine pow- 
der and mixing it in a mortar with carmine. 
As a great deal of the rouge sold is adulterated 
by adding vermilion to the carmine — a sub- 
stance which is highly injurious to the skin, it 
is better when such paints are used at all to 
make them at home. We append accordingly 
the following receipts : — 

1. Take one drachm of finely powdered car- 
mine, and five drachms of powdered chalk. 
Mix and apply as usual. 

2. Take one ounce of finely powdered French 
chalk, carmine fifteen grains, and half a drachm 
of oil of sweet almonds. Mix well. 

3. Liquid Rouge. — Take of rouge, spirits of 
wine, white wine vinegar, and water, equal 
parts. Mix, and apjDly with a piece of fine 
linen rag. 

4. Spanish Rouge. — Take a piece of linen 
rag, or, still better, some jeweller's cotton, wet 
it with tincture of cochineal until a good deep 
color is obtained, and let it dry. When re- 
quired, moisten the wool, and rub the skin with 
it till the desired tint is obtained. 

R. S. V. P. — Invitations to balls, parties, and, 
especially, dinners, sometimes have appended 
to them the letters R. S, V. P. (repondez s'il 
vous plait — " Answer if you please"). Such 
an invitation should be answered as soon as 
practicable, as the host probably wishes to 
gauge his preparations. 

RX7E. — This plant i^ now but seldom used 



RUM 



RUST 



453 



other than as a medicine, and is consequently 
not often found for sale. It has a strong, un- 
grateful odor, and a bitter, hot, and penetrat- 
ing taste. In medicine, rue is chiefly employed 
in" the form of oil, which is distilled from the 
leaves and unripe fruit. Rue, or its oil, is a 
powerful stimulant to the part to which it is 
applied, and hence it is sometimes given as a 
stimulant in flatulence. In hysterical affections, 
especially where the menstrual functions have 
been in abeyance, it is sometimes given with 
benefit. In these it may be employed as an 
enema. It has falsely obtained a reputation as 
an abortive. The dose of the oil when taken 
internally is from two to three drops. 

RUM. — This is almost exclusively a West 
Indian product, and is made by distillation from 
fresh cane-juice and the scum which rises in 
the manufacture of sugar; and contains vola- 
tile and essential oils, which are produced both 
by the sugar-cane and the process of manufac- 
ture. It is also made from a mixture of the 
skimmings and the uncrystallizable residue of 
saccharine juice, or molasses, or even from 
molasses alone ; the two latter, however, are 
by no means equal to the first in volatile oils 
and ethers, and therefore in the flavor of the 
rum. By the addition of pine-apple in the pro- 
cess of fermentation a new flavor is obtained, 
and the product is sold as pine-apple rum. 
Rum improves by age as much or more than 
any other spiritous liquor, both in what it loses 
and in what it gains. New rum is generally 
strong, and readily produces intoxication, and 
is said to be injurious to health by inducing a 
tendency to fever in hot and to disease of the 
liver in cold climates ; whilst old rum has lost 
spirit and gained cenanthic ether, and has been 
greatly improved in softness and flavor. " Rum 
of moderate age," says Dr. Edward Smith, 
"may properly be esteemed the purest and 
most healthful member of the class of alcohols, 
and is, I believe, the most perfect cordial with 
which we are acquainted." 

The best rum is of a brown transparent color, 
a smooth mellowed, oily taste, and of strong 
body and consistence ; that of a clean limpid 
color, and hot, pungent taste, is either too new 
or has been mixed with other spirits. Jajitaica 
rum is the first in point of quality, ihe Leeward 
Island rum being always inferior to it in point 
of flavor, strength, and value. The price of 
the latter is usually twenty per cent, below that 
of the former, which occasions the Jamaica rum 
to be sometimes adulterated with the latter. 
{See Punch). 

RUPTURE. (See Hernia.) 

RUSK.— r«^^. --Flour, 2 lbs; butter, 6 oz; 
brewer's yeast, 2 tablespoonfuls ; eggs, 3 ; milk, 
nearly % pint. 

Break the butter into flour, and mix them 
into a lithe paste with the yeast, eggs, and warm 
milk ; set it to rise, and when it has risen to its 
full height, knead it smooth and make it into 
small loaves or thick cakes cut with a round 
cake-cutter; place them on a floured tin, and 
let them stand in a warm place from ten to 



twenty mihutes before they are set into the 
oven. Bake them about a quarter of an hour ; 
divide them while they are still warm, and put 
them into a very slow oven to dry. When they 
are crisp quite through they are done. 

Or, mix well together half a pint of new milk, 
the beaten yolks of three eggs, one gill of home- 
made yeast, and a pound and a half of flour ; 
leave it in a warm place to rise over night. In 
the morning cream seven ounces of butter, and 
beat it until light with three-quarters of a pound 
of powdered sugar ; add the whites of the eggs 
whisked to a stiff froth and half a teaspoonful 
of soda dissolved in a tablespoonful of hot water; 
work all thoroughly together with the hand and 
knead in three-quarters of a pound of flour: 
leave it to rise again, then roll it out half an 
inch thick, using as little flour as possible, cut 
it with a ring not more than two and a half 
inches across, place in buttered pans and when 
risen again (the third time) prick and bake in a 
quick oven. Rusks are never to be eaten hot ; 
cool them. 

Sweet Rusk. — The first recipe may be 
converted into sweet rusks by adding four tea- 
spoonfuls of sifted sugar. 

RUSSIAN BATH.— The Russian bath dif- 
fers from the Turkish bath, which it resembles 
in other respects, in the fact that steam is used 
instead of dry hot air for inducing the perspira- 
tion and general activity of the skin, which is 
the object aimed at in all vapor baths. The 
bather, in taking the Russian bath, as it is ad- 
ministered in this country, enters first a room 
filled with steam, and is laid on a shelf in such 
a position that the steam reaches every part of 
his body ; after remaining there until he is in 
a profuse perspiration, he is rubbed and manip- 
ulated by an attendant, and then led out to a 
pool of comparatively cold water into which he 
plunges ; from this he goes again into a steam- 
ing room, or plunges alternately into hot water 
and cool. The process ends by a gradual cool- 
ing off in a room of moderate temperature. 
The same effects and the same advantages are 
claimed for the Russian bath as for the 1'urkish 
(See Turkish Bath). It is to be observed, 
however, that owing to the free evaporation 
from the surface, the hot-air, or Turkish bath 
can be borne of a much higher temperature 
than the vapor or Russian bath, and conse- 
quently the effects are more decided and the 
re-action more vigorous. The former should 
never be taken at a temperature higher than 
140° F. 

RUST (To prevent). — Iron or steel im- 
mersed for a few minutes in a solution of car- 
bonate of potash or soda will not rust for years, 
even when exposed to a damp atmosphere. 
To preserve polished iron-work from rust, mix 
some copal varnish with as much olive-oil as 
will make it greasy, to which add nearly as 
much spirits of turpentine, and apply. 

To clean rust off iron or brass (when the 
latter is not gilt or lacquered), mix tripoli with 
half its quantity of sulphur, and lay it on with a 
piece of leather ; or emery and oil will answer 



454 



RYE 



SACQUE OR JACKET 



the same purpose. If steel be rusty, oil it, and 
let it remain two or three days ; then wipe it 
dry with clean rags, and polish with flour-emery, 
pumice-stone powdered, or unslacked lime. 

RYE. — Rye is a product of little importance 
from the household point of view, since it is 
rarely used in cookery, and then is always 
mixed with wheat-flour or Indian-meal. It is 
inferior to wheat in nutritive properties, and 
also in flavor and digestibility. Rye-flour 
should be bought in small quantities at a time, 
and kept in a keg or half-barrel with a cover. 
{See Bread.) 

Drop-cakes (Rye). — Take; — Milk, i pint; 



eggs, 3; sugar, i tablespoonful ; salt, i salt- 
spoonful ; rye-flour. 

Mix the other ingredients well together, and 
stir in rye-flour till the paste is of about the 
consistency of pan-cakes ; put into buttered 
cups or saucers, and bake half an hour. 

Griddle-cakes (Tlye).-~Take .--Milk, i quart ; 
eggs, 3 ; salt, % teaspoonful ; rye-flour. 

Mix the milk, salt, and the yolks of the eggs ; 
stir in enough rye-flour to make a rather thick 
batter; at the last moment stir in the whites of 
the eggs, beaten to a stiff froth, and bake on 
the griddle in the usual way. 






SABLE.— The skin of the sable. The 
Russian sable is the most costly of all furs, 
and may be distinguished from all others by 
the hairs turning and lying equally well in 
all directions. The fur of the animal from 
which it is taken is brown in summer, with 
some grey spots about the head ; in winter, when 
the animal is usually taken, the fur is beauti- 
fully glossy and black. The darkest skins are 
the most valuable. In its natural state the fur 
has a bloomy appearance ; but dyed sables 
generally lose their gloss and the hairs become 
twisted or crisped. Sometimes the skins are 
blackened by being smoked, but the deception 
may be detected from the smell and the crisped 
hairs ; a dyed or smoked fur may also be de- 
tected by rubbing it with a moist linen cloth, 
which will then become blackened. But few 
Russian sables reach the American market, 
and these are made into ladies' muffs and boas. 
The price of the choicest sets, consisting of 
these two articles, is from $icoo to $i6oo, 
though sets of lighter shade and inferior 
quality may be bought for from $250 to $400. 
The Hudson Bay sable is the leading fur in 
England, France, and Germany ; and is much 
used in the United States for muffs and boas. 
A set of this costs from $100 to $300. 

SACHETS OR SCENT-BAGS.— These 
are very pleasant to put in drawers or trunks 
where clothes, etc., are kept, as they completely 
disguise the stale or musty smell which such 
receptacles are likely to acquire otherwise. 
Take lavender-flowers, half a pound ; gum 
benzoin, powdered, one ounce ; oil of lavender, 
two drachms. Mix, and put into small silk 
bags or ornamental envelopes. 

Heliotrope Sachet. — Take : — Powdered 
orris-root, half a pound ; rose-leaves, quarter 
of a pound ; tonquin-beans, two ounces ; vanilla- 
beans, ground, one ounce ; grain musk, one 
drachm ; otto of almonds, two drops. Mix 
well in a coarse sieve. This is one of the best 
sachets made, and is very similar in its odor to 
the flower from which it derives its name. 

Rose-Sachet. — Rose-leaves, a quarter of a 



pound ; santal-wood, ground, two ounces ; otto 
of roses, half a drachm. Mix. 

Santal-wood Sachet. Ground santal- 
wood, which can usually be purchased at the 
drug-stores, makes good and economical sachets. 

SACKING. — A very coarse and strong can- 
vas cloth used in making sacks' or bags in 
which heavy and bulky substances are to be 
kept. It comes a yard and two yards wide. 

SACQUE OR JACKET.— We draw for a 




Fig. 



sacque the pattern of a plain waist {see Waist), 
allowing the paper to came below the waist 
line as far as desired for the length of the gar- 
ment. This pattern now requires three modi- 



SACOUE OR JACKET 



455 



fications: i. We enlarge the breadth of the 
chest (IV)* by about an inch, accorcUng to the 
desired looseness of the sacque, and mark the 
breadth b. 2. We remove the side line cor- 
respondingly to the left, and design the arm- 
size accordingly. 3. We prolong the side line, 
making the garment an inch wider to every 
four inches additional length. Sometimes 
also the neck requires to be enlarged as shown 
at^^. 

The length needful for the back is about two 
inches more than that of the front. The back 
(Fig. 2) is designed as for a plain waist, without 




Fig. 2. 

forms. The width of the back is then in- 
creased by about i Vz inches. As in the front, the 
arm-size is then enlarged, and the side line is 
carried down obliquely, the garment widening 
in the back a scant inch to every two inches of 
length. 

The garment is cut whole in the back, the 
pattern being laid upon the straight way fold of 
the cloth. After being put together, it will be 
finished at the edges by a facing; and fre- 
quently cuffs and a collar. By observing the 
rules for a plain waist with revets {See Waist), 
a double-breasted sacque may readily be made. 

Every variety of modification of the lov/er 
edge may be made in cutting this garment. 
Also the sleeves may be loose or tight as de- 
sired. A plain coat-sleeve {See Waist) is un- 
doubtedly the most suitable. 

In the fit of the sacque, the part near the 
sleeves is most essential. Care must be taken 
* See Cutting and Fitting. 



that the garment is broad enough across the 
chest, and that the shoulder lengths are not too 
long. 

A variety of the sacque, designated as the 
half-fitting casaque or paletot, is made after the 
pattern ot the straight sacque, with these modi- 
fications : The side lines of back and front, 
from c and b down to the waist, are made curv- 
ing, so as to diminish the breadth of the gar- 
ment, which spreads out again below the waist 
with the same proportions indicated above. 
Also the back is cut in two pieces, that is to 
say, it has a seam in the middle, taken up more 
towards the waist. 

By this pattern also are made the sacques or 
paletots worn by little boys. If it be not de- 
sired to leave the garment open all the way 
down in front, the front, like the back, may be 
cut in one piece ; then, when the two parts are 
put together under the arms and on the shoul- 
ders, a slit is cut in the front, either straight in 
the^ middle, at one side, or crossing the chest 
obliquely. This slit is faced on each edge, and 
buttonholes are made on the left, and buttons 
sewed on on the right. The garment also may 
be made to open upon one shoulder. We then 
sew the buttons on the back and make the but- 
tonholes in the front, and it is usual for sym- 
metry, to put a corresponding row of buttons 
upon the other shoulder. These sacques re- 
quire a belt, and may receive trimmings of all 
varieties suited to the material of which they 
are made. 

Of the same general description are the 
vests and sleeveless jackets, and sacques for 
house wear, which are so generally popular. 

The figures 3, 4, represent a sleeveless jacket, 
made as follows : 




Fig. 3. 

We design a pattern of a plain waist, and 
make in front only one part of the shape indi- 
cated at a. It is very short, large in the mid- 
dle, and vanishing at both extremities. This 
represents the second part of the plain waist. 
The first is dispensed with by cutting the front 
line away in a curve to meet the side c. The 
back is made with or without forms as prefer- 
ferred. 



45G 



SAFFRON 



SALAD 



The dotted lines about the arm-size indicate 
a tasteful manner of cutting out these open- 
ings, which, as no sleeves are required, may 
vary their shape in many ways. 




Fig. 4. 

In cutting jackets without darts at all, if it 
be desired to lengthen the garment in front, 
like the old-fashioned waist-coat (represented 
by the interrupted hne, going below the waist, 
in Fig. 3), the following method may be 
adopted : In preparing the lining, or the paper 
pattern, if the garment is to have no lining, a 
very short dart should be taken up and sewed, 
or pasted, if on paper, firmly. Then the ma- 
terial, cut after this lining or paper pattern, 
will adapt itself very gracefully to the figure 
without any visible darts. 

Vests are often made to be worn with 
garments open in front, composed of fronts 
made of the desired material, and the back of 
lining merely. These fronts may be cut either 
as just explained, without darts, or by the plain 
waist pattern, or by the pattern of the waist of 
the princesse dress. If desired to make a very 
loose garment, the back of this vest may be 
cut from the blouse pattern, and held by a 
drawing string. Invalids who cannot wear a 
tight waist will find many advantages in combi- 
nations like these. 

SAFFRON.— The dried stigmata of a 
species of crocus. It was formerly used in 
England as a seasoning for certain dishes ; but 
is now employed chiefly as a coloring matter 
for cheese and butter. It is not often procura- 
ble in this country, that sold as such being 
generally the product of the safflower. Pure 
saffron has a beautiful yellow color and an 
agreeable odor ; it yields its active principle, 
an essential oil, to water and spirit. The adul- 
teration with safflower and marigold is easily 
detected, for the petals of these flowers will 
appear distinct from the stigmata of the crocus. 
The English saffron is the best. 

In medicine the only preparation of saffron is 
a tincture, which is little used save for its col- 
oring properties. Saffron is contained, how- 
ever, in decoction of aloes, aloes and myrrh 
pills, compound tincture of cinchona, ammoni- 



ated tincture of opium, and tincture of rhu- 
barb. 

SAGE. — There are several varieties of this 
well-known herb, of which the cojpifnon green 
is the best. It has a strong fragrant smell, and 
a bitter, warm taste. Its leaves are much used 
in sauces, stuffing, and other preparations in 
cookery. It is also a favorite domestic remedy, 
being used as a gargle for sore throat, mixed 
with honey and alum or some other astringent. 
As a wash for ulcers about the mouth or lips, 
it is very pleasant and sometimes efficacious. 
It is usually found in the markets, tied up in 
small bunches, both green and dried. 

SAGO. — The produce of the sago palm, 
and several other palms, which grow spontane- 
ously in the East Indies and the islands of the 
Indian Ocean. The part which affords the sago 
is the pith, and to procure this the body of the 
tree is cut down when it is full grown, sawed 
in pieces, and the raw sago cut out and put 
into a trough with water, in which it is well 
stirred to separate the flour from the filaments. 
This is now suffered to rest, and the flour sub- 
sides to the bottom ; the water is then poured 
off, and the wet flour laid upon wicker frames 
to dry. To form it into the round grains in 
which we have it, the sago, when moist, is 
passed through a colander, rubbed into little 
balls, and thoroughly dried. The nutritive 
value of sago is not very high, since it consists 
almost exclusively of starch, and is therefore 
inferior to rice, and much inferior to the farin- 
aceous foods grown in our own climate. It is 
delicate in flavor, however, and very digesti- 
ble ; and for these reasons is especially useful 
in the sick-room. The best sago is of a slightly 
reddish hue, and readily dissolves in hot water 
to a jelly, but differs from wheat-starch in be- 
ing likewise soluble in cold water. A superior 
sort is imported from China which has a pearly 
lustre. Sago should be purchased in small 
quantities at a time, and kept in covered jars, 
or covered wooden boxes. (See Puddings, and 
Soups. 

Jelly (Sago). — Soak a teacupful of sago in 
cold water half an hour, then pour off the 
water, add fresh, and soak it another half hour ; 
then boil it slowly, adding a pinch of salt, a 
stick of cinnamon, or a bit of orange or lemon 
peel, and stirring constantly; when the jelly 
thickens, add wine and white sugar to taste, let 
it boil a minute, and then turn it into cups. 

Milk (Sago).— Soak three tablespoonfuls of 
sago for an hour in a teacupful of cold water; 
pour it into three teacupfuls of boiling milk ; 
sweeten and flavor to taste ; simmer slowly 
half an hour. 

SALAD. — We shall here treat only of dress- 
ings and some vegetable salads ; recipes for 
other salads are given in the articles on the 
various substances from which they are made. 
{See Chicken, Lobster, etc.) Meat used for 
salad, whether of fish, flesh or fowl, should not 
i)e minced, but picked or cut, not very fine. Veg- 
etables good for salad are : boiled asparagus, 
cabbage (red and white), every species of let- 



SALAD 



SALERATUS 



457 



tuce ; chicory, boiled cauliflower, celery, dan- 1 
delion, purslane, water-cress, etc. All these 
are prepared substantially in the same way ; 
that is, they are taken when quite fresh and 
crisp, cut or broken into shreds (lettuce is 
frequently served with the leaves entire), and 
covered with a seasoning or dressing. This 
dressing consists chiefly of oil, vinegar, salt, 
pepper, and mustard, mixed in various propor- 
tions. All the ingredients of salad-dressing 
should be of the best. The olive oil should 
be pure; the vinegar, either wine with tarragon 
in it, or the best cider-vinegar ; and English 
mustard. The sooner salad is eaten after it 
is dressed, the better. 

Salad-dressing. — I. Take the yolks of two 
hard-boiled eggs and two raw eggs, put them 
into a flat dish with a large spoonful of fresh 
mixed mustard, a little salt and Cayenne pep- 
per ; stir these well together with a large wood- 
en spoon or egg beater; turn in by degrees 
half a bottle of olive oil, half a teacupful of 
vinegar, and the juice of a lemon, stirring all 
the time. Cream may be substituted for the 
oil. 

II. Rub the yolks of two hard boiled eggs to 
a powder ; add a teaspoonful of white sugar, 
one of pepper, half a teaspoonful of salt, half a 
teaspoonful of mixed mustard, and two tea- 
spoonfuls of olive-oil ; mix well together, and 
set aside for five minutes ; then beat in four 
tablespoonfuls of vinegar. This will serve 
for lettuce or cabbage. 

III. Take the yolks of two hard-boiled eggs, 
mash them to a paste, and add half a teaspoon- 
ful of mixed mustard, a little black pepper, a 
Kttle salt, three tablespoonfuls of olive oil, and 
three of vinegar; mix together thoroughly. 
A tablespoonful of catsup may be added if 
liked. 

IV. English Salad Dressing. — To the yolks 
of two hard-boiled eggs mashed to a paste with 
the back of a wooden spoon, add a small salt- 
spoonful of salt, a small teaspoonful of powder- 
ed sugar, a few grains of fine Cayenne, and a 
teaspoonful of cold water; mix these well, 
and stir to them by degrees a quarter of a pint 
of cream ; throw in next, stirring the sauce 
briskly, a tablespoonful of strong Chili vinegar, 
and add as much common vinegar as will acid- 
ulate the mixture agreeably. A tablespoonful 
of either will be sufficient for most tastes, but 
it is easy to increase the proportion when 
more is liked. Six tablespoonfuls of olive 
oil may be substituted for the cream ; it should 
be added very gradually to the other ingre- 
dients, and stirred briskly until the sauce re- 
sembles custard. When this is used, the 
water should be omitted. This is a very deli- 
cate and savory dressing, either for ordinary 
salad or for cold fish. 

V. Beat a raw egg with a saltspoonful of salt 
until it is thoroughly smooth then add a tea- 
spoonful of mixed mustard made rather thick- 
er than usual ; when these are quite smooth, 
add by degrees half a pint of olive-oil, taking 
care to blend each portion of it with the t.^^ 



before adding more. This ought to make a 
tenacious mass, so thick that a teaspoon will 
stand up in it, and as smooth as honey. Dil- 
ute it with vinegar, till it assumes the consist- 
ence of thick cream. No salad-dressing is so 
smooth and rich as this, and the usual oily 
flavor is lost from the raw egg converting the 
oil into an emulsion. A little anchovy may 
be added if desired and the juice of a fresh 
lemon may take the place of the vinegar. 

VI. French Salad-Dressing. — Stir a salt- 
spoonful of salt and half as much pepper into 
a tablespoonful of oil, and when the salt is dis- 
solved, mix with them four additional table- 
spoonfuls of oil, and pour the whole over the 
salad ; let it be well turned, and then add two 
tablespoonfuls of tarragon vinegar ; mix the 
whole thoroughly, and serve without delay. 
The salad should not be dressed in this way 
until the instant before it is wanted for table ; 
the proportions of salt and pepper can be in- 
creased at pleasure. 

Mayonnaise Dressing — See recipes, Nos. 
I. and V. in the preceding column, and also 
under Sauces. 

Potato Salad. — This is prepared rather dif- 
ferently from the regular salad vegetables. A 
potato-salad is the one that requires most sea- 
sonings, especially oil and vinegar; it is better 
served warm than cold, though many prefer it 
in the latter state. Boil the potatoes, 
peel and slice them, and put them into a salad 
dish with salt, pepper, vinegar, oil, and parsley 
to taste ; mix the whole gently but thoroughly, 
and serve. If served very warm, butter may 
be used instead of oil. Cold potato-salad is 
improved by using a larger proportion of vin- 
egar, and adding a few shreds of onion — one 
onion to half a dozen potatoes. 

Walnut Salad. — This is a common summer 
salad in France, where the growth of walnuts is 
generally abundant, but it is not often served in 
this country ; though the sweet flavor of the just- 
formed nut is very agreeable. Take the young 
walnuts when a pin will pierce them easily, 
pare them down to the kernels, and toss them 
gently, just before they are served, in the 
French or English (No. i) salad-dressing (the 
former would generally be preferred), and turn 
them into the salad bowl for table. 

"Water-Cress. — Wash and pick over the 
cresses carefully, pluck the tender shoots from 
the stems, and pile in the salad-bowl with a 
dressing of vinegar, salt, pepper, and sugar, 
well stirred in. It is best not to dress until 
just before serving. 

SALERATUS. — A salt formerly prepared 
from pearlash by exposing it to carbonic acid 
gas That now generally sold is bicarbonate 
of soda. It is much used in making bread, etc., to 
neutralize acids and thus render the bread light 
by the escape of the carbonic acid gas. Saleratus 
should be bought in small quantities, then pow- 
dered, sifted, and kept in a wide-mouthed bot- 
tle tightly corked. It grows damp if exposed to 
air. in that case add just as much water as will 
dissolve it ; a tablespoonful of this equals a 



458 



SALIVATION 



SALLY LUNN 



teaspoonful of the solid. Keep it tightly corked 
in a bottle. 

SALIVATION. — A term applied to a condi- 
tion in which there is increased flow of saliva 
with swelling of the mucous membrane of the 
mouth. In most cases it is caused by the ac- 
tion of mercury, but it has been found that 
many other agents may have the same effect. 
Iodide of potassium, antimony, croton oil, 
castor oil, opium, and foxglove have been known 
to produce the milder symptoms of salivation. 
An increased flow of saliva without swelling or 
ulceration of the gums and cheeks may be pro- 
duced by irritation of the mucous membrane of 
the mouth and alimentary canal, and by mental 
influences. 

The mercurial salivation commences with 
tenderness of the gums and inner surfaces of 
the cheeks, and pain when the teeth are brought 
sharply together. The patient experiences a 
metallic taste. The secretion of saliva is so 
much increased that it accumulates in the 
mouth, and necessitates frequent spitting, and 
during the night flows from the mouth and 
saturates the pillow. The daily amount of 
saliva, which in health is about ten ounces, in- 
creases to four or six pints. The tongue then 
swells, and the mucous membrane of the gums 
and cheeks becomes inflamed, and finally ulcer- 
ates. The breath has a very offensive and 
peculiar odor. In bad cases the ulceration 
extends, and by destroying the tissue of the 
gums exposes the bone of the upper and lower 
jaws. These symptoms are usually associated 
with those of gastric and intestinal irritation, 
and of nervous debility, and excitement ; with 
the exception of the metallic taste in the mouth 
none of the above symptoms are pecuhar to 
mercural sahvation, and a similar condition may 
be presented in cases of salivation due to con- 
stitutional causes. Cancrum oris, a gangrenous 
affection of the mouth which is occasionally 
met with in children suffering from measles, is 
often attributed by the parents to the effects of 
mercury, supposed to have been administered 
for the treatment of the febrile disorder. Cases 
of severe salivation produced by the medicinal 
use of mercury, are at present extremely rare, 
as the effects of mercury are seldom allowed to 
proceed beyond slight redness and tenderness 
of the gums. In cases where intense salivation 
has been produced by the administration of 
large quantities of mercury, other symptoms of 
mercurial poisoning are generally present ; of 
these the most prominent are pallor, trembling, 
an eczematous eruption over the surface of 
the body, and general debility. In some pe- 
culiarly constituted patients mercury may pro- 
duce all the latter symptoms, and not give rise 
to salivation or any affection of the mouth. 
The property of producing salivation is common 
to all the preparations of mercury used in 
medicine, the most active being calomel and 
blue pill. Mercury when introduced into the 
system in other ways than through the mouth 
and stomach, as by inunction, fumigation and 
hypodermic injection, does not fail after a certain 



time to produce similar symptoms of salivation. 
In the treatment of local affections, especial- 
ly venereal sores and cutaneous eruptions, 
the first appearance of the symptoms of mer- 
curial salivation is generally presented by a 
decided improvement in these affections, the 
indurated bases of the sores have commenced 
to soften, and the rash on the skin is less dis- 
tinct. Salivation may be produced either by a 
very large and poisonous dose of mercury, or 
by frequently repeated small doses. In some 
cases there is a long interval between the end 
of the course of mercury and the first appear- 
ance of symptoms of salivation, mercury being 
a cumulative poison which may be stored up in 
the body slowly and gradually until it is in 
sufficient force to give rise to salivation and 
other affections. Some individuals are ex- 
tremely sensitive to the action of mercury, and 
become salivated after very small doses of 
calomel or blue pill. Other individuals, on the 
contrary, are so constituted that they can resist 
for a long time the action of large and fre- 
quently repeated doses of mercury, or even re- 
main quite invulnerable. A patient who has 
been subjected to two or more courses of mer- 
curial treatment becomes much less susceptible 
on each occasion to the action of the medicinal 
agent, and is less hable to be salivated by the 
last than by any previous course. The early 
occurrence of salivation during a mercurial 
course is much favored by a want of attention 
to the cleanliness of the mouth, and by bad 
teeth and soreness of the gums. Catching 
cold and even a slight exposure to cold and 
wet will often cause early salivation. 

During a course of mercury great attention 
should be paid to the state of the mouth. The 
teeth should be frequently brushed, and the 
patient, in order to harden the mucous mem- 
brane of the gums and cheeks, should wash 
out the mouth occasionally with some astrin- 
gent gargle and suck small pieces of alum. In 
cases of mercurial salivation the cause should 
r.t once be removed. The swollen and ulcera- 
ted mucous membrane of the mouth should 
then be washed with a solution of chloride of 
lime, or of alum, or of brandy-and-water. Chlo- 
rate of potash should be used as a gargle, and 
taken internally in 20 grain doses every three 
or four hours. 

SALLY LUNN.— I. Taie . •-Butter. 4 level 
tablespoonfuls ; brown sugar, i tablespoonful ; 
milk, I pint ; egg, i ; home-made yeast, i gill; 
flour, to make a stiff batter. 

Put the butter and sugar into the milk, and 
set over the fire till melted, add the egg well 
beaten ; yeast and flour to make a stiff bat- 
ter. Grease the baking-pan well, pour the 
sponge in, and set to rise in a warm place ; 
when fully risen, bake brown in a moderate 
oven. 

II. Take .'-Flour, 3 pts ; eggs, 2 ; melted 
butter, I teacupful ; warm milk, warm water, 
i pt each ; home-made yeast, 4 tablespoon- 
fuls ; salt, I teaspoonful ; soda, ^ teaspoonful. 

Beat the eggs to a stiff froth, and add the 



SALMAGUNDY 



SALMON 



459 



milk, water, butter, salt, and soda (the latter 
dissolved in hot water) ; stir in the flour till a 
smooth batter is formed, and then beat the 
yeast in well. Put it in a buttered pudding- 
dish (in which it should be sent to table), or a 
w^/Z-buttered mould, if you wish to turn it out 
after baking ; and set it to rise about six hours. 
Bake in a moderate oven three-quarters of an 
hour, or until a straw thrust into it comes out 
clean. Eat while hot. 

SALMAGUNDY. (See Entrees.) 
SALMON. — The best salmon have small 
heads and are quite thick through the shoulders; 
their usual weight is from six to twelve pounds 
each, though occasionally they are much larger. 
They are usually cut to suit purchasers. The 
middle cut is the choicest, though some prefer 
the head and shoulders, and others again the 
tail piece. When cut, the flesh should look 
quite red, solid, and flaky. Of the different 
kinds of salmon found in our markets, the East- 
ern salmon, from the Kennebec River, are con- 
sidered best, those from the Penobscot and St. 
John's rivers are next. They begin to appear 
about the ist of March, and are in season till 
the 1st of Septerr ber. Scotch salmon, brought 
from Scotland in the steamers, are found in 
small quantities in the market throughout the 
year; but are seldom in good condition; they do 
not rank with Eastern salmon when in season. 




Large quantities of salmon are sold in the 
cured state — pickled, salted, smoked, etc. 
These are sold singly or in packages at much 
lower prices than are asked for the fresh fish. 
Raw smoked salmon, cut into smooth strips 
three or four inches long, makes an excellent 
supper-dish ; it should be eaten with pepper- 
sauce or some other pungent condiment. 

Baked Salmon. — Wash and wipe dry, and 
rub with pepper and salt ; lay the fish upon a 
grating set over the baking-pan, and bake (or 
roast), basting freely with butter, and, toward 
the last, with its own drippings only. If it 
browns too fast, cover the top with a sheet of 
white letter-paper until the whole is cooked. 
When it is done, put it into a hot dish and cover 
closely ; add to the gravy a little hot water 
thickened with arrowroot, rice-flour, or wheat-' 
flour — wet the flour first with cold water, — a 
tablespoonful of tomato sauce, and the juice of 
a lemon ; boil up and serve in a sauce-boat. 

An excellent sauce for salmon is made as 
follows : — Take a pint of cream or half milk and 
half cream, and heat it in a vessel set in boiling 
water : stir into this four ounces of butter rub- 
bed with four even tablespoonf uls of flour, and a 
little salt and chopped parsley; stir until thick- 
ened. For boiled salmon this sauce is improv- 



ed by adding two tablespoonfuls of the water in 
which the fish was boiled. 

Boiled Salmon. — To preserve the fine color 
of the fish, and to set the curd, put into boiling 
instead of into cold water. Scale, empty, and 
wash carefully, being especially careful to 
cleanse all the blood from the inside. Stir into 
the fish-kettle eight ounces of salt to a gallon 
of water, let it boil quickly for a minute or two, 
take off all the scum, put in the salmon, and 
boil it moderately fast, should it be small, but 
more gently should it be very thick. From two 
to three pounds of the thick part of a salmon 
will require half an hour to boil it properly ; 
but eight or ten pounds will be done enough in 
little more than double that time ; less time in 
proportion to its weight should be allowed for 
a small fish or for the thin end of a large one. 
Do not allow the salmon to remain in the 
water after it is ready to serve, or both its 
flavor and appearance will be injured. Dish 
on a hot napkin, and send anchovy, shrimp, 
or lobster sauce, and a tureen of plain melted 
butter to table with it. The cream sauce given 
under baked salmon is unsurpassed. 

Crimped Salmon. — Cut into slices an inch 
and a half or two inches thick the body of a 
quite fresh salmon ; lay them in strong salt 
and water, but do not let them soak in it ; wash 
them well in clear water, lay them on a fish- 
plate, and put them into fast boiling water, salted 
and well skimmed. In from ten to fifteen min- 
utes they will be done. Dish them on a napkin 
and send them very hot to table with lobster 
sauce and plain melted butter ; or with caper- 
sauce. 

Fried in Oil. — Turn into a small deep frying 
pan, a small bottle of good oHve-oil, place it on 
a clear fire, and as soon as it ceases to bubble 
lay in a pound and a half of salmon properly 
cleansed and dried in a cloth, and fry it gently 
until it is cooked quite through. The surface 
should be only lightly browned. Drain the 
fish well when it is done, and when it is per- 
fectly cold, dish, and garnish with parsley or 
any green foliage. 

Pickled (Fresh) Salmon.— Take a salmon, 
wipe it on the scaly side, remove the gills, and cut 
off a piece of the tail : split it from the head, at 
the back, and through the belly ; put aside the 
liver, and clean the inside with a cloth ; strew 
salt over the fish, and let it lie three hours and 
the tail two hours longer in salt. Cleanse 
it in fresh water; then dry it, cut into pieces, 
leaving a handsome head, or jowl, and place 
them in a fish-kettle, and just cover the fish 
with water and set on the fire. Mix half a 
pint of vinegar with the water, boil slowly for 
ten minutes, and then only simmer till the fish 
will easily leave the bone ; take it out when 
nearly cold, and lay it in a deep dish. Skim off 
the top as much liquor as will cover the salmon, 
and tying up the liver in a piece of linen rag, 
add some whole black pepper, simmer half an 
hour, take it off, and when lukewarm, pour it 
over the fish. In using it, always keep the 
salmon covered with liquor. 



460 



SALMON 



SALVIA 



A ready way to pickle salmon already boiled 
is to add a fourth part of vinegar to some of 
the liquor in which it was dressed, with some 
whole black pepper and salt ; boil this liquor 
half an hour, then pour it hot over the fish and 
cover. 

Pickled (Salt) Salmon. — Wash the salmon 
through two or three waters, rubbing it lightly 
with a cloth ; then place it in lukewarm water 
and let it soak over night ; next morning trans- 
fer it to very cold water and let it remain sev- 
eral hours then take it out, wipe dry with a cloth, 
and cut into small pieces convenient for serving ; 
drop these when all are ready, into a saucepan 
of boiling water. Meanwhile prepare a pickle 
of two quarts of vinegar, a dozen white pepper 
corns, a dozen blades of mace, a dozen cloves, 
three tablespoonfuls white sugar, two table- 
spoonfuls mixed mustard, and a pint of the 
water in which the fish was boiled ; boil up 
hard, and skim. When the salmon has boiled 
hard five minutes, fish out the pieces with a 
wire spoon, and pack them in air-tight glass 
jars or fruit cans ; fill up the jars with the boil- 
ing pickle and seal immediately. This will be 
ready for use in a day or two, will keep a long 
time, and is scarcely inferior to the fresh pickled 
salmon. Of course it is much cheaper. 

Potted Salmon. — Split a salmon at the back 
and through the belly; scale it clean, and wipe 
it dry. Lay fine salt upon it, and let it lie until 
the salt is dissolved ; then mix black pepper, 
mace, cloves, in powder, and a little brown 
sugar, which rub all over the red side of the 
salmon ; then put it into a pan, with a few bay 
leaves, cut in pieces, and plenty of butter (with 
the salt washed out), and bake in a slack oven. 
When done, pour off the gravy, take out the 
fish, which lay to drain on a cloth ; then put it 
into pots, press down closely, and pour over it 
melted butter and tie over. This, if made prop- 
erly, will be quite equal to the potted salmon 
sold in the shop. 

Pudding (Salmon). — Pound, or chop small, 
or rub through a sieve one pound of cold boil- 
ed salmon freed entirely from bone and skin ; 
mix it lightly but thoroughly with half a pound 
of fine bread crumbs, a teaspoonful of essence 
of anchovy, a quarter of a pint of cream, a 
seasoning of fine salt and cayenne, and four well 
beaten eggs. Press the mixture closely and 
evenly into a deep dish or mould, buttered in 
every part, and bake it for an hour in a moder- 
ate oven. This is a popular Scotch dish. 

Salad (Salmon). — Boil some thin slices of 
salmon in salted water as directed for " boil- 
ed salmon," drain, and serve cold on a napkin. 
Serve with it, in a sauce-boat, the following dress- 
ing : Half a teaspoonful of salt, a pinch of pep- 
per, two tablespoonfuls of vinegar, four of olive 
oil, a pickled cucumber chopped fine, two or 
three anchovies chopped fine or pounded, and a 
tablespoonful of capers ; beat together thor- 
oughly. 

Salt Salmon. — Salt salmon, and in fact any 
other salt fish, may be cooked and served as 
directed for salt cod. {See Cod.) 



Smoked Salmon. — As already mentioned, 
smoked salmon is usually eaten raw, as a supper 
dish. It is also excellent broiled. For broil- 
ing, wash it in two waters, boil it gently for 
fifteen minutes, wipe dry and broil on a hot 
fire till neatly browned on both sides ; then 
spread liberally with butter, and sprinkle pepper 
on it. 

Steaks (Salmon). — Cut the fish completely 
across in slices about an inch thick ; dry them 
well between the folds of a napkin. If for fry- 
ing they may be dusted with flour, which should 
be spread evenly over their surface with a feath- 
er ; if for broiling, season with the slightest 
sprinkling of pepper and salt, and put on the 
gridiron over hot coals ; when brown on both 
sides, butter each slice and serve hot. The 
turning must be done very carefully or the 
slices will break. Either anchovy or caper- 
sauce goes well with salmon steaks, which, how- 
ever, may be eaten plain. 

SALMON TROUT.— This delicious fish, 
also called the sea-trout, is very similar to the 
common salmon, both in appearance and in 
taste ; but it is inferior in size, the head and 
mouth are smaller, and its back is of a darker 
green while its sides are silvery. The salmon 
trout is never black inside the mouth like the com- 
mon brook-trout. It is even scarcer than the sal- 
mon and commands an equally high price ; it is in 
season about the same time. The female is 
considered best for. the table, and may be dis- 
tinguished by a small head and very deep body. 
Their usual weight is from three to ten pounds, 
though occasionally they are found larger. Pre- 
pare, cook, and serve as directed for Salmon. 

SALSIFY. {See Oyster-plant.) 

SALT. — Common salt, or chloride of sodium, 
is found in great abundance in the waters of 
the ocean, sea-water containing about three 
per cent, on an average. It is also found in the 
solid form, composing rocks in various parts of 
the world ; this is called rock-salt. There are 
likewise many springs of water issuing from 
the earth so highly impregnated with salt that 
they are called salt-spruigs ; these are sup- 
posed to owe their origin to water passing 
through rock-salt underground, in consequence 
of which it dissolves a portion ; on evaporat- 
ing the water of these springs, or sea-water, by 
boiling, salt is procured. From whichever of 
these sources salt is obtained, it is never quite 
pure, being at first contaminated with earthy 
substances or with other salts, as Epsom salt (sul- 
phate of magnesia) and Glauber's salt (sulphate 
of soda) ; and it has to be purified or refined 
before it is fit for domestic use. The salt pro- 
duced by salt-springs is generally purest and 
best, and it is from this source that most of the 
salt used for culinary or table purposes in this 
country is derived. Common salt will generally 
attract water and thus become damp; it should 
therefore be kept in a box with a tightly fitting 
cover, and kept in a warm dry place. 

SALVES. {See DRUGS, GLYCERINE, and 
under the special cases to be treated.) 

SALVIA. — This is the most gorgeous of 



SAMPHIRE 



SARSAPARILLA 



461 



all the fall-flowering plants. It grows from four 
to five feet high, making a handsome symmetrical 
bush, and during September and October is 
covered with tassels of the brightest scarlet or 
blue flowers. It is unequalled for planting in 
masses, but is extremely tender, the first frost 
rendering it a blackened mass. Salvias may 
be raised from the seed, but it is best if possible 
to procure the small plants from the florist 
in the spring, and plant them in good, rich 
garden soil ; they will grow vigorously. If de- 
sired for a house plant they may be transplanted 
into pots late in September, shaded for a few 
days, and then removed to a sunny window, 
where they will blossom properly for two months. 
Then keep them cool until spring, and repeat 
the operation till the plants become so large as 
to be unmanageable, when spring cuttings must 
be taken off and rooted. 

The common variety is the Salvia splendens, 
which has rich scarlet flowers. S. splendens 
variegata is a novelty possessing finely varie- 
gated foliage, with flowers as brillant as the 
common kind. The roots of these two varie- 
ties can be hung up during the winter in a dry, 
dark cellar — like Geraniums ; S. Patens is of a 
deep blue color, of the most perfect shade. It 
has a tuberous root, which can be kept like a 
Dahlia through the winter in sand. 

SAMPHIRE. This plant, also called sea- 
fennel, is difficult to cultivate, and as it is not a 
native, is seldom procurable in our markets. 
Its leaves have a pleasant, crisp, aromatic 
flavor; the fleshy leaves and young branches 
are pickled in vinegar, and also used in salads 
in seasoning. 

SANDWICHES.— To make good sand- 
wiches the bread should be light, and not too 
stale. Cut it in thin slices, butter well on one 
side, and between the slices lay meat chopped 
fine or cut very thin ; to beef or ham a little mus- 
tard is usually added. After being prepared the 
sandwiches should be piled together and kept be- 
tween two plates, or in a sandwich-box. Instead 
of the sliced meat, potted meats, such as beef, 
veal, chicken, ham, or tongue, may be used ; 
this method is preferable to the slices, as there 
in less difficulty in dividing them with the teeth. 

Cheese Sandwiches. — Take two-thirds of 
good cheese, grated, and one-third of butter ; 
and a little cream : pound all together in a mor- 
tar ; then spread it on slices of brown bread 
or gems; lay another slice over each ; press them 
gently together, and cut in small square pieces. 

Egg Sandwiches, — Boil fresh eggs five 
minutes ; put them in cold water, and when 
quite cold peel them, and after taking a little of 
the white off each end of the eggs cut the re- 
mainder in four slices. Lay them between bread 
and butter with a little pepper and salt. 

Fried Egg Sandwiches. — Beat some eggs 
well ; fry them in butter as a pancake. When 
cold, cut in small square pieces, and lay them 
between brown bread and butter. 

Gem and Cheese Sandwiches. — Toast 
good cheese lightly ; split wheatmeal gems in 
halves, and spread between two halves, so as to 



come to the edges all round, a slice of the toast- 
ed cheese. It makes a wholesome and palat- 
able lunch ; children are fond of it. Some ob- 
ject to toasted cheese. The principal objection 
to it is that it is generally toasted too much. If 
toasted dry, it is as hard to digest as a very hard- 
boiled tg%. Another objection is, that it is too 
often eaten as a dessert with rich pie and cake, 
instead of with the principal part of the meal. 
Omelet Sandwiches. — Take four eggs, two 
tablespoonfuls of bread crumbs, and one half 
ounce of chopped parsley. After beating the 
eggs well, add the bread crumbs, then the 
parsley, and two tablespoonfuls of water. 
Season, and fry it in small fritters, and when 
cold put them between brown bread and butter. 
Pastry Sandwiches. — Divide equally in two, 
and roll off square and as thin as possible, 
some rich puff paste ; lay one half on a butter- 
ed tin, or copper oven-leaf, and spread it lightly 
with fine currant, strawberry or raspberry jelly ; 
lay the remaining half closely over, pressing it a 
little with the rolling pin after the edges are 
well cemented together ; then mark it into divis- 
ions, and bake it from fifteen to twenty minutes 
in a moderate oven. 

SANGAREE. — Properly speaking, sangaree 
is a punch very popular in the West Indies, 
composed of half Madeira wine and half water, 
acidulated with lime-juice and sweetened with 
sugar. It may be made, however, of any wine, 
in the same way. Ale sangaree is half ale and 
half water, sweetened. Add nutmeg to all. 
SAPS AGO. (6"^^ Cheese) 
SARDINE. — A small fish of the herring 
family taken in large quantities on the coast of 
Sardinia, and in other portions of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, also in the Atlantic ocean, on the 
coast of France. Sardines are sometimes im- 
ported in brine, but in almost all cases now 
they are preserved in oil, in small tin boxes, 
holding from half a pound to a pound, and con- 
taining in each on the average from a dozen to 
twenty-four fish. They are an excellent relish, 
and form a wholesome and agreeable addition 
to the breakfast, lunch, or supper-table. They 
should be served in the box and shced lemon 
handed with them. 

SARSAPARILLA. — A remedy which has 
alternately been extolled to the skies and fallen 
into complete neglect ; lauded as a panacea at 
one time, it has been despised at another, both 
probably unjustly. The plant which yields it is 
a species of smilax, which grows in many parts 
of America, and in the West Indies. The part 
employed is the underground stem or rhizome, 
whence numerous long rootlets are given off. 

The Jamaica sarsaparilla is the kind used in 
medicine ; this comes in bundles about a foot 
and a half long, the roots being folded and not 
thicker than a goose quill ; they are of a red- 
dish brown color. The preparations of sarsa- 
parilla are a simple and compound decoction, 
and a liquid extract. The compound decoction 
contains Jamaica sarsaparilla, Guaiacum, wood 
turnings, fresh liquorice root, and mezereon. 
This is the preparation most commonly used, 



462 



SASSAFRAS 



SAUCES 



in doses of from two ounces to a pint. All 
kinds of properties have been attributed to 
sarsaparilla, diaphoretic, diuretic, tonic, and 
alterative ; but it has been chiefly used as an 
anti-syphilitic. It seems, according to some 
trustworthy authorities, to do much good in the 
skin eruptions of syphilis, if taken in doses 
of not less than half a pint to a pint daily. It 
has also been used in some skin diseases, especi- 
ally in those of a scrofulous origin, and in chronic 
rheumatism and gout. In all of these maladies, 
however, it has been customary to use the sar- 
saparilla merely as an adjunct to powerful 
remedies, and it has not always been quite clear 
what portion of the resulting benefit was to be 
attributed to sarsaparilla. If used at all, it 
should be used in large quantities, and in the 
form of freshly prepared decoctions, simple or 
compound. 

SASSAFRAS. — A small tree common in 
the forests and barrens throughout a great part 
of the United States. Every part of the tree 
has a pleasant fragrance, and a sweetish aro- 
matic taste, which is strongest in the bark of 
the root. These qualities depend upon an 
essential oil which may readily be extracted by 
distillation, and which is much used in medi- 
cine. The young shoots are a pleasant in- 
gredient in stnall beer,?ind. impart to it a pleasant 
flavor. The dried root in the form of chips is 
commonly sold in the drug stores. The action 
of sassafras is stimulant, and is supposed to- be 
especially efficacious in chronic rheumatism and 
skin diseases. The mild decoction known as 
sassafras tea is a popular domestic remedy, 
and is believed to purify the blood. 

Beer (Sassafras). {See Beer.) 

Jelly (Sassafras). — Take the pith of sassafras 
boughs, break it in small pieces, cover it with 
cold water, and let it soak till the water be- 
comes glutinous. It has the flavor of sassafras, 
and is generally much relished by the sick. 

Tea (Sassafras). — Take the roots, either 
green or dried, boil them a few minutes in pure 
water, and then let them steep several hours ; 
drink with milk and sugar, like ordinary tea. In 
many parts of the country this is a favorite 
" spring medicine," about a pint of it being 
drunk every day for a month. 

SATIN. — A glossy silk twill of a peculiar 
description, the soft and lustrous face of which 
is given by keeping a large proportion, fre- 
quently as many as seven out of eight threads of 
the warp visible. In the manufacture of other 
silken stuffs each half of the warp is raised al- 
ternately ; but in weaving satin, the workman 
only raises the fifth or eighth part of the warp, 
which, presenting an even, close, and smooth 
surface, is capable of reflecting the rays of 
light almost entire, and the fabric thus acquires 
that lustre and bi:illiancy for which it is famous. 
But this is assisted by another process : when 
first taken out of the loom satin is somewhat 
flossy and rough, and it is dressed by being 
rolled on heated cylinders which smooth down 
the face and increase the lustre. Some satins 
are quite plain, others are figured, and the lat- 



ter are often of exquisite beauty. The Chinese 
excel in the production of figured satins ; the 
best plain ones are made at Lyons. Usual 
width 3^ yard. 

SATINET.— A thin flimsy kind of satin. Also 
a cloth made of cotton warp and worsted filling, 
much used for coat, cloak, and dress linings. 

SAUCES. — Directions for making sweet 
sauces are given under puddings {See Pud- 
dings), and most of the sauces that are served 
warm are described under the dishes which 




Mushrooms, Eschalots, and Tomatoes. 

they are intended to accompany. A consider- 
able number of the sauces given below are 
what may be called cotidinients^ though one 
important section of these latter are given 
under Catsup, Salad, and Vinegar. 
Almond Sauce. {See Almond.) 
Anchovy Sauce. {See Anchovy.) 
Bechamel Sauce. — I. Rub together in a 
sauce-pan, two ounces of butter and a heaped 
tablespoonful of flour ; add gradually a pint of 
boiling milk, and stir over the fire until it thick- 
ens ; remove and add the yolk of an ^gg well 
beaten with a teaspoonful of cold water ; season 
with salt and white pepper, and serve at once. 

n. Take equal parts of very strong pale 
veal gravy, and good cream (a pint each, for 
example). By rapid boiling reduce the gravy 
nearly half ; next mix with part of the cream a 
tablespoonful of fine dry flour ; bring the rest 
of the cream to a boil, add the flour and cream, 
and keep the whole stirred for five minutes 
over a slow fire ; then add the gravy, stir and 
mix perfectly, and simmer it for a few minutes 
longer. All the flavor should be given by the 
gravy, in which French cooks boil a handful of 
mushrooms, a few green onions, and some 
sprigs of parsley ; but a good bechamel can be 
made without them. 

III. Put into a stew-pan two or three ounces of 
butter, a carrot, two small onions cut in slices, 
and a handful of nicely-cleaned mushroom but- 
tons when these can be procured ; stew slow- 
ly half an hour, or until the butter is nearly dried 
up, then stir in two tablespoonfuls of flour, and 



SAUCES 



463 



pour in a pint of milk, a little at a time, shaking 
the stew-pan well that the sauce may be smooth. 
Boil gently for half an hour ; add a little salt 
and cayenne ; strain and reduce it if not quite 
thick enough, or pour it boiling to the yolks 
of two fresh eggs. 

Bread Sauce. — I. Boil half a pint of new 
milk, and pour it, scalding hot, upon half a pint 
of the finest bread-crumbs ; cover them closely 
with a plate, and let the sauce remain for 
twenty or thirty minutes ; put it then into a 
delicately clean sauce-pan, with a small salt- 
spoonful of salt, half as much pounded mace, a 
little cayenne, and about an ounce of butter ; 
keep it stirred constantly over a clear fire for a 
few minutes, then mix with it a couple of table- 
spoonfuls of good cream, give it a boil, and 
serve it immediately. When cream is not to 
be had, use an additional spoonful or two of 
milk. The bread used for sauce should be 
stale, and grated down into extremely small 
crumbs, or the preparation will look rough when 
sent to table. Not only the crust, but all heavy- 
looking or imperfectly-baked portions should be 
pared off, and it should be pressed against the 
grater only so much as will easily reduce it to 
crumbs. 

11. (With Onion). — Put into a very clean 
saucepan nearly half a pint of fine bread-crumbs, 
and the white part of a large mild onion cut into 
quarters; pour to these three-quarters of a pint 
of new milk, and boil them very gently, keeping 
them often stirred until the onion is perfectly 
tender, which will be in from forty minutes to 
an hour. Press the whole through a hair-sieve, 
which should be as clean as possible ; reduce 
the sauce by quick boiling should it be too thin ; 
add a seasoning of salt and grated nutmeg, an 
ounce of butter, and four spoonfuls of cream ; 
and when it is of a proper thickness, dish, and 
send it quickly to table. 

This is an excellent sauce for those who like 
a subdued flavor of onion in it ; but as many 
persons object to any, the cook should ascertain 
whether it be liked before she follows this re- 
ceipt. 

Butter (Burnt or Browned). — Melt in a 
frying-pan three ounces of fresh butter and stir 
it gently over a slow fire until it is of a dark 
brown color ; then pour to it two tablespoon- 
fuls of good hot vinegar, and season it with 
black pepper and a little salt. This is an ex- 
cellent sauce for boiled fish. 

Butter (Melted or Drawn). — I. Put into a 
bowl a large teaspoonful of flour, and a little 
salt, then mix with them very gradually and 
smoothly a quarter of a pint of cold water; 
turn these into a small clean sauce-pan, and 
shake or stir them constantly over a clear fire 
until they have boiled a couple of minutes; 
then add an ounce and a half of butter cut small, 
keep the sauce stirred until this is entirely dis- 
solved, give the wtiole a minute's boil, and serve 
it quickly. The usual mode is to put the but- 
ter in at first with the flour and water ; but for 
inexperienced or unskilful cooks, the above plan 
is safest and best. 



n. (French). — Pour half a pint of good, but 
not very thick, boiling drawn butter to the 
yolks of two or three fresh eggs, and stir them 
briskly as it is added ; put the sauce again into 
the saucepan, and shake it high over the fire 
for an instant, but do not allow it to boil or it 
will curdle. Add a little lemon juice or vinegar, 
and serve it immediately. 

III. (Rich.) — Mix to a very smooth batter a 
dessertspoonful of flour, a half-saltspoonful of 
salt, and half a pint of cold water: put these 
into a delicately clean saucepan, with from four 
to six ounces of well-flavored butter, cut into 
small bits, and shake the sauce strongly round, 
almost without cessation, until the ingredients 
are perfectly blended, and it is on the point of 
boiling ; let it simmer for two or three minutes, 
and it will be ready for use. The best French 
cooks recommend its not being allowed to boil, 
as they say it tastes less of flour if served when 
it is just at the point of simmering. 

IV. (White.) — Thicken half a pint of new 
milk with rather less flour than is directed for 
the common drawn butter, or with a little 
arrowroot, and stir into it by degrees after it 
has boiled, a couple of. ounces of fresh butter 
cut small ; do not cease to stir the sauce until 
this is entirely dissolved, or it may become 
oiled, and float upon the top. Thin cream, 
substituted for the milk, and flavored with a 
few strips of lemon-rind cut extremely thin, 
some salt, and a small quantity of pounded 
mace, if mixed with rather less flour, and the 
same proportion of butter, will make an excel- 
lent sauce to serve with fowls or other dishes, 
when no gravy is at hand to make white sauce 
in the usual way. 

Caper Sauce. — I. Stir into a third of a pint 
of good drawn butter from three to four des- 
sertspoonfuls of capers ; add a little of the 
vinegar, and dish the sauce as soon as it boils. 
Keep it stirred after the capers are added ; part 
of them may be minced, and a little Chili vine- 
gar substituted for their own. Pickled nastur- 
tiums make a very good sauce and their flavor 
is sometimes preferred to that of capers. 

II. (Brown.) — Thicken halt a pint of good 
veal or beef gravy and add to it two table- 
spoonfuls of capers, and a dessert-spoonful of 
the pickle liquor, or of chili vinegar, with some 
cayenne if the former be used, and a proper 
seasoning of salt. 

III. For Fish. — To nearly half a pint of very 
rich drawn butter, add six tablespoonfuls of 
strong veal gravy, one tablespoontul of essence 
of anchovies, some Chili vinegar or cayenne, 
and from two to three tablespoonfuls of capers. 
When there is no gravy at hand, substitute a 
halt wineglassful ot mushroom or other catsup. 

Celery Sauce. — Slice the white parts of from 
three to five heads of young tender celery ; peel 
it if not very young, and boil it in salt and water 
twenty minutes. If for white sauce, put the 
celery, atter it has been well drained, into half 
a pint ot veal broth or gravy, and let it stew 
until it is quite soft ; then add an ounce and a 
half of butter, mixed with a dessertspoonful of 



464 



SAUCES 



flour, and a quarter of a pint of thick cream or 
the yolks of three eggs. 

A very good common celery sauce is made 
by simply stewing the celery cut into inch- 
lengths in butter, until it begins to be tender ; 
then add a tablespoonful of flour, which must 
be allowed to brown a little, and half a pint of 
good broth or beef gravy, with a seasoning of 
pepper or cayenne. 

Chestnut Sauce. — Cover six ounces c£ 
shelled chestnuts with boiling water, and let 
them simmer about three minutes, when they 
may be easily peeled; stew them gently for an 
hour an'' a quarter in three gills of veal stock, 
adding a few strips of lemon peel. Press 
them, with the gravy, through a hair-sieve re- 
versed and placed over a deep dish or pan, as 
they are much more easily rubbed through thus 
than in the usual way. Add a little cayenne 
and mace, some salt if needed, and about six 
tablespoonfuls of ricli cream. Stir the sauce 
until it boils, then serve with boiled fowls or 
stewed veal cutlets. 

Chili Sauce. — Take :-R\pe tomatoes (peeled 
and sliced), lo lbs.; onions peeled and chopped) 
2 lbs ; green peppers (without the seeds), 7 oz ; 
brown sugar, 6 oz ; salt, 4 oz ; vinegar, i}4 
pts. Chop the peppers, boil all the ingredients 
together in a porcelain-lined kettle for several 
hours, or until as thick as desired ; put it in air- 
tight cans, and vise for soups and gravies. 

Christopher North's Meat Sauce. — Throw 
into a small basin a heaped saltspoonful of cay- 
enne pepper, half the quantity of salt, and a 
small dessertspoonful of sifted sugar; mix 
thoroughly; pour in a tablespoonful of the 
strained juice of a fresh lemon, two of Har- 
vey's sauce, a teaspoonful of the best mush- 
room catsup, and a small wineglassful of port 
wine. Heat the sauce by placing the basin in 
a saucepan of boiling water. Serve it directly 
it is ready with geese or ducks, roast pork, 
venison, fawn, a grilled blade-bone, or any other 
broil. A slight flavor of garlic or eschalot vin- 
egar may be given to it at pleasure. Some per- 
sons eat it with fish. It is good cold ; and, if 
bottled directly it is made, may be stored for 
several days. It is the better for being mixed 
some hours before it is served. T/ie propor- 
tion of cayenne may be reduced, when a less 
pungent sauce is desired. 

Clarified Butter. — Put the butter into a very- 
clean and well-tinned sauce or enamelled stew- 
pan, and melt it gently over a clear fire ; when 
it just begins to simmer, skim it thoroughly, 
draw it from the fire, and let it stand a few min- 
utes, that the buttermilk may sink to the bottom ; 
then pour it clear of the sediment through a 
muslin strainer or a fine hair-sieve ; put into 
jars, and store them in a cool place. Butter 
thus prepared will answer for all the ordin- 
ary purposes of cookery, and remain good for 
a long time. The clarified butter ordered for 
the various receipts in this volume is merely 
dissolved with a gentle degree of heat in a 
small saucepan, skimmed, and poured out for 
use, leaving the thick sediment behind. 



Crab Sauce. — The flesh of a fresh crab of 
moderate size is more tender and delicate than 
that of a lobster, and may be converted into an 
excellent fish sauce. Mince it small, and add 
it to some good drawn butter, which has been 
flavored as directed for lobster sauce. 

Cream Sauce {For Fish). — Directions for 
making this excellent sauce are given under 
Baked Salmon. {See Salmon.) 

Cucumber Sauce. — Take two large fresh 
cucumbers ; peel them, and cut them length- 
wise into four or five pieces, and each piece 
into two ; put them into a quart of water, with 
a tablespoonful of salt in it, and let them lie 
half an hour; drain them, take out the seeds, 
and put the cucumbers into a stew-pan, with half 
a pint of white stock, or gravy, a dessertspoon- 
ful of vinegar, and a teaspoonful of sifted loaf 
sugar ; simmer half an hour, or till the cucum- 
bers are soft. Beat the yolks of two eggs with 
a gill of cream ; take out the cucumbers ; stir 
the eggs and cream into the sauce, boil up, and 
pour it over the cucumbers. 

Or, put the cucumbers, prepared as above, 
into a stew-pan, with a little sugar and butter, 
set it on the fire, and stir in some brown stock, 
and simmer till the cucumbers are tender; then 
take them out and thicken the sauce. 

Dutch Sauce. — Put into a small sauce-pan 
the yolks of three fresh eggs, the juice of a large 
lemon, three ounces of butter, a little salt and 
nutmeg, and a wineglassful of water. Hold 
the sauce-pan over a clear fire, and stir the 
sauce until it nearly (but not quite) boils ; a 
little cayenne may be added, if liked. A small 
teacupful of veal gravy, mixed with plenty of 
blanched and chopped parsley, may be used 
instead of water for this sauce, when it is 
to be served with boiled veal, or with calf's 
head. 

Egg Sauce. — ^I. Boil four fresh eggs fifteen 
minutes, then lay them into plenty of fresh 
water, and let them remain until they are per- 
fectly cold ; break the shells by rolling them on 
a table, take them off, separate the whites from 
the yolks, and divide all the latter into quarter- 
inch dice ; mince two of the whites tolerably 
small, mix them lightly with the yolks, and stir 
them into a third of a pint of rich drawn 
butter or of white sauce ; serve as hot as 
possible. 

II. Boil a couple of eggs hard, and when quite 
cold cut up the whites and yolks separately ; 
mix them well, put them into a very hot tureen, 
and pour over them a quarter of a pint of 
drawn butter, boiling hot ; stir and serve the 
sauce immediately. 

Eschalot Sauce. — Take from half a pint to 
a pint of eschalots, divide them, strip off the 
skin, and when all are ready throw them into 
plenty of boiling water slightly salted ; in five 
minutes drain this from them and pour in as 
much more, which should also be boiling ; at 
the end of five minutes change it again ; unless 
very large tlie eschalots will be tender in fifteen 
minutes, in which case the water must be poured 
from them shortly after it has been changed for 



SAUCES 



465 



the second time. Drain them well^ and mix 
them with white sauce or gravy, or with good 
drawn butter, and serve them very hot. 

Fricassee Sauce. — Stir briskly, but by de- 
grees, to the well-beaten yolks of two large or 
of three small fresh eggs, half a pint of com- 
mon white sauce; put it again into the 
sauce-pan, give it a shake over the fire, but be 
extremely careful not to allow it to boil, and 
just before it is served stir in a dessert-spoonful 
of strained lemon-juice. When meat or chickens 
are fricasseed, they should be lifted from the 
saucepan with a slice, drained on it from the 
sauce, and laid into a very hot dish before the 
eggs are added, and when these are just set, 
the sauce should be poured on them. 

Horse-radish Sauce. {To serve hot or cold 
with roast beef.) — Wash and wipe a stick of 
young horse-radish, scrape off the outer skin, 
grate it as small as possible on a fine grater, 
then with two ounces (or two heaping table- 
spoonfuls) of it mix a small teaspoonful of salt 
and four tablespoonfuls of cream ; stir in briskly 
and by degrees three dessertspoonfuls of vine- 
gar, one of which should be Chili vinegar when 
the horseradish is mild ; serve. To heat the 
sauce, put into a small and clean sauce-pan, 
hold it over but do not place it upon the fire, 
and stir it constantly until it is on the point of 
simmering; but do not allow it to boil, or it 
will curdle instantly. 

Lemon Sauce. — I. — Cut three slices of 
lemon into very small dice, and put them in 
drawn butter ; give it one boil, and pour it 
over boiled fowls. 

n. — Put the peel of a small lemon, cut very 
thin, into a pint of sweet cream, with a sprig of 
lemon-thyme and six white pepper-corns ; sim- 
mer gently till it tastes well of the lemon; then 
strain it, and thicken it with a quarter of a 
pound of butter with a tablespoonful of flour 
rubbed in it ; boil up once ; then pour the 
strained juice of the lemon into it, stirring it 
well. Serve with boiled fowls. 

Lobster Sauce.— Add to half a pint of good 
drawn butter a tablespoonful of essence of an- 
chovies, half a saltspoonful of pounded mace, 
and less than a quarter of a saltspoonful of 
cayenne ; if a couple of tablespoonfuls of cream 
should be at hand, stir them to the sauce when 
it boils ; then put in the flesh of a small lobster 
cut into dice (or any other form) of equal size ; 
keep the sauce-pan by the side of the fire until 
the flesh is quite heated through, but do not let 
the sauce boil again ; serve it very hot ; this is an 
excellent sauce for fish. A small quantity can 
be made on occasion with the remains of a lob- 
ster that has been served at table. 

Maitre d' Hotel Sauce. — L Mix a teacupful 
of cream, two ounces of butter, two tablespoon- 
fuls of lemon-juice, a tablespoonful of chopped 
parsley, a tablespoonful of white sauce, a little 
cayenne, mace, black pepper, and salt ; put all 
in a stew-pan and stir till hot and thick, but do 
not let it boil. This is one of the best of sauces 
for either fish or meats ; pour it over the fish or 
joint before serving. 



n. Cold. — Mix and knead well together in a 
bowl two ounces of butter, a tablespoonful of 
chopped parsley, and the juice of half a lemon ; 
salt to taste, and use. Pepper and a grated nut- 
meg may be added, if liked. Vinegar may be 
used instead of lemon-juice, but makes an infe- 
rior sauce. 

Mayonnaise Sauce. — Mix in a two-quart 
bowl, to allow room for beating, one even tea- 
spoonful of ground mustard, and one of salt, 
with one and a-half of vinegar ; beat in the 
yolk of a raw egg ; then add gradually from 
the measure, holding it in the left hand, half a 
pint of pure olive-oil ; pour it in the smallest 
thread-like stream, while with the other hand 
the beating is brisk and uninterrupted. The 
mixture will become a very thick batter. Fla- 
vor with vinegar or fresh lemon-juice. Closely 
covered, it will keep for weeks in a cold place. 
It is not only delicious, but is often of great 
service to invalids. 

Mint Sauce. — The mint for this sauce should 
be fresh and young, for when old it is tough 
and indigestible. Strip the leaves from the 
stems, wash them, and drain them on a sieve, 
or dry them on a cloth ; chop them very fine, 
put them into a sauce-tureen, and to three 
heaped tablespoonfuls of the mint add two of 
pounded sugar ; let them remain a short time 
well mixed together, then pour to them gradu- 
ally six tablespoonfuls of good vinegar. The 
sauce thus made is excellent, and far more 
wholesome than where more vinegar and less 
sugar is used for it ; but after the first trial the 
proportions can easily be adapted to the taste 
of the eaters. 

Persons with whom the mint in substance 
disagrees can have the flavor of the herb with- 
out it, by straining the above sauce after it has 
stood for two or three hours ; the mint should 
be well pressed when this is done. The flavor 
will be more readily exhausted if the mint and 
sugar be well mixed, and left for a time before 
the vinegar is added. 

Mushroom Sauce. — Trim the stems closely 
from half a pint of small button mushrooms ; 
clean them with a little salt and a bit of flan- 
nel, and throw them into cold water, slightly 
salted, as they are done ; drain them well, 
or dry them in a soft cloth, and throw them 
into half a pint of boiling bechamel, or of 
brown sauce made with very good stock, or nice 
gravy, thickened with a tablespoonful of flour 
and two ounces of butter. Simmer the mush- 
rooms from ten to twenty minutes, or until they 
are quite tender, and dish the sauce, which 
should be properly seasoned with salt, wine, 
and cayenne. 

Olive Sauce Remove the stones from 

fine French or Italian olives by paring the 
fruit close to them, round and round in the 
form of a cork-screw ; they will then resunie 
their original shape when done. Weigh six 
ounces thus prepared, throw them in water, 
and let them blanch for five minutes ; then 
drain, throw them into cold water, and leave 
I them in it from half an hour to an hour, pro- 



466 



SAUCES 



portioning the time to their saltness ; drain 
them well and stew them gently from fifteen to 
twenty-five minutes in a pint of very rich brown 
gravy ; add the juice of half a lemon, and serve 
the sauce very hot. This sauce is especially 
nice with ducks or stewed fowls of any kind. 

Onion Sauce (brown). — Mince the onions, 
stew them in two ounces of butter until they 
are well colored, stir in a dessertspoonful of 
flour, shake the stew-pan over the fire for three 
or four minutes, pour in only as much broth or 
gravy as will leave the sauce tolerably thick, 
season with a httle cayenne, and serve it very 
hot. 

Onion Sauce (white). — Strip the outer skin 
from some large white onions, and after having 
taken off the tops and roots, cut them in two, 
throw them into cold water as they are done, 
cover them plentifully with more water, and 
boil them very tender; then lift them out, drain 
and press the water thoroughly from them ; chop 
them small, rub them through a sieve or strainer, 
put them into a Httle rich drawn butter mixed 
with a tablespoonful or two of cream, add 
seasoning of salt, give the sauce a boil, and 
serve it very hot. 

Oyster Sauce. — Boil half a pint of small 
oysters with their liquor, in one pint of water 
until the flavor is well extracted, then strain, 
pressing the juice from the oysters, leaving them 
entirely worthless ; next throw a pint of small 
fresh oysters in this liquor and stew until they 
are puffed ; take them out, skim well, add four 
even tablespoonfuls of flour rubbed with four 
ounces of butter ; stir until thickened, season 
with salt and white pepper ; drop in the oysters 
and when hot serve the sauce immediately. 

Parsley Sauce. — Take a few leaves of young 
freshly-gathered parsley, chop them tolerably 
fine, mix them with the required quantity of 
drawn butter (made as directed), and boil hard 
three minutes. 

Piqujint Sauce. — Brown lightly in an ounce 
and a half of butter a tablespoonful of minced 
■eschalots or three of onions ; add a teaspoon- 
ful of flour when they are partially done ; 
pour to them half a pint of gravy or of good 
broth, and when it boils add three chilies, 
a bay-leaf, and a very small bunch of thyme. 
Let these simmer for twenty minutes ; take out 
the thjme and bay-leaf, add a high seasoning of 
black pepper, and half a wineglassful of the 
best vinegar. A quarter of a teaspoonful of 
cayenne may be substituted for the chilies. 

"Shrimp Sauce. — Shell quickly one pint of 
perfectly fresh shrimps, and mix them with half 
a pint of drawn butter (made as directed), to 
which a few drops of essence of anchovies and 
a little mace and cayenne have been added. 
As soon as the shrimps are heated through, 
dish, and serve the sauce, which ought not to 
boil after they are put in." A few tablespoon- 
fuls of cream will make the sauce richer. 

Soubise Sauce. — Skin, slice, and mince 
quickly two pounds' weight of the white part 
only of some fine mild onions, and stew them 
in from two to three ounces of jrood butter 



over a very gentle fire until they are reduced to 
a pulp, then pour to them three-quarters of a 
pint of rich veal gravy ; add a seasoning of salt 
and cayenne, if needed ; skim off the fat entire- 
ly, press the sauce through a sieve, heat it in a 
clean stewpan, mix it with a quarter of a pint of 
rich boiling cream, and serve it directly. Serve 
with mutton chops, roast mutton, or boiled veal. 

Tartar Sauce. — This is made as directed for 
Mayonnaise Sauce, with the addition of a tea- 
spoonful of finely-chopped chives, green onions, 
or shalots, and gherkin. It should be served 
very cold. 

Tomato Sauce. — I. Tomatoes are so juicy 
when ripe that they require little or no liquid 
to reduce them to a proper consistence for 
sauce ; and they vary so exceedingly in size and 
quality that it is difficult to give precise direc- 
tions for the exact quantity which in their un- 
ripe state is needed for them. Take off the 
stalks, halve the tomatoes, and gently squeeze 
out the seeds and watery pulp; then stew them 
softly with a few spoonfuls of gravy or of strong 
broth until they are quite melted. Press the 
whole through a hair-sieve, and heat it afresh 
with a little additional gravy should it be too 
thick, and some cayenne, and salt. Serve it 
very hot. 

11. (Richer.) — Stew very gently a dozen fine 
red tomatoes, prepared as for the preceding re- 
cipe with tw-o or three sliced eschalots, one or 
two chilies or a third of a capsicum (or in lieu 
of either, with a quarter of a saltspoonful of 
cayenne pepper), a few small dice of lean ham, 
and half a cupful of rich gravy. Stir these 
often, and when the tomatoes are reduced quite 
to a smooth pulp, rub them through a sieve ; 
put them into a clean saucepan, with a few 
spoonfuls more of rich gravy, add salt if need- 
ed, boil the sauce, stirring it well for ten minutes, 
and serve it very hot. When the gravy is ex- 
ceedingly good and highly flavored, the ham 
may be omitted : a dozen small mushrooms 
nicely cleaned may also be sliced and stewed 
with the tomatoes, instead of the eschalots,when 
their flavor is preferred, or they may be added 
with them. The exact proportion of liquid used 
is immaterial, for should the sauce be too thin 
it may be reduced by rapid boiling, and diluted 
with more gravy if too thick. 

Turnip Sauce. — Pare, slice, and boil quite 
tender, one pound of sweet white turnips, press 
the water from them thoroughly, and pass them 
through a sieve. Dissolve a slice of butter in 
a clean sauce-pan, and stir to it 2 large teaspoon- 
fuls of flour, or mix them smoothly together be- 
fore they are put 'n, and shake the saucepan, 
round until they bo;l : pour to them very gradu- 
ally nearly a pint of thin cream (or of good 
milk mixed with a portion of cream), add the 
turnips with a halt-teaspoonful or more of salt, 
and when the whole is well mixed and very hot, 
pour it over boiled mutton, veal, lamb, or poul- 
try. There should be sufficient of the sauce to 
cover the meat entirely; and when properly 
made it improves greatly the appearance of a 
joint. A little cayenne lied ma muslin may 



SAUER-KRAUT 



SAUSAGES 



467 



be boiled in the milk before it is mixed with the 
turnips. Jerusalem artichokes make a more 
delicate sauce of this kind even than turnips ; 
the weight of both vegetables must be taken 
after they are pared. 

Velout^ Sauce. — Take equal parts of cream 
and good veal gravy, boil the latter down one- 
half, boil the cream also five minutes or so, and 
mix them together without any thickening. 

White Sauce. — L Boil gently in half a pint 
of good pale veal gravy a few very thin strips 
of fresh lemon-peel, just long enough to give 
their flavor to it ; stir in a thickening of arrow- 
root, or of flour and butter, add salt if needed, 
and mix with the gravy a quarter of a pint of 
boiling cream. For the best kind of White 
Sauce, see Bechamel Sauce above. 

IL Cut and chop a knuckle of veal into pieces ; 
put into a stew-pan a quarter of a pound of 
butter, two onions, a carrot, a turnip, three 
cloves, a blade of mace, and a sprig of thyme 
and parsley, tied to them ; add a little water, 
set the pan over a sharp fire, and stir it until 
the bottom of the pan is covered with glaze ; 
then fill up with three quarts of water, adding a 
teaspoonful of salt. Let it simmer an hour and 
a half, skimming it^ and pass it through a hair 
sieve into a basin. In another stew-pan make 
a thickening of a quarter of a pound of butter 
and six ounces of flour, take off the pan, and 
stir till partly cold, when add the stock, and 
boil for a quarter of an hour ; stir in half a pint 
of boiling milk ; then stir and strain through a 
sieve into a basin, and stir it till cold. 

For Brown Sauce use beef instead of veal, 
and put into the stew-pan with four onions, and 
butter, to be set upon the fire and drawn to a 
brown glaze, before filling up ; and the milk 
must be omitted. 

SAUER-KRAUT.— Cut fine, hard, white- 
hearted cabbage into shreds, as if for salad ; 
strew over and amongst the shreds a handful of 
salt and a tablespoonful of cream of tartar, put- 
ting first a little water to them; a few carraway 
seeds may also be added. Then cover the 
shred cabbage with whole leaves, close the top 
of the vessel with a well-fitting wooden cover, 
lay a stone on the top, and put the ves- 
sel in a warm place, where its contents will 
turn sour; at the end of a week or so it 
will be ready for use. Cook it in a well-closed 
stone or earthen vessel, with butter, broth, and 
a little vinegar. A teaspoonful of capers, 
added when the cabbage is nearly done, is gen- 
erally considered an improvement. 

SAUSAGES. — Sausages and sausage-meat 
when made at home are so much more satis- 
factory in all respects than any that can be 
bought ready-made that the trouble of prepar- 
ing them is more than repaid. Butchers gen- 
erally, with an eye to economy, make sausage- 
meat of bad or tainted pork ; and the so-called 
" country-sausages" many times contain meat 
which would be rejected by any well-fed animal. 
It is possible, of course, to procure good saus- 
ages from responsible butchers who manufac- 
ture for tliemselveSj but it is best to reject any 



sausage-meat whose pedigree cannot be traced 
very directly. We append several good receipts 
for different kinds of sausages, which can be 
made at home with very little trouble. 

I. — Take one-third fat and two-thirds lean 
pork ; chop them very fine, or, better still, grind 
them in a sausage-mill ; to ten pounds of the 
meat thus prepared add eight teaspoonfuls of 
pounded salt, ten of powdered and sifted sage, 
six of black pepper, two teaspoonfuls of cloves, 
two of powdered mace, and a little grated nut- 
meg. Work the seasoning in thoroughly with 
the hands, fry a little to see if they are satisfac- 
tory, pack in stone jars, pour melted lard on 
top, and keep in a cool dry place. When used, 
make up into cakes and fry over a brisk fire. 

To prepare cases, where these are preferred, 
wash the intestines of the hog thoroughly and 
cut them into lengths of two yards each ; turn 
them inside out, and again wash them thorough- 
ly in warm water, scraping them with a scraper 
made for this purpose ; throw them into salt 
water to soak till used. Great care will be ne- 
cessary in cleaning cases to avoid tearing them. 

n. (Willow Brook.)— To thirty pounds of 
sausage meat (one fourth fat) add eight ounces 
of salt, one and a half of summer savory, two 
and a quarter of sage and two of fresh ground 
pepper. Mix thoroughly. 

in. Chop first separately, and then together, 
one pound and a quarter of lean veal, free from 
skin and sinew, a pound and a quarter of lean 
pork, and the same quantity of fat pork ; mix 
well and strew over the meat an ounce and a 
quarter of salt, half an ounce of pepper, one 
nutmeg grated, and a large teaspoonful of 
pounded mace ; turn and chop the sausages 
until they are equally seasoned throughout, and 
tolerably fine. Press them into a jar or pan, 
and keep them in a very cool place. When 
wanted for table, form them into cakes some- 
thing less than an inch thick ; flour and fry 
them for about ten minutes in a little butter. 

Bologna Sausage. — Take equal portions of 
fresh pork, veal, and ham or salt pork, — chop 
them fine or grind, and mix together thorough- 
ly ; to nine pounds of the meat allow ten tea- 
spoonfuls of powdered sage, two each of cay- 
enne and black pepper, one grated nutmeg, one 
teaspoonful of cloves, one minced onion, and 
sweet herbs to taste ; mix well, and stuff into 
beef intestines prepared as directed for those 
of the hog, (these may be obtained ready pre- 
pared of butchers); tie up both ends of the bag 
tightly, prick in several places, and boil slowly 
for an hour ; then dry them in the sun, and 
hang them in a cool dry cellar, after rubbing 
the outside of the skins with melted butter. 
These are eaten without further cooking, and 
are very nice. 

Fried Sausages. — Sausage-meat should be 
fried to a light crisp brown on both sides, — the 
fat in it is generally sufficient. Stuffed saus- 
ages must be turned about often to prevent 
bursting; they may be pricked slightly, but 
they are nicer when this is avoided and the 
juices are kept inside. 



468 



SAVELOYS 



SCARLET FEVER 



SAVELOYS. — Soak eight pounds of young 
fresh pork in strong salt and water, with a 
tablespoonful of saltpetre in it, for three days ; 
dry it, and chop it up line ; season with four 
tablespoonfuls of powdered sage, thyme, and 
sweet marjoram, mixed, four teaspoonfuls of 
black pepper, one of cayenne, and one of cloves 
or mace ; add a teacupful of bread-crumbs, 
mix together thoroughly, and stuff in skins 
prepared as directed under Sausages. Bake 
in a moderate oven for half an hour, or steam 
over boiling water for an hour. This may be 
, eaten either hot or cold. 

SAVORY. — There are two varieties of this 
herb — the summer and the winter — both of 
which are used in cooking and in medicine. 
The aromatic leaves of the winter variety, both 
green and dried, are highly esteemed, and are 
used in seasoning soups, stews, dressings, 
stuffings, salads, broths, etc. Savory is also 
sold at the drug-stores, in a dried and pulver- 
ized state, done up in packages. 

SAVOY. — A variety of the cabbage, gen- 
erally considered the choicest of the species. 
It is sweeter and more tender than the others, 
especially the central leaves. It is a winter 
vegetable, and is in season from November till 
spring. The dwarf savoy is improved by frost, 
and the yellow savoy will bear very severe 
weather without injury. The green is most 
tender. (S^f Cabbage.) 

SCALD HEAD.— This is characterized by 
small contagious pustules appearing on the 
hairy scalp, generally in children, but capable 
of being communicated to adults. The pus- 
tules are small and irregularly round, contain- 
ing a yellow matter, which scabs around the 
hairs, with a central depression corresponding 
generally with a hair. The health is usually 
slightly impaired, either as a cause or effect of 
disease, but there is no fever. Prior to the 
outbreak of the eruption there is generally 
some increase of the ordinary scurf, which is 
browner than usual. 

Treatment. — Treat scald head exactly as di- 
rected for the second kindof ringvvorm,(/>c'rrz^^ 
scutulata. {See Ringworm.) 

SCALDS. — The only difference between 
burns and scalds is that the latter are produc- 
ed by the contact of some hot or boiling fluid 
with the body and the former by some heated 
solid body, or flame. Both kinds of injury 
present the same appearances, are attended by 
the same constitutional symptoms, and require 
the same treatment ; so that the directions 
given in the article on Burns apply equally to 
Scalds. {See Burns.) 

SCALLOPS.— These shell-fish, also called 
scollops, are in season from September to 
March, and are generally very plentiful in all 
markets where oysters are found. Only the 
muscular part or " heart," is eaten. This has 
a peculiar sweetness, which is somewhat like 
the flavor of a soft clam, but much more cloying 
and pronounced. Scallops are very savory 
when nicely fried, but some cannot tolerate the 
sweet flavor just mentioned. 



Fried Scallops. — Boil scallops three minutes; 
put butter or lard in a frying-pan, and when 
melted, turn the scallops in; stir now and then, 
fry to a light brown, season with salt, pepper, 
and a little parsley chopped fine. 

Pie (Scallop). — Like Oyster Pie. 

Stewed Scallops. — Wash off the slime in salt 
and water, rinse in clear water; cover with 
milk, and stew about fifteen minutes, or until 
tender; add butter rubbed with flour to thicken 
the sauce ; then season with white pepper and 
salt, and serve hot, on toast if liked. 

SCARIFY. — To make a number of small 
scratches, as with a lancet. 

SCARLET FEVER or SCARLATINA — 
An acute, febrile disease, producing a scar- 
let rash upon the skin, and often swelling of 
the glands. Contagion is the chief if not the 
only cause of scarlet fever ; the poison may be 
retained in the clothes for a year and then 
give rise to the fever. Both sexes are equally 
liable to an attack ; children between eighteen 
months and five years of age are most frequent- 
ly attacked ; no season has much influence up- 
on it, but in this country it is perhaps most 
common in the winter. Scarlet fever may be 
very mild or malignant. The syuiptojiis are 
vomiting, which frequently comes on while the 
child is at play; headache; shivering; and a 
feeling of depression and weakness as if the 
strength had entirely gone. Next day there is 
difficulty of swallowing, hot, dry skin, gi'eat 
thirst, the patient sighs frequently, and com- 
plains of pain like needles pricking all over the 
body. The rash now appears, (sometimes the 
earlier symptoms are so slight that the rash is 
the first thing noticed.) The rash consists of 
small scarlet dots, almost running together, so 
as to make the whole skin appear flushed ; the 
color disappears on pressure, but rapidly re- 
appears when the pressure is removed. {Tliis 
distifiguishes scarlet fever from 7neasles, with 
which it is often confounded in the earlier 
stage, — in measles the rash does tiot disappear 
ujtder pressure.) It generally appears first on 
the sides of the neck and the upper part of the 
chest, and in the bend of the joints; it then 
spreads downwards and comes out last on the 
legs. Measles appear first on the face. Sore 
throat is always present to a degree ; there is 
redness and swelling of the tonsils and soft pal- 
ate, so that it is very painful to swallow, while the 
glands beneath the jaw also swell and are pain- 
ful. The temperature is much higher than in 
measles, and the pulse is very quick; mode- 
rate delirium and headache are often present. 
About the fitth day the scarlet color fades and 
turns brown, the skin becomes dry and harsh, 
and about the ninth or tenth day begins to peel 
off; this peeling may be completed in a few 
days or may continue several weeks. Alalig- 
7iani Scarlet Fever is characterized by an in- 
creased severity ot the above symptoms ; there 
is great prostration, delirium, and sleeplessness; 
the rash does not always come out well ; the 
face may be livid, and a stupor comes on which 
ends in death ; the throat is ulcerated, or cov- 



SCARLET FEVER 



SCIATICA 



469 



ered with diphtheritic membranes, and the dif- 
ficulty of swallowing is very great. The name 
of Latent Scarlet Fever is a form of the dis- 
ease so mild that mitil the sequelse appear one 
is not aware of having had the scarlet fever. 
There is no relation between the abundance of 
the rash and the danger to the patient ; how- 
ever mild the disease may be, the sequelce may 
come on with great severity. Moreover one is 
just as liable to catch the fever from a mild 
case as from a severe one. 

Sequelae. — After the fever has passed there 
may follow a train of symptoms which are very 
inconstant in their character and very danger- 
ous to the patient. The throat may continue 
to be affected, and the glands outside may in- 
flame and swell ; often these glands suppurate, 
and a raw ulcerated surface is then seen. 
Deafness may come on, and a discharge from 
the ear. Bronchitis and pneumonia are not so 
frequent as in measles. Sometimes convales- 
cence is retarded by abscesses forming in vari- 
ous parts of the body ; at other times there is 
a painful affection of the joints, which resem- 
bles rheumatic fever. Renal dropsy is also 
one of the most usual sequelae, and exposure 
may result in Bright's Disease, which is often 
fatal. 

Treatment. — Most cases recover in a week, 
except those which are malignant ; the disease 
is much more dangerous to a pregnant woman, 
and hence women in that condition should be 
extremely careful not to go near a case of scar- 
let fever. The mild cases must be nursed 
simply ; there is no remedy which will cut 
short an attack. The patient must be kept in 
bed, and have a milk diet ; for drink, oranges, 
lemonade, raspberry-vinegar and water, or ap- 
ple tea, may be given. Hot flannels, or cotton 
wool should be wrapped round the throat, and 
steam may be inhaled into the mouth. Some- 
times a band of linen steeped in cold water and 
applied to the throat gives great relief. Ex- 
posure to cold too soon after an attack of scar- 
let fever is often a cause of the dropsy ; the 
child should therefore be kept in the house for 
at least Jive weeks 2iite.r i\\Q appearance of the 
rash and until the peeling is finished. If this 
precaution is observed the child will be less 
liable to give the disease to others. When 
dropsy comes on it shows that the kidneys are 
affected, and the patient must be put to bed 
again if he has been up previously ; a hot bath 
and purgatives should also be given. Malig- 
nant cases of scarlet fever may end fatally in 
forty-eight hours ; ammonia and brandy must 
be given when the state is one of great pros- 
tration. Gargles are not of much use to the 
throat ; brushing the fauces over with tannin 
and glycerine, or with a solution of nitrate of 
silver, is often beneficial when done gently. 
In cases of discharge from the ear, the ear 
must be syringed with warm water three or 
four times a day, and a little cotton-wool push- 
ed in the entrance. During convalescence 
tonics should be given, and for this purpose 
iron and quinine are the best remedies. Scar- 



let fever is very contagious. Therefore, never 
allow any clothes of a patient to be washed in 
the house, but always outside ; do not pour 
boihng water on them and stand over the 
steam. After the fever is over, the sick-room 
and every article used in it should be thorough- 
ly disinfected. This may be done by closing 
up the room air-tight, after removing every- 
thing wet or moist from it, and then burn- 
ing sulphur in it — a few ounces on an iron 
pipkin or kettle with legs. Every person should 
leave the room after the sulphur is lighted, and 
it should be left closed for several hours. For 
disinfecting basins, chambers, etc., see Disin- 
fectants. 

SCENT-BAGS. {See Sachets.) 
SCIATICA. — This is not a single disease, 
but a group of diseases of various kinds, al- 
ways affecting the same region; that region is 
the lower portion of the hip and thigh, along 
which the sciatic nerve runs, whence the name. 
" True sciatica is a neuralgic affection, but 
numerous other maladies, especially of a rheu- 
matic origin, have been mistaken for it. The 
sciatica rarely occurs in youth, and rarely be- 
gins in old age — most frequently it commences 
between forty and fifty. One kind of sciatica 
— of the truly nervous kind — is associated, 
especially in females, with hysteria, or other 
signs of a nervous temperament. Frequently 
these suffer from neuralgia in other situations. 
The sciatica which occurs in older persons 
very often follows on cold, damp, and fatigue. 
It is especially troublesome in men who have 
broken down under their exertions, and show 
signs of premature age. Sciatica occurring in 
these individuals is exceedingly intractable, 
and there are very frequently spots in the 
neighborhood of the great nerve that are ex- 
quisitely tender to the touch. In this form of 
paralysis, too, the motion of the extremities is in- 
terfered with. There is loss of power and motion, 
or any attempt at it gives rise to great pain. 
Besides loss of motor power there may be loss 
of sensation of the ordinary kind. There may be 
greater sensibility to mere touch, but the power 
of discrimination possessed by the skin is 
diminished." 

Treatment. — Sciatica is to be treated chiefly 
by tonics. Steel and strychnine should be 
given and persevered in ; they may not suffice 
to get wholly rid of the pain, but they will 
strengthen the constitution and so enable other 
remedies to be used with more advantage. 
" The strychnine may be given either as liquor 
strychnine (B. Ph.) (solution of strychnine), 
from five to ten minims for a dose, or the tiac- 
ture of nux vomica in like quantity may be pre- 
scribed. Liquor strychnine is best when given 
along with iron. Of iron the two best prepara- 
tions are the saccharated carbonates and the 
neutral chloride. The carbonate may be 
given in doses of 20 or 30-grains, the chlo- 
ride in 20 or 30-minim doses. The liquor 
ferri perchloride may be used if the other 
is not obtainable. Arsenic is a remedy not to 
be overlooked in dealing with sciatic neuralgia, 



^Vo 



SCORING 



SCROFULA 



especially if there is any likelihood of malarial 
complications. The preparation commonly 
employed is Fowler's solution, of which the 
dose is two or three minims, given immediately 
after food." Of the local means of relieving 
sciatica, the best is the hypodermic injection of 
morphia, especially over the spot where the 
pain is most severe ; if the spot be very tender 
it may be necessary to use ether spray to alle- 
viate the pain of the injection. The quantity 
injected should not in the first instance exceed 
one-fifth of a grain : but it may be shortly re- 
peated if successful. A small blister over the 
painful spot, with some lead and morphia lotion 
to apply when the skin is removed will also do 
great good. Of course such a lotion must be 
very weak, and should only be employed upon 
a physician's prescription. 

All forms of sciatica are apt to return, and 
so if a patient has once suffered from the 
malady he should take great care that it does 
not. To this end, over-fatigue, bodily or men- 
tal, should be avoided, and flannel worn con- 
stantly next the skin. 

SCOLLOPS. {See Scallops.) 

SCORING. — In cookery this means the 
making of parallel incisions on the outside of 
a joint of meat intended for roasting, so that 
the substances used in basting may penetrate 
the meat more easily. It should be done with a 
sharj) knife, and the incisions should not exceed 
a quarter of an inch in depth. 

SCORZONERA. — This is a variety of the 
oyster-plant, and is prepared, cooked, and 
served in the same way. [See Oyster-Plant.) 

SCOURING. {See Cleaning, Grease, 
and Stains.) 

SCRAPPLE. — This is a Pennsylvania dish, 
and deserves to be better known ; for when 
well made it is an excellent substitute for meat 
at breakfast. To make, procure a young pig's 
head, perfectly fresh, weighing five or six 
pounds (get the butcher to take out the eyes 
and teeth) ; cut off the ears in order to clean 
them well inside ; put the head and ears into two 
gallons and a half of cold water, and let it boil 
till the bones can be easilj^ separated from the 
meat ; then take it out, chop the meat ve?y fine, 
put it back into the liquor in which it was boiled, 
and season moderately with salt, pepper, sage, 
thyme, and sweet marjoram, then take equal 
parts of buckwheat and Indian-meal and stir 
them in until the compound is about the con- 
sistency of mush ; lifi it off the Ji?-e while 
thickening to keep it fi'oin being lunipy ; then 
let it boil for about fifteen or twenty minutes, 
stirring to prevent burning. Turn it into pans 
to cool, and keep it in a cool place ; it will keep 
several weeks in cold weather. When wanted, 
cut it into thin slices and fry to a crisp brown. 

SCRATCHES. — Treat these as directed for 
abrasions. {See Abrasion.) 

SCREENS. — Folding screens are now little 
used, since the construction of our houses has 
been so much improved. Still there are cases 
where they will add much to comfort, particu- 
larly in defending those who are obliged to sit 



between the door and the fire, where there is 
always more or less of a current of air. These 
screens have hinges, by which they can be 
folded into different positions. Fire screens 
are very necessary where open fires are used. 
In dining rooms they are particularly wanted 
for those who sit with their backs to the fire ; 
and various contrivances have been made to 
prevent the unpleasant effects of this situation. 
The simplest is a mat made of willow that is 
hung on the back of each chair requiring such 
defence. A cheval fire-screen is one made of 
mahogany, filled in witli moreen and other ma- 
terials, and made to slide up in the stand. Fire 
screens for parlors are made light and elegant, 
and are generally only large enough to screen 
the face. That a pane of glass should form an 
effective fire-screen is a remarkable fact. It 
appears that although the heating rays as well 
as the light of the sun can readily pass through 
glass, the heat rays of fire are almost entirely 
stopped by it. On this principle, a piece of 
window or plate-glass can be made into a fire- 
screen by enclosing it in a frame ; and this is 
both agreeable and convenient, since the fire 
may be seen through it. 

SCROFULA. — A constitutional condition 
generally inherited from one or both parents, 
and increased by bad feeding in early life. 
The most characteristic features of a scroful- 
ous individual are — a heavy figure, dull, pasty 
complexion, with a prominent upper lip and a 
coarse mould of countenance ; mind and body 
lazily disposed, nostrils expanded, and nose 
rather turned up. Wlitn children, they are 
very liable to inflammation of the eyelids, giv- 
ing a red, angry look to the part, while most of 
the eyelashes are absent ; often, too, the glands 
enlarge, and more especially those under the 
jaw and in the neck ; this swelling comes on 
from a common cold, or in the course of an ill- 
ness, and sometimes the gland breaks up into 
an abscess, which points and leaves, after re- 
covery, a nasty seamed scar ; such people gen- 
erally have several of these scars, from abscesses 
having formed at different times. Eczema is 
another condition to which scrofulous people are 
very subject when young ; it appears on the 
head and behind the ears ; discharges from the 
ear, ear-ache, and deafness are not uncommon 
symptoms. Bronchitis, inflammation of the 
lungs, and perhaps consumption may ensue. 
Nor do the intestines escape, for on any slight 
irritation, diarrhoea is apt to come on. Some- 
times the mesenteric glands in the abdomen 
swell, and this may be associated with dropsy 
and chronic inflammation of the peritoneum. 
Nor are diseases of the joints uncommon, and 
these may go on for months and years, or be 
very distressing to the patient, being accom- 
panied by discharge of matter and disease of 
the bone. Scrofulous people are, therefore, 
liable to a great many diseases in consequence 
of their constitutional malady. As a rule, per- 
sons subject to this affection ought not to 
marry, as their offspring will be more or less 
affected ; marriage between cousins thus af- 



SCURF 



SEA-SICKNESS 



471 



fected should be strongly reprehended. The 
general health of such people may be much 
improved by careful feeding in childhood, cod- 
liver oil, sea-bathing, and an out-door country 
life. 

SCURF. — This is a popular term applied to 
those cases in which the skin comes off in 
scale. The most frequent seat of the affec- 
tion is the heads of children, where branny 
scales are shed. Washing the part daily with 
soap and water, or once or twice a week with 
camphor-water will usually cure it. A popular 
mode of treatment is to bruise a bunch of rose- 
mary, pour a pint of boiling water over it, and 
use this warm every morning as a wash. Some- 
times this disease is called Scurvy, which is 
quite a wrong designation. 

SCURVY. — Scurvy or scorbutus arises from 
a state of mal-nutrition, following the use of a 
diet which is deficient in fresh vegetable mat- 
ter. It is most common among sailors, because 
on long voyages they have so much salt food 
and no fresh vegetables ; yet it may occur 
among landsmen, and several severe outbreaks 
have been known of late years in England and 
Scotland. Soldiers are very liable to suffer 
from it, and in fact any one may be attacked 
whose regular diet is deficient in fresh vege- 
tables. The syjnptoms of scurvy are, first, a 
change in the color of the skin, which becomes 
pale or sallow ; then the mind becomes listles.s, 
and the patient is averse to taking exercise ; 
there are pains about the limbs, and so the 
sufferer is glad to lounge about and rest him- 
self. Gradually purplish spots appear, especi- 
ally about the legs and thighs ; then larger 
patches form, as if several of these smaller 
patches had run together ; often the patient looks 
as if bruised. The lips are pale, the face be- 
comes bloated, and the conjunctivas of the eyes 
are swollen and red. The gums, at first pale, 
begin to swell so as to encroach upon and 
almost envelop the teeth ; they then become 
spongy, dark-red, or livid, not painful, but dis- 
posed to bleed when irritated. Sometimes the 
teeth are loosened and fall out, and there is a 
sickening foetid odor from the breath. Chew- 
ing is now rendered impossible, and even liquid 
food is swallowed with difficulty. Often swel- 
lings occur in various parts of the body, usually 
near the bend of a joint. Fainting frequently 
follows upon the least exertion, and this is 
dangerous, as death may result. In bad cases 
ulceration of the skin comes on, and may 
spread rapidly, and be attended with dangerous 
bleeding. 

Treatment. — This must consist in supplying 
the patient with the substance, by the deficiency 
of which his disorder was produced. It is 
surprising how, even in bad cases, an immense 
improvement may be produced in a few hours 
by giving lime-juice. Amongst other vege- 
tables which may be given are oranges, lemons, 
cabbage, lettuce, potatoes, onions, mustard, 
and cress, dandelion, sorrel, scurvy-grass, and 

grapes. An ounce of lime or lemon-jiiice should 
e given daily when vegetables are scarce. 



The other articles of diet must be such as are 
easy of digestion, and no salt meat whatever 
must be allowed. The following suggestions 
have been issued by the London Board of 
Trade for the information of shipowners and 
shipmasters : — 

'• Every ship on a long voyage should be 
supplied with a proper quantity of lime or 
lemon-juice. 

" The juice, having been received in bulk 
from the vendors, should be examined and an 
alyzed by a competent medical officer. All- 
measures adopted for its preservation are 
worthless unless it be clearly ascertained that 
a pure article has been supplied. 

" Ten per cent, of brandy (spec, grav., 930), 
or of ram (spec, grav., 890) should afterwards 
be added to it. 

"It should be packed in jars or bottles, each 
containing one gallon or less, covered with a 
layer of oil, and closely packed and sealed. 

" Each man should have at least two ounces 
(four tablespoonfuls) twice a week, to be in- 
creased to an ounce daily if any symptoms of 
scurvy present themselves. 

" The giving out of lime or lemon-juice should 
not be delayed longer than a fortnight after the 
vessel has put to sea." 

SEA-BASS. — In season from May to Octo- 




ber. The small fish are excellent for frying or 
broiling. {See Bass.) 

SEA-KALE. — A plant growing along sandy 
shores, the young shoots, leaf-stalks, and ribs 
of the leaves, skinned or peeled, are very agree- 
able food. In season during spring. 

Boiled Sea Kale. — Wash, trim, and tie the 
kale in bunches, and throw it into plenty of 
boiling water with salt in it; boil it about 20 
minutes, or until tender, then lift it out, drain 
it well from the water, and send it to table 
with good drawn butter. It may also be served 
upon toast, like asparagus. 

Stewed Sea-Kale. — Boil the kale ten min- 
utes in salt and water ; drain it well, and put it 
into a saucepan with as much good brown gravy 
as will nearly cover it ; stew it gently for ten 
minutes or until it is tender, and send it to 
table in the gravy very hot. Another excel- 
lent mode of serving this vegetable is to boil it 
in salt and water, and pour over it plenty of 
rich white sauce after it is dished. 

SEA-SICKNESS.— There are few maladies, 
probably, which produce such an aggregate of 
human suffering as sea-sickness ; and there is 
none which the medical profession has done so 
little to relieve, or for which it is so seldom 
consulted. The treatise of Dr. Fordyce Bar- 
ker, which was published in New York a few 



472 



SEA-SICKNESS 



years ago, has been generally accepted both at 
home and abroad, as the most valuable discus- 
sion of the subject yet produced ; and it is from 
that that the substance of the present article is 
drawn. Many theories have been suggested 
in explanation of the cause of sea-sickness, but 
Dr. Barker considers it due to the sudden and 
recurring changes of the relations between the 
fluids and the solids of the body, and the ner- 
vous disturbances which result from these 
changes. The liquids contained in their ves- 
sels, as well as the sohds of the economy, obey 
equally the laws of gravitation, when the body 
is subjected to alternate movements of ascent 
•and descent like those which are caused by the 
swing or by the waves of the sea. The blood, 
by reason of its fluidity, yields more readily to 
the influence of descent, and less easily than 
the solids to the ascending impulse; conse- 
quently, it does not return to the brain with the 
same regularity as is the case when the body 
remains stable, while it leaves it more rapidly 
in the movement of descent. There result, as 
to the circulation, alternatives of afflux and de- 
lay in the arrival of the blood to the different 
organs of the body, which disturb their func- 
tions, and those of the brain in particular. This 
shows the folly of attempting to cure sea-sick- 
ness by medication addressed to the stomach, 
or even by drugs which are supposed to act 
directly upon the brain and its functions. 
Sea-sickness is manifested by a great diversity 
of symptoms in different individuals. Some 
suffer only from headache and a constant feel- 
ing of stricture across the forehead and over 
the temples, during the whole voyage, while 
they are free from nausea and vomiting. Others 
do not suffer much from nausea, but are sud- 
denly seized with vomiting, and, after the con- 
tents of the stomach are discharged, they are 
free from all unpleasant sensations until the 
next recurrence of vomiting. With many, the 
nausea and vomiting entirely disappear after 
being at sea for a few days. Others again are 
so unfortunate as to suffer from all these symp- 
toms during the whole time they are at sea, 
whether the voyage be short or long. There 
are some who never can become habituated to 
the sea. There is often a great change in the 
same individual, in the course of life, as to the 
susceptibility to this malady. Some, who in 
early life have been martyrs to sea-sickness, 
have ceased to feel it as they have grown older ; 
while others who have been so exempt from 
liability to it that they have been accustomed 
to regard it as an affection which can be over- 
come by an effort of the will, have become most 
pitiable victims. And yet it is curious that 
strong mental emotions, as terror or fright, 
will suddenly and completely cure the most vio- 
lent sea-sickness. 

Treatment. — With regard to the prevention 
and treatment of sea-sickness, Dr. Barker 
makes the following suggestions : — In short 
passages, as on our lakes, and across the Eng- 
lish or Irish Channel, all that can be done is 
by way of prevention. Those liable to be sick 



should make a good hearty meal not more than 
two or three hours before going on board. 
They should select a sjjot as near as possible 
to the centre of the vessel, and lie down before 
she gets under weigh. The horizontal posi- 
tion should be rigidly kept during the whole 
passage. Any attempt to raise the head or to 
stand erect will be sure, with the susceptible, 
to be followed by an explosion, and then the 
case is hopeless for the remainder of the pas- 
sage. The person should be well covered, not 
only to protect from cold, but to shield from 
disagreeable sounds, sights, and smells. On 
the packets on the English Channel it is best 
not to go down into the cabins below, where 
the sight of those lying round, with basins by 
their heads is of itself exceedingly provocative 
to a sensitive stomach, but rather to secure, by 
telegraphing beforehand, one of the little cabins 
on deck. Although the passage may not be 
more than an hour and a half or two hours, 
neglect of the above suggestions is apt to be 
followed by very severe punishment. For 
ocean passages one of the most essential points 
is the selection of the state-room as regards po- 
sition, light, size, and ventilation. Of course, 
the nearer the room is to the centre of the ship, 
the less will be the motion. In going to Eu- 
rope, it is better to be on the starboard side, 
and in returning on the port side, which will 
be the sunny side. Rooms near the furnaces 
are objectionable, not only on account of the 
heat, which is sometimes very disagreeable, 
but also from the noise, which, at certain hours, 
is made by the donkey-engine in drawing up 
the ashes and cinders, and which is very try- 
ing to those of sensitive nerves. In screw- 
steamers, the inside rooms, as they are called, 
if of good size, are often to be preferred to the 
outside ones, on account of ventilation, as there 
is very little weather, except in remarkable 
summer passages, when the port-holes can be 
kept open, while the windows of the inside 
rooms open on deck, and can generally be kept 
open. As tlie air draws down the gangway, the 
nearer the gangway the better the ventilation. 

The following suggestions for the prevention 
of sea-sickness were first written out by Dr. 
Barker some years ago for a gentleman whose 
business required him to cross the Atlantic 
often, and who was always kept in his room by 
severe sea-sickness during the whole voyage. 
•By implicitly following the directions given, he 
has suffered very little from sickness, and has 
been able to go on deck by the second or third 
day, and has been entirely exempt from sick- 
ness for the remainder of the voyage. They 
have since been copied many times, and their 
value thoroughly tested. The trouble, how- 
ever, is, that most persons do not appreciate 
how much easier it is to prevent sea-sickness 
than to cure it ; and so, none but those who 
have before suffered will thoroughly carry out 
the directions, and, neglecting some of them, 
are disappointed in the results : 

I. Have every preparation made at least 
twenty-four hours before starting, so that the 



SEA SICKNESS 



473 



system may not be exhausted by overwork and 
want of sleep. This direction is particularly 
important for ladies. 

2. Eat as hearty a meal as possible before 
going on board. 

3. Go on board sufficiently early to arrange 
such things as may be wanted for the first day 
or two, so that they may be easy of access ; 
then undress and go to bed, before the vessel 
gets under weigh. The neglect of this rule, by 
those who are liable to sea-sickness, is sure to 
be regretted. 

4. Eat regularly and heartily, but without 
raising the head for at least one or two days. 
In this way, the habit of digestion is kept up, 
the strength is preserved, while the system be- 
comes accustomed to the constant change of 
equilibrium. 

5. On the first night out, take some mild 
laxative pills, as, for example, two or three of 
the compound rhubarb pills, and be careful to 
keep the bowels open the remainder of the voy- 
age. 

Most persons have a tendency to become 
constipated at sea, although diarrhzea occurs in 
a certain percentage. Constipation not only 
results from sea-sickness, but in turn aggra- 
vates it. The reason has already been given 
why cathartics should not be taken before start- 
ing. The effervescing laxatives, like the 
Seidlitz, or the solution of the citrate of mag- 
nesia, taken in the morning on an empty stom- 
ach, are bad in sea-sickness. 

6. After having become so far habituated to 
the sea as to be able to take your meals at the 
table and to go on deck, never think of rising 
in the morning until you have eaten something, 
as a plate of oatmeal porridge, or a cup of cof- 
fee or tea, with sea-biscuit or toast. 

7. If subsequently, during the voyage, the 
sea should become unusually rough, go to bed 
before getting sick. It is foolish to dare any 
thing, when there is no glory to be won, and 
something may be lost. 

In addition to the careful observance of the 
above directions. Dr. Barker recommends those 
liable to sea-sickness to provide themselves 
with the following prescriptions, as they may 
give very considerable comfort and relief at a 
very trifling expense : 



LAXATIVE PILLS. 



3 ss. 
3 j. 



R. Pulv. Rhei. (Turc), 
Ext. Hyoscyami, 
Pulv. Aloes Soc, 
Sapo Cast., aa gr. xv. 

Ext. Nux VomiccC Alcoh., gr. x. 
Podophylin p., gr. v. 

Ipecac, gr. ij. 

M. ft. pil, (argent) No. 20. 
S. Dose — one, two, or three. 
For most persons two pills will be sufficient 
to take the first night at sea, and afterward, 
when a laxative is necessary, one is ordinarily 
all that will be required. 

In some, while at sea, there is a tendency to 



diarrhoea instead of constipation, and the fol- 
lowing will be found a useful medicine in con- 
trolling this symptom. It may also be found 
of service when travelling on land and exposed 
to the ills which result from change of diet, bad 
water, etc. The dose given is for an adult. 
For a child, one year old, ten drops ; two years, 
fifteen drops, and so on. The medicine may 
be put up wherever an English druggist (or 
chemist as he is called in Europe) is found, as 
in most of the large towns on the Continent : 

R. Tinct. CamphorjE, 3 vj. 

Tinct. Capsici, 3 ij. 
Spts. Lavendul. Comp., 

Tinct. Opii, aa ^ ss. 

Syr. Simp., 5 ij. 

M. S. A small teaspoonful in a wineglass of 
water after each movement. 

In cases where the sickness has been pro- 
longed for several days, the patient suffering 
from constant nausea, great nervous depression, 
and sleeplessness, great benefit may be derived 
from the following powders : 



R. 



Potass. Bromide, 
Div. in Chart No. 20. 



J- 



S. One, two or three times a day. These 
powders are best taken in a half-tumbler of 
carbonic-acid water (ordinarily called soda-wa- 
ter), or, if this cannot be obtained, in a half- 
tumbler of iced sugar-and-water. This should 
be sipped down slowly, so that the stomach may 
be persuaded to retain and absorb it. One 
powder, taken at bedtime, will often secure a 
night of good refreshing sleep. The powders 
should be kept in a tin box, or in a wide-mouth- 
ed phial. 

Those who are confined to their berths for 
several days often suffer from local pains, 
cramps, " stitches in the sides," and sometimes 
colics. These pains are often relieved by the 
use of the following liniment, which is to be 
applied not by rubbing, but by thoroughly 
saturating a double thickness of flannel, and 
laying it directly over the seat of pain, and then 
covering the flannel with the clothing to pre- 
vent evaporation. The liniment at first causes 
a sensation of coldness, then of great heat, and 
soon after it gives a feeling of great relief. The 
flannel may again be wet with the liniment, as 
often as may be necessary, avoiding such a con- 
tinued use as to cause a blister : 



R. 



M, 



Lint. Sapo Comp., 3 vj. 

Chloroform, 3 j. 

S. Chloroform Liniment. 



Counter-irritation over the pit of the stomach, 
is often very serviceable in relieving the nausea 
and vomiting, and so it is well for those who 
are about to make a voyage, to provide them- 
selves with the article, now generally kept by 
druggists, and known as "mustard-leaves." 
Any size required can be cut off, and, by sim- 
ply wetting it, a mustard-plaster is ready at 
once. 



474 



SEDATIVES 



SERVANTS 



SEDATIVES.— These are medicines which 
primarily depress the vital powers without in- 
ducing any previous excitement. But the only 
remedies of this class which are at all safe to be 
trusted in the hands of non-professional persons 
are tobacco and diluted hydrocyanic acid. The 
former of these is only manageable by means 
of smoking, which even if prejudicial as a gen- 
eral practice, may sometimes be indulged in 
with advantage. Hydrocyanic acid is a violent 
poison in large doses, but in the very small 
doses, recommended below, it may be given 
without risk in the sickness which accompanies 
pregnancy, or in other ordinary cases in which 
a sedative is required. 

(a) Diluted hydrocyanic acid, 2 or 3 minims ; 
syrup of orange-peel, i drachm ; distilled water, 
I ounce, mix, and give occasionally, the inter- 
vals never being less than six hours. 

(d) Diluted hydrocyanic acid, 2 drachms ; 
glycerine, 3 to 6 drachms ; water, 7 ounces. 
Mix, and use as a lotion, takiji^ great caj-e thai 
it is not drunk by mistake. Good for itching. 

SEED-BED. (^See Hot-Bed.) 

SEED-CAKE (.5"^'^ Cake.) 

SEIDLITZ POWDERS.— These are a 
gentle laxative, and one of the most useful of 
domestic remedies. Nearly all druggists have 
their own receipts for the preparation of these 
powders, though the ingredients are substan- 
tially the same. The following receipt is a 
good one : — two drachms of Rochelle salts and 
two scruples of bicarbonate of soda in a white 
paper ; thirty-five grains of Tartaric acid in a 
blue one. Dissolve the contents of each paper 
(separately) in nearly half a tumblerful of water, 
pour them together, and drink immediately, 
while the effervescence is at its height. Syrup 
mixed with the water makes it more agreeable. 

SELTZER WATER, {Home-made.) Have 
ready a half-pint bottle with a metallic capsule, 
which fits hermetically close. Fill the bottle 
with clear water up to the neck, and throw into 
it a dram of tartaric acid and a dram of bicar- 
bonate of soda, both in powder ; screw on the 
capsule as promptly as possible. In a quarter 
of an hour U is fit for use. It may be drunk 
unmixed, like soda water, and it is also greatly 
relished in summer if poured into a tumbler 
with a few teaspoonfuls of syrup, or a glass of 
wine at the bottom. 

SEMOLINA. — A preparation from wheat- 
flour, made by removing part of the starch. It is 
chiefly composed of the gluten of wheat, mixed 
with a small proportion of starch, and is con- 
verted by art into small round grains resembling 
sago, though its granules are more angular in 
shape than those of the latter. It is very nour- 
ishing, and less constipating than ordinary 
wheat-flour. It is used for thickening soups, 
and also is prepared like sago for invalids. 

SENNA. — As used in medicine, senna is of 
two kinds, the so-called Alexandrian or Egyptian 
senna, and East Indian or Tinnevelly senna. 
The substance is the leaf of various species of 
cassia. They all have a peculiar odour, and all, 
if examined, will be seen to have one side shap- 



ed differently from the other at the base of the 
leaf where it joins the stalk. Alexandrian sen- 
na usually contains, as imported, the leaf of a 
totally different plant, which is irritating and 
gripes a good deal. This is usually removed by 
hand before it is sold, and the senna is spoken 
of as picked. 

East Indian senna has a leaf very much 
larger than the Alexandrian kind. In some 
samples the leaves are broken and mixed with 
what may be considered impurities. Senna 
readily yields its virtues to water. These are 
said to depend on a substance in senna called 
cathartine, but this is by no means certain. Its 
preparations are a confection, infusion, mixture, 
tmcture, and syrup. The confection is a good, 
useful preparation, consisting of senna, coriand- 
er, tamarinds, cassia pulp, prunes, extract of 
liquorice, and sugar. It is useful in piles. The 
mixture, best known as black draught, contains 
sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts), extract of 
liquorice, tincture of senna, ti^icture of card- 
amoms, and infusion of senna. The tincture 
contains, besides senna, raisins, caraway, and 
coriander; the syrup, coriander and sugar. 
Senna is hardly ever given as powder, the in- 
fusion is most commonly employed, except 
among children, where the tincture or syrup 
takes it.s place. About an ounce may be given 
of the infusion, the same of the mixture, and of 
the confection a dram or more. The syrup is 
given to children in the dose of a dram or more. 

Senna, as is well known, is a purgative, stim- 
ulating the motion of the bowels, and also aiding 
slightly in promoting their flow, but a salt of 
some kind, Epsom or Rochelle, is generally ad- 
ded to increase its efiicacyin this way. Senna/ 
is seldom given alone, as it is apt to gripe, and' 
for this reason spices are usually administered 
along with it. Senna is more generally used 
than any other purgative when it is simply de- 
sired to have the bowels cleared out, as it is 
apt to leave no ill consequence behind. It should 
not, however, be given if there is any tendency 
to inflammation of the bowels. 

SERGE. — A twilled stuff of various colors, 
and used for the trimming of cloths, particu- 
larly cloaks. One sort has one side smooth 
and the other woolly ; the longest wool is chosen 
for the warp and the shortest for the woof, the 
former being more twisted than the latter. 
Silk serge is a twilled silk used chiefly by tailors 
for trimming parts of gentlemen's coats. One 
yard wide. 

SERPENT {See Snake.) 

SERVANTS. — There are few subjects in 
which housekeepers are so keenly and perma- 
nently interested as the management of domes- 
tic servants, and none, perhaps, concerning 
which so much has been said and written. To 
pick up any book on domestic economy and see 
the number of pages devoted to the discussion 
of this topic, and the amount of good advice 
which they contain, one finds it difficult to ac- 
count for the fact that, notwithstanding it all, 
our household service has steadily gone from 
bad to worse, until it is now the one unmitigated 



SERVANTS 



475 



and apparently immitigable evil in a house- 
keeper's life. Probably the extreme difficulty 
of making suggestions which shall be at once 
practical and capable of general application, ex- 
plains the general vagueness of such advice 
and its tendency towards moral exhortation. In 
the present article we shall not consume our 
space in urging upon employers the necessity 
of courtesy and forbearance toward servants, 
for we do not think that Americans often err in 
this matter on the side of severity or lack of 
complaisance ; nor shall we enlarge upon the 
danger of making a sort of confidential compan- 
ion out of a servant, for this also we beheve to 
be an altogether exceptional practice. In our 
opinion, the chief cause of the sort of veiled 
antagonism which unquestionably exists be- 
tween employers and servants is, aside from the 
lack of training and indisposition to learn on the 
part of the latter, the perverted view which em- 
ployers, especially mistresses, take of the con- 
ditions of domestic service. In spite of all that 
is said about the " privileges " of servants, and 
the advantages of their position, as compared 
with most manual workers, there is a general 
disposition to regard them as owing not only a 
peculiar deference but a sort of personal alle- 
giance to their employers. A frequent example 
of this is seen in the sense of grievance with 
which most mistresses regard a servant's leaving 
a " good home " for another " place," when the 
only inducement is higher wages, or less work, 
or more convenient or pleasant surroundings. 
But the most striking example of it is the general 
disposition to regard the comparatively high 
wages now demanded (and obtained) by domestic 
servants as a species of imposition almost 
amounting to wickedness. Now the truth is that 
as to personal behavior, the relation between 
employer and servant is, or should be, exactly 
the same as that between an employer and a car- 
penter, mechanic, or clerk ; the obligation to be 
polite is mutual and co-extensive, as binding 
upon one as upon the other, and with no varia- 
tion as to degree. As to the high and increas- 
ing wages, that can be explained very simply, 
for it is in accordance with one of the most 
thoroughly-established principles of political 
economy. Owing to the very rapid progress of 
this country in population and wealth, the de- 
mand for household servants has increased at 
a rate much greater than that of the supply ; the 
natural and inevitable result being a higher 
valuation of the labor performed by such ser- 
vants. In demanding higher wages, in fact, 
servants are simply availing themselves of 
social conditions which they could neither pro- 
duce nor influence. 

It is to be observed, however, that, owing to 
special circumstances, this excess of demand 
over supply has resulted in giving American 
servants an advantage in their relations with 
employers by no means inevitable, and of which 
they have, as was to be expected, made a very 
disagreeable use. And here we can present a 
consideration, drawn from the experience of 
another cou-ntry, which we believe to be of 



great practical value. In England, the condi- 
tions of which we have spoken are exactly the 
same as in our own country : that is, the demand 
for household servants is greatly in excess of 
the supply. Higher and constantly increasing 
wages have been the result there as here, but 
at this point the parallel ceases and the attitude 
of English servants toward their employers is 
very different from that surly independence, 
amounting in many cases to aggressiveness, 
which is perha])s the most distinguishing trait 
of the corresponding class here. There, it is 
the servant who dreads a "notice," not the 
mistress as with us ; and dismissal is a punish- 
ment which means something besides the in- 
convenience of packing a trunk and spending 
an hour or two in an intelligence office. The 
cause of this immense difference in the position 
of servants in the two countries is to be found 
simply in the different practice of employers 
with respect to what are called " Characters " 
in England, and " References " in this country. 
It would never occur to a respectable English 
housekeeper to employ a domestic servant who 
was not well recommended from his (or her) 
last place ; and the consequence is, that dis- 
missal without a " Character " is equivalent to 
permanent loss of employment, or, at best, to 
employment under conditions which almost pre- 
clude the possibility of again rising to a respect- 
able position. So terrible is this punishment, 
that it is not uncommon for a servant to offer 
to work on good behaviour for six months or 
even a year, merely to obtain the forfeited 
" Character " at the end of that time. It is not 
difficult to perceive how powerfully such a 
custom operates both as a check and an incen- 
tive. The laxity of American practice with 
respect to " References " is almost incredible. 
We beheve it to be less than the truth to say 
that nine tenths of the servants employed are. 
engaged without any such examination into 
their references as can make the process of the 
slightest value ; and that at least one half are 
engaged without being required to present any 
references at all. Even when they are demand- 
ed, such " References " are accepted as prove 
conclusively that they are regarded as a mere 
meaningless formality. We have ourselves had 
a woman answer an advertisement bringing 
with her a recommendation twelve years old : 
she acknowledged that she had in the mean- 
time been to Chicago, St. Paul, and California, 
and yet she went away highly indignant at the 
suggestion that her " Character " was a trifle 
stale, taunting us as she went with the infor- 
mation that she had got two places on it without 
any insults being put upon her. After an expe- 
rience which has included many servants we can 
recall but two cases in which any of them asked 
for a reference on leaving. Of course the 
natural result of all this is that a dismissal is 
one of the most trifling incidents in an American 
servant's life ; and die great inducement to 
good behavior and intelligent work, which, 
under other circumstances, self-interest would 
bring, is thereby entirely lost. To sum up this 



476 



SERVANTS 



branch of the subject we shall suggest two rules 
which, if they were put in practice and rigidly 
adhered to by every housekeeper, would bring 
about such a revolution in the relations between 
employers and servants as would amount to a 
reversal of the respective posidons of the two 
in respect to those matters in which, as we 
have said, the servants have an unmistakable 
advantage. The rules are : i. Never e7nploy 
a servant who cannot bring explicit and thor- 
oughly satisfactory references fro/n his {or her) 
•LAST place. 2. Never give a servant either a 
written or verbal recommendation which does 
not convey your real impression of his {or her) 
character. If the servant have been dismissed, 
give the exact reasons for the dismissal. The 
second rule is not less important than the first, 
for unless it is scrupulously observed, " Refer- 
ences " become an additional difficulty rather 
than a safeguard. 

Of the specific complaints against servants, 
the one most frequently heard perhaps is that 
they lack training and undertake work which 
they are in no sense qualified to perform, while 
at the same time they are too stupid to learn. 
When we call to mind, however, the class from 
which household servants in this country are 
recruited, the wonder is, not that they exhibit 
untrained ignorance, but that they can cope 
with their work at all, — work which, in the 
case of a cook at least, is as comple.x, difficult, 
and delicate as a human being can undertake. 
In point of fact, too, such a complaint is as 
much an accusation against tlie mistress as 
against the servants. Trained skill implies some 
one who has trained it. When a carpenter 
wants an apprentice, a merchant a clerk, or a 
physician an assistant, he trains the lad fixed 
upon up to the desired point ; and it never 
occurs to him to complain that without such 
discipline the lad " lacks training." So every 
housekeeper should understand that the con- 
dition of having trained servants is, and in the 
great majority of cases must be, to trai?i them; 
and from the determination to do this she 
should not allow herself to be turned aside 
either by the intractableness of her subjects, or 
by their assumption of superior knowledge. It 
is not possible, perhaps, to make servants truth- 
ful, good-natured, courteous, docile, and honest ; 
but it /s- possible, in most cases, to train them 
to do the work required of them in an intelli- 
gent and efficient manner. A housekeeper 
should not be satisfied with merely " getting 
along " with her servants ; she should have a 
standard of cookery up to which the cook 
should be trained, a standard of waiting to 
which the waiter should be required (that is, 
taught) to attain, and so of the lady's-maid and 
all other servants. If it be objected that this 
involves an amount of knowledge on the part 
of mistresses of the household which, in fact, 
few of them possess, the answer is that a 
lady who undertakes the management of a 
household without the knowledge requisite for 
managing it rightly ought not to be surprised, 
and certainly has no right to complain, if her 



servants also undertake work which they are 
not qualified to perform. The truth would 
seem to be, indeed, that the lack of trainino- on 
the part of servants is far more often due to 
the ignorance or indifference of mistresses than 
to the incapacity of the servants themselves ; 
and as this ignorance or indifference is not 
likely to be soon removed, probably no more 
truly beneficent work could be undertaken than 
that of establishing training-schools or institu- 
tions where young girls could be trained to do- 
mestic service before entering upon it. Should 
such institutions become numerous enough to 
fairly establish a standard in this department 
of work, and effect (as they undoubtedly would 
effect) the introduction to it of a more intelli- 
gent class of workers, they would contribute as 
scarcely anything else would to the happiness 
of American family life. 

But before a really intelligent class of work- 
ers, — such a class, for instance, as used to 
furnish the " help " of old New England house- 
holds — can be induced to adopt domestic ser- 
vice as a regular and permanent employment, 
some concessions will have to be made in the 
matter of personal liberty. Even with such 
servants as we have now a vast deal of trouble 
arises from what the servants are hardly wrong 
in regarding as impertinent interferences and 
petty tyrannical exactions on the part of their 
employers. It would be well if it were clearly 
and generally understood that the authority of 
the master and mistress of a house in regard to 
their domestics extends simply to the things 
which the latter have contracted to do and the 
hours during which they have contracted to 
serve ; beyond this they have no more right to 
interfere with the disposal of their time than with 
that of any clerk or mechanic whom they em- 
ploy. They have, of course, a right to regulate 
the hours and work of their own household, and 
servants can choose between conformity to 
such regulations and loss of their situation; 
but within reasonable limits, the right of ser- 
vants to come and go at their own discretion, 
in their own time, should be unquestioned ; and 
their own time should be admitted to include 
all that remains after they have done the work 
which they contracted to do, or which their 
position naturally involves. Even in regard to 
the matter of visiting and visitors, which is 
perhaps more perplexing than any other, it is 
rapidly becoming the custom in England to hold 
servants responsible for the company they keep 
in the same way as for their general conduct 
and their performance of their work, without 
dictating special terms' or conditions ; and such 
would seem to be the most reasonable arrange- 
ment. In short, a household servant should 
be recognized as one who has contracted to do 
certain specified or well-understood work, and 
when she has done it her obligations to her 
employer and his rights over her cease, — that 
is, with the qualifications above indicated. 

There is one other point, attention to which 
would do much to make domestic service plea- 
santer, and by so much to elevate its character. 



SERVANTS 



SETONS 



477 



The position of contemptuous inferiority to 
which servants feel themselves consigned, and 
which in this country at least they are certain 
to resent, is indicated not so much by what is 
done as by what is left undone. Everything 
and every place designed for their use is gener- 
ally not only inferior to, but in marked contrast 
with, the rest of the house. Their rooms are 
nearly always ill-furnished, incommodious, and 
neglected ; and the kitchen is usually the most 
cheerless and comfortless place in the house, 
while its deficiency in cooking-apparatus and 
other conveniences is, as a general thing, a 
disgrace to American housekeeping. It is not 
to be expected, of course, that servants shall 
share in all the luxuries of the family; but their 
rooms should be at least comfortable, and if 
some pains are taken to make them attractive 
and tasteful, the effect will certainly be good. 
Pleasant surroundings in this respect have an 
important influence doubtless in attaching good 
servants to their homes and making them satis- 
fied to remain long in one place, while at the same 
time doing more to create in them habits of or- 
der and cleanliness than any amount of mere ver- 
bal teaching. As to the kitchen, it is plainly not 
less to the interest of employer than of servant 
that the room in which the most important 
work of the house is carried on should be light, 
cheerful, comfortable, and supplied with at 
least all the appliances which can facilitate or 
improve labor. {See Kitchen.) 

Ail English books on domestic economy, and 
one or two American ones which follow their 
prototypes too closely, give elaborate directions 
for the division of the work of the household 
between the different servants ; but this seems 
to us a matter which must of necessity be left 
to the individual housekeeper. We would sug- 
gest, however, that where two or more servants 
are employed, the duties of each should be 
clearly marked out, and the division rigidly ad- 
hered to ; it will save much misunderstanding 
and confusion. Above all things we would 
urge the systematization of the household work. 
System will be found to be not only one of the 
most efficient of labor-saving devices, but an 
invaluable element in the training of both mis- 
tress and servants. 

Law of Master and Servant. — A con- 
tract for a term of service extending beyond 
one year is not valid unless in writing. If 
at the time of hiring no term of service is 
specified, either party may terminate the con- 
tract at his option, unless there be a usage or 
custom to the contrary, which the parties 
may be presumed to have contemplated at the 
time the contract was entered into. Where 
the contract is for a certain term, and the ser- 
vant is discharged without cause before its 
expiration, the master is liable in damages, 
the usual measure of which is the rate of 
wages stipulated for in the contract. On 
the other hand, the general rule is that if 
a servant, under a contract to serve for a spec- 
ified time, leave the master without cause be- 
fore its expiration, he forfeits all claim for 



wages. As if one enters into a contract to serve 
six months, at so much per month, and leaves 
at the end of three months without cause, it 
seems that he thereby forfeits all claim for wages 
during the time he has served. So also if a 
•servant misconducts himself and is discharged 
by the master for a justified cause, it has been 
held that he forfeits all claim for wages since 
the last payment. But if the servant is una- 
ble to perform his contract on account of sick- 
ness, he is entitled to wages up to the time he 
ceased labor. The rule is the same if he departs 
for a justifiable cause, or if the contract is dis- 
solved by the consent of both parties. It is 
the duty of the servant to obey all lawful and 
reasonable orders of the master, and if he ne- 
glect or refuse, the master is justified in dis- 
charging him. So, also, if he misconducts 
himself in such a way as to injure his master's 
business, or commits a crime, or is in the habit 
of becoming intoxicated. It is the duty of 
the master to provide suitably for the wants 
of his servant, but in case of sickness he is 
not bound to furnish medical attendance or 
medicines. If he does so, he is not entitled 
to deduct the expense from the wages of 
the servant without his consent. If the ser- 
vant suffer an injury from any of the risks 
incident to his employment, or from the neg- 
ligence of a fellow servant, the master is not 
liable. 

SETONS. — By a seton is meant a long 
wound artificially made under the skin, the walls 
of which wound are kept in a state of irritation 
and suppuration by the presence of some for- 
eign body. It differs from an issue in being a 
tubular wound under the skin and not an open 
ulcer. A seton may be established by transfix- 
ing a pinched-up fold of skin by a large flat 
needle armed with a strand of cotton or silk 
thread, or by passing a bistoury through the 
base of the fold and then carrying the thread 
through the canal thus made, by means of a 
small-eyed probe. After the thread has been 
allowed to remain at rest for two or three days 
and has set up irritation and some discharge, it 
is pulled a little further through the wound so 
that a fresh portion may be included and the 
soiled portion be cut away. This manoeuvre is 
repeated every second or third day, and when 
the strand is almost used up a fresh strand is 
attached and substituted for it. Instead of cot- 
ton or silk thread many surgeons use a small 
flat band of india-ruljber, which is less liable to 
become clogged by dry and offensively smelling 
discharge. Setons are established for the pur- 
poses of setting up counter-irritation, and of 
causing a chronic discharge so as to produce a 
drain upon the system. With the former ob- 
ject in view they are often useful when applied 
to the temple in some affections of the eye, and 
to the back of the ear in cases of deafness. As 
a means of producing a constant drain upon the 
system a seton is often established in old 
people who are threatened with an attack of 
apoplexy, or who suffer from constitutional dis- 
turbance in consequence of the closing by 



478 



SEWERS 



SHAGREEN 



cicatrization of a large chronic ulcer. Chronic 
abscesses and tumors with fluid contents are 
often treated by the introduction of a long 
strand of silk thread. As the fluid flows slowly 
away from the orifices of the seton, irritation 
is set up in the walls of the sac, which contract, 
and are finally glued together by inflammatory 
conditions. 

SEWERS. — The common drains by which 
the water and filth of large towns and cities are 
conveyed away. The drains of houses com- 
municating with them should be trapped on the 
outside. It is an imperative condition of the 
safety of every household that its own soil- 
pipes and outlet drains, and the sewer or cess- 
pool to which they lead, should be thoroughly 
and completely ventilated with a current of air. 
{See Drainage and Sinks.) 

SHAD. — Shad are seldom or never found 
alive in the markets, as they die a few minutes 
after being taken out of the water. When fresh, 
their gills are of a bright crimson, the body is 
firm, and the scales very bright ; when the eyes 
are sunken , and the gills have begun to turn a 
whitish blue, the fish are unfit to eat. Shad 
appear in the Southern waters (whence they 
are brought North) as early as the ist of Feb- 
ruary, and by the 2ot'h are generally plentiful ; 
in the Delaware River they are first caught 
about the 20th of March ; in the Hudson 
River, about the ist of April ; in the Connec- 
ticut River, about the 15th of April. They are 




in season till June. The usual weight Is from 
three and a half to five pounds each. The 
roes are considered by some superior to the 
fish itself ; the male has roes, or rather a melt, 
which is very delicate. Shad are found salted 
and smoked ; those cured in Connecticut are 
considered best. 

Baked Shad. — Select a large shad, wash 
and scrape it clean, taking off all the scales, and 
wipe it dry ; make a dressing of bread-crumbs, 
a little chopped parsley and pork, salt, pepper, 
and butter ; fill up the shad with the stuffing, 
sew it up and lay it into a baking-pan with a 
little water in it ; lay on it some small bits of but- 
ter or thin slices of salt pork, and dredge on a 
little flour ; bake about forty minutes, basting 
well. When the shad is done, dish it, and add 
to the gravy a good lump of butter, a little hot 
water, a little browned flour and some salt and 
pepper ; boil it up once and turn it over the fish. 
Garnish with parsley and sliced lemon. 

Boiled (Fresh) Shad. — Select a roe shad for 
boiling. Prepare the fish as directed above, 
cleansing the roes thoroughly ; sprinkle both 
fish and roes with salt, and wrap them in sepa- 
rate cloths and put them side by side into the 
kettle ; cover with salted water, and boil steadily 



from fifteen to twenty minutes, according 
to the size. Dish with the roes arranged 
around the fish, and garnish with capers and 
slices of hard-boiled eggs. Send a sauce-boat 
of drawn butter mingled with chopped parsley 
and Qgg to table with it. 

Boiled (Salt) Shad. — Soak the shad several 
hours in warm water, changing it three or four 
times ; wipe with a coarse cloth so as to get off 
all the salt crystals, and soak in very cold water 
for an hour ; then put it into the kettle with 
enough cold water to cover it, and boil fifteen or 
twenty minutes. Serve on a hot dish, with a 
good lump of butter spread over the fish. 

Broiled (Fresh) Shad. — L Scale and scrape 
a shad, split it down the back, wash it well and 
wipe dry ; sprinkle it with salt and pepper, lay 
it flesh downward upon the gridiron and broil 
it ten minutes or until brown ; then turn the 
other side downwards and broil ten minutes. 
Serve on a hot dish with some butter spread 
over the fish. 

II. {\Vhole.') Clean and wash the fish with 
care, but do not open it more than is necessary ; 
fill it with the same stuffing directed for baked 
shad, or with oyster stuffing, or any other made 
of bread-crumbs, and with its own roe ; then 
sew it up, wrap it in a thickly buttered paper, 
and broil it gently for an hour over a slow fire. 
Serve it with caper sauce, or with Chih vinegar 
and melted butter. 

Broiled (Salt) Shad — Soak the fish as direct- 
ed for boiled (salt) shad, wipe it very dry, and 
boil as directed for fresh shad. 

Fried Shad. — Clean,wash, and dry a roe shad; 
split down the back, and divide each side into 
four pieces, leaving out the head and removing 
the fins and tail ; fry to a light brown on both 
sides in plenty of boiling lard or dripping — 
cooking the roe with it. Serve catsup with it. 

Roast Shad. — Scrape, clean, wash, and wipe 
dry ; tie the fish round with twine ; spread salt, 
pepper, and melted butter (with a brush) all 
over the fish, wrap it in a well-buttered paper, 
and set it on the spit to roast ; baste it well 
with a little melted butter, and remove the 
paper about five minutes before it is done. 
Dish the fish, cut off the twine, and serve with 
either caper or Mayonnaise sauce. 

SHADDOCK. — This is a variety of the same 
species as the lemon and orange. In its native 
country, China, it is a sweet, pleasant fruit, with 
very little acidity; but in the West Indies, 
where it is extensively cultivated, it has degen- 
erated into a sour, bitter fruit, scarcely tolerable 
to the palate. It contains abundance of juice, 
which, diluted, is used as a beverage and in 
making punch. Though less agreeable in its 
flavor, it keeps fresh and good longer at sea ; 
hence it is valuable. It also makes good pre- 
serves. Those which are heavy and soft are 
usually best. The shaddock is very similar in 
appearance to the orange, but much larger ; it 
is often found in our markets about the same 
time as Havana oranges. 

SHAGREEN. — A valuable kind of leather, 
used often for spectacle, instrument, and other 



SHALLOON 



SHAVING 



479 



cases ; it is a singular manufacture, brought 
chiefly from Astracan. To make it, the strong 
sktn which covers the crupper of the ass or 
horse is chosen ; this is soaked in water and 
the hair taken off ; it is then scraped until it is 
extremely thin, and while still wet and soft, the 
hard round seeds of a plant called goose-foot 
are strewed over it and trodden deeply into it, 
which causes it to become very hard and 
covered all over with hemispherical indenta- 
tions ; the surface is then scraped until the holes 
have nearly disappeared, after which the leather 
is again soaked, which cause the indentations 
to rise and produce a rough granular surface. 
The leather is now dressed with oil, dyed of a 
green color, and allowed to dry. Lastly, the 
grains or projecting warts are rubbed down 
(ill the whole is perfectly level, when the shag- 
reen presents the beautiful appearance of white 
.spots on a green ground. 

SHALLOON. — A light, loosely-woven wool- 
Jen stuff with a twill, much used for lining 
various articles of dress. It is of various 
colors. Width from 32 to 36 inches. 

SHALLOT. — A plant of the onion family, 
l)ut resembling garlic in being divided into 
several cloves enclosed in a skin. Its flavor is 
more pungent than that of either garlic or onion, 
but more agreeable. It is employed in flavoring 
soups, stews, salads, vinegar, etc., the largest 
bulbs being best for this purpose. The new 
shallots are found in the markets about midsum- 
mer, but they are not used in the green state ; 
in the dry state they may be kept throughout 
the year, and they are generally sold thus in 
bunches. 

"SHAMMY." (6"^^ Chamois-skin.) 

SHAVING. — Every one who has shaved 
knows how desirable it is to shave with com- 
fort, and to do this proper apparatus is essen- 
tial. The great point is to have a razor with a 
keen, smooth edge. Good razors are made 
concave or hollow between the back and edge, 
on both sides, for better security in shaving, 
and for the purpose of giving them a better 
edge in setting or stropping. Good strops may 
be purchased of any cutler, but a more satisfac- 
tory one may easily be made as follows : — Take 
a piece of wood perfectly flat on both sides, 
and glue on one side a strip of thick buff 
leather, on which spread a composition made 
ot equal parts of black-lead in impalpable pow- 
der, and strong mercurial ointment; the lead 
should be the Spanish lump, scraped very fine, 
the powder of the shops being impure and 
gritty. Strop the razor well after using it, not 
before, and there will be no necessity to wipe 
it until it is again wanted, the composition effec- 
tually preventing rust in any climate. This 
stropping, with occasional use of the hone when 
the edge becomes dull, will be sufficient to keep 
a keen edge on the razor for a long time. When 
using the strop or hone, keep the razor perfectly 
flat, press lightly upon it, and draw it diagon- 
ally from the heel to the point, the whole length 
of the strop or hone, turning the elbow in and 
out every time the razor is turned. 



To sharpen or set a razor, put it for half an 

hour in water to which has been added one 
twentieth of its weight of muriatic or sulphuric 
acid ; then slightly wipe it off, and after a few 
hours set (strop) it on the hone. The acid 
here supplies the place of a whetstone, by cor- 
roding the whole surface uniformly, so that no- 
thing more than a smooth polish is necessary; the 
process never injures good blades, while badly 
hardened ones are frequently improved by it. 

The hone should be frequently moistened 
with oil, and kept in a place where it will not 
readily become dry. Rubbing the hone previ- 
ous to use with soap instead of oil, gives a sur- 
prising keenness and smoothness to the edge 
of the razor. Keep the razor-strop moderately 
moist with a drop or two of sweet oil ; a little 
crocus and a few drops of sweet oil rubbed well 
in with a round glass bottle will give the razor 
a fine edge. The " Diamond Paste " sold in 
the shops for sharpening razors is simply coke 
ground to an impalpable powder. 

Razor Paper is an invention designed to 
supersede the use of the ordinary strop. By 
merely wiping the razor on the paper, to re- 
move the lather after shaving, a keen edge is 
always maintained without further trouble ; 
only one caution is necessary, — that is, to be- 
gin with a sharp razor, and then the paper 
will keep it in that state for years. It may be 
prepared thus : First, procure oxide of iron (by 
the addition of carbonate of soda to a solution 
of persulphate of iron), well wash the precipi- 
tate, and finally leave it of the consistency of 
cream ; secondly, procure some good paper, 
soft, and a little thinner than ordinary printing- 
paper; then, with a soft brush, spread over the 
paper (on one side only), very thinly, the moist 
oxide of iron; dry it, and cut the paper into 
pieces two inches square; it will then be fit 
for use. 

Of no less importance than the razor is the 
softening of the beard, which is too often neg- 
lected. First wash it well in cold water. 
(Hot water opens the pores and makes the face 
tender.) Then rub dry with a towel. Then 
applj- the lather. The soap is generally rubbed 
to a lather with a brush ; but many prefer to 
wet the beard and then rub the cake of soap 
on the face, making the lather with the 
brush on the skin; this is the most effectual 
way when the beard is very strong. After the 
operation, the face ought to be washed with 
cold water and the razor wiped dry either with 
a cloth or a piece of chamois-skin ; the razor 
is usually dipped into hot water before using, 
but this is a practice not always necessary. 
Those who, after shaving, are affected by frosty 
air, will find a solution of nitre in soft water 
take off every vmpleasant sensation ; and, in- 
stead of the shining and parchment-like ap- 
pearance consequent on greasy applications, 
produce softness and abate all swehing. Or, 
at first, use a little spermaceti ointment, at 
night, and the next morning ; afterwards fre- 
quently wash the parts affected with the solution 
of nitre. 



480 



SHAWLS 



SHELL-FISH 



Of the ordinary shaving-soaps, Naples soft 
soap is a fish oil (mixed with Lucca oil) and 
potash, colored brown; it retains, when pure, 
its natural fishy odor. Rypophagon soap, used 
as a dentifrice, as well as for shaving, consists 
of the best yellow soap and fig soft soap, per- 
fumed with anise and citronella. We have 
found the small flat cakes, called Yankee soap, 
as satisfactory as any other. Instead of soap 
some use shaving-paste, which may be made 
by melting together one drachm each of al- 
mond oil, white wax and spermaceti : beat 
them up with rose-water and a square of Wind- 
sor soap. Essence of soap, which is excellent 
for shaving, is made by dissolving as much 
fine, dry, white soap in spirits of wine as the 
spirits will take up, and perfuming it with any 
essence ; the mixture should be placed near 
the fire, and if all the soap does not dissolve, 
pour off the liquid and keep it for use. For 
shaving, the brush should be dipped in, and a 
few drops of water being thrown vipon the 
brush, it will make a fine lather. A good liquid 
of this kind may be made by dissolving eight 
ounces of castile soap in a pint of spirits of 
wine. 

SHAWLS. — These popular articles of dress 
are manufactured in such numberless varieties, 
most of which are so well known, that it would 
be useless to attempt to treat of them all here ; 
but a few suggestions respecting the Cashmere 
or Indian shawls may be useful to those in- 
tending to purchase. A real Cashmere shawl, 
made l3y the inhabitants of that Indian valley 
from the wool of a peculiar variety of goat, 
reared on the plains of Thibet, is a most costly 
article. To make a pair of large and hand- 
some Cashmere shawls requires the labor of 
fourteen men for half a year. The down is 
collected from flocks of goats on the plains of 
Thibet, and brought to the confines of Cash- 
mere on the backs of sheep. It is then cleaned 
and one fourth of it (being all that is fitted for 
the shawls) is carried on men's backs the re- 



mainder of the distance to Cashmere. When 
arrived thither, it passes into the hands of the 
merchants, who sell it in small quantities to the 
weavers, at the rate of about two rupees per 
pound. I'he thread is dyed a great variety of 
colors, and then stiffened with rice water. 
Many articles are woven with these colored 
threads, the process being slow and tedious, on 
account of the rude construction of the looms. 
The shawls are washed after being woven, to 
remove the rice stiffening ; and a fine pale yel- 
low color is imparted by means of sulphur 
fumes. 

The prices paid for Indian shawls, especially 
those woven in Cashmere, have sometimes 
been almost fabulous. A full-sized shawl, such 
as is called in America a long ?,\\2i\\\, ordinarily 
commands in Paris or London from $500 to 
$5000. Scarfs and square shawls, being 
smaller, sell for less. It is a mistake, however, 
to suppose that all these shawls are manufac- 
tured in India in the shape in which they are 
sold here. Generally, indeed, the centres and 
borders are brought over separately, and are 
put together afterwards in sizes and patterns 
to suit customers. Moreover a large portion 
of the shawls sold as real India ones are actu- 
ally made in France ; for the Thibet goat was 
introduced into that country more than thirty 
years ago, and the Cashmere shawls are imita- 
ted with considerable skill. Judges of the ar- 
ticle say, however, that the real India shawl 
can be detected by its having a less evenly 
woven web, as also from its brighter colors. It is 
likewise said that the border of the genuine 
India shawl is invariably woven in small pieces, 
which are afterwards sewn together, as the 
whole border is subsequently sewn on the 
centre. 

The French Broche shawls and the English 
Paisleys are imitations of the India shawls, 
but woven in one piece ; they are rich and ele- 
gant, and less expensive than the genuine 
Indias. 




SHEEP. {See Kidneys, Lamb, Mutton, 
Suet, and Tongues.) 

SHEET. {See BEDS AND BEDDING.) 



SHELL FISH. — This is one of the most 
highly appreciated divisions of the fish tribe. 
It comprises a vast number of species, in its 



SHERBET 



SHIRTS 



481 



two classes of crustaceans and molluscs, which 
are not used as food ; those used as food are 
crabs, crayfish, cla?iis, cockles, lobsters, ?nus- 
cles, oysters, periwinkles, prawns, and 
shrimps, all of which are treated of, fully, under 
their respective names. All shell-fish are very 
liable to decomposition, and when this takes 
place they are extremely injurious to health, 
frequently producing severe bilious derange- 
ment, and in some cases a most troublesome 
eruption, similar to nettlerash. When quite 
fresh, however, they are wholesome, and easily 
digested by sound stomachs ; but they are 
never suited to invalids, with the exception of 
the oyster, which is light and yet nourishing, 
and can often be taken by them when any 
other animal food would be rejected. Ameri- 
can shell-fish are unequalled elsewhere in the 
world. 

SHERBET. — The favorite Eastern bever- 
age among wealthy Mohammedans, to whom 
the Koran forbids the use of wine. It con- 
sists of water and the juice of fruits, with 
sugar, and is flavored with spices and per- 
fumes. 

The name is, however, applied to another 
compound, made as follows : Put into a large 
bowl one pound of loaf sugar and the juice 
and rinds of three lemons ; pour over them a 
quart of boiling water, and let them stand all 
night. Next day strain the liquor through a 
cloth, add to it five pint bottles of currant wine, 
and one of rum; mix well all together, and 
bottle off for use ; it will keep a long time. 
When wanted, mix with cold water in a tum- 
bler. This is a very refreshing summer bev- 
erage. 

Cream Sherbet. — Put the yolks of six eggs 
and a d3ssert-spoonful of orange-flower water 
into two quarts of cream. Boil it up once in a 
covered stew-pan, then strain it. Add three- 
fourths of a pound of fine loaf sugar, and stir 
till dissolved. When cold set it in ice, or 
freeze same as ice cream. 

Lemon Sherbet. — Dissolve a pound and a 
half of loaf-sugar in a quart of water, take nine 
large lemons, wipe them clean, cut each in 
halves, squeeze them so as to get out both 
juice and some of the essence of the peel, stir 
into it the sugared water, strain and freeze 
same as ice cream. 

Stra-wrberry Sherbet. — Take one pound of 
best ripe strawberries, crush them to a smooth 
mass, then add three pints of water, the juice of 
one lemon and a tablespoonful of orange -flower 
water. Let this stand three or four hours. 
Then put in another basin a pound of best 
refined sugar, stretch over it a cloth or napkin, 
and strain on the sugar the berries, squeezing 
out the juice as much as possible. Stir until 
the sugar is dissolved, then strain again, 
and set in ice an hour before serving, in small 
tumblers. 

SHERRY. — A strong, full-bodied, Spanish 
wine, and one of the most popular of all wines. 
Sherry, in general, is of an amber color, and 
when good it has a fine aromatic odor, with j 
31 



something of the agreeable bitterness of the 
peach-kernel. When new, it is harsh and fiery, 
and requires to be mellowed in wood for four 
or five years. There are two kinds of sherries, 
the pale and the brown ; the latter are colored 
by the addition of some cheap must or wine 
which has been boiled till it has acquired a 
deep brown tint. The pale sherries were for- 
merly preferred, being supposed to be more 
pure ; but the brown are now getting most into 
fashion. The inferior sherries are often adul- 
terated with a cheap light wine called Mogjter, 
and are strengthened by brandy ; in fact it is 
extremely difficult now to procure a sherry to 
which a considerable quantity of brandy has 
not been added. The well-known London Dock 
Sherry has been found by recent analysis to 
contain from twelve to twenty-five per cent. 
Two dry sherries are highly esteemed in Spain, 
AtnoJitillado and Manzanilla, ihty slxq said to 
be entirely devoid of brandy, and equally free 
from acidity; but they are seldom brought to 
this country. The Amontillado, when genuine 
and old, fetches a high price, and is sometimes 
added to improve the ordinary sherries by its 
nutty flavor. Most of the sherries sold in this 
country are manufactured here or in England. 
If bought in the cask, sherry may be much 
improved by fining : — Draw off one gallon ; 
dissolve two ounces of isinglass to a jelly and 
put in the wine ; then add the whites of ten 
eggs with the shells, and one ounce of alum 
boiled in a pint of water ; beat together well 
and return to the cask. Sugar-candy or honey 
will give sherry softness. 

Sherry should be kept in a dry, cool place, 
and drunk at the temperature thereby imparted 
to it. 

Sherry-cobbler. — I. Put plenty of finely 
broken ice into a large tumbler ; pour in two 
wineglassfuls of sherry and a good tablespoon- 
ful of powdered white sugar, with a few small 
bits (not slices) of lemon ; stir with a wooden 
spoon. 

n. To make a quantity of sherry-cobbler, 
take a bowl and lay several slices of pine-apple, 
cut in quarters, in the bottom ; sprinkle well 
with sugar, add pounded ice ; add a handful of 
strawberries or raspberries, and not quite half a 
teacupful of powdered sugar; fill the bowl nearly 
half full of pounded ice, add two limes, slice 
them and pour in a bottle of sherry. Stir up the 
ingredients from the bottom until all are 
thoroughly mixed ; in serving put a slice of 
each kind of fruit in each glass. 

SHIRTS. — The principal parts of a shirt 
are the body, the sleeves, and the bosom ; 
there are, besides, the yoke, the collar, cuffs, 
gussets, bands and tongue. 

The measurements for this garment must be 
made with great accuracy. Faults in the fit 
of a shirt may be ascertained by noticing the 
wrinkles that have formed in it after a day's 
wear. The most common faults are that it is 
not cut out enough in the neck, and that it is 
too long on the shoulders and too broad 
across the breast. The first of these faults, 



482 



SHIRTS 



causes the bosom to gape and to bulge ; the two 
latter cause wrinkles and creases around the 
arms. 

The following are the measurements requir- 
ed : I. The length of the garment ; this mea- 
sure is taken from the nape of the neck and 
may be longer or shorter at will, preferences 
varying in regard to the length of a shirt ; 2. 
The length of the bosom; for this, two measure- 
ments are made, the first, directly in front from 
the base of the neck to the waist, the second, 
from the top of the shoulder at the neck, to the 
same point of the waist ; 3. The breadth of the 
chest, from one arm to the other ; 4. The size 
of the neck (mark this in full, and also mark 
one third of it) ; 5. The length of the sleeve 
(measure down the inside of the arm, and allow 
two inches more for the length on the outside) ; 
6. The size of the wrist (taken loosely). 

We will now for greater accuracy assume 
certain dimensions. Let us suppose the length 
of a shirt to be a yard and an eighth ; the 
length of the sleeves, five-eighths of a yard ; 
and three-eighths sufficient for yoke, collar, etc. 
This will require 3 'Z yards of material, seven- 
eighths wide. From this quantity, enough for a 
medium sized shirt, we cutoff what is to be used 
for sleeves, yoke, etc., and we have left for the 
body z]4 yards, double the assumed length, that 
is, since the shirt is made of two breadths. Now 
fold this across in the width, but leaving one 
breadth four inches longer than the other, and 
cut them apart. The longer breadth will form 
the back of the shirt ; the shorter, the front. 




We will now prepare the front half of the 
shirt. (Fig. i.) We take the shorter breadth 
and begin by making ready the bosom. For 
this we cut a slit, a b down directly in the 
middle, commencing at the top of the breadth 
and making the slit the length indicated as the 
second measure of the length of the shirt-bosom; 
we will suppose this measure to be 20 inches. 



From the bottom of this slit we then cut across 
on each side, bc,bd, leaving uncut on the outside 
a space of six or eight inches. The edges of the 
slit a b, are now to be turned down and hem- 
med, the hem being about an inch wide ; that 
on the right will later have the buttons sewed 
on it, that on the left, e, is to be stitched as 
indicated by the dotted lines, and will have the 
button-holes made in it. 

We then make two or three plaits at the 
side of each hem, and hold them in place by 
basiting-threads at top and bottom. In the 
figure they are represented by the letters^ and 
f, on the left side ; the right half being left in 
course of preparation to make the explanation 
clearer. The plaits being made on both sides, 
we cross the hems over the other, the stitched 
one outside, and hold them in place with pins 
or stitches at top and bottom until the neck has 
been cut out, which cannot be done until the 
back and front of the shirt have been put to- 
gether. 

We now gather the lower edge of the trans- 
verse slit c d, and lay the gathers, and then 
fasten them so as to make the gathered space 
of the same length as the breadth of the shirt- 
bosom. We then prepare two little strips, 
about an inch wide, to cover this gathering : 
turn the edges of each strip and baste one on 
the outside of the shirt, half upon the bosom 
and half upon the gathering. This band is 
then secured in its place by a row of stitching 
across the upper edge, and by being hemmed 
down upon the gathers across the lower edge. 
The other strip is then put on the wrong side 




of the shirt to correspond, and hemmed down 
all around. The lower edge of the garment 
itself is then finished off with a very narrow hem. 
We next take up the back breadth (Fig. 2). 
The upper edge, a b, is first to be gathered 



SHIRTS 



483 



straight across, leaving six or eight inches plain 
on each side. We then lay the gathers and 
fasten tliem, making the gathered space cor- 
respond with the width of the shirt-bosom. The 
lower edge of the breadth should then be 
hemmed to match the front. 

We next prepare the yoke, which is to be put 
on above the gathers of the back. This yoke 
is cut by Fig. 3, which represents half of it, 
laid as it should be cut upon a straight piece 
of the material. For the yoke we require four 
pieces just alike. Two of these are to be sewed 
together over and over in the middle of the back, 
and make the outside, the other two are 
stitched together, and form the under side 





j^/^ 


"i 


/f 
% 



Fig- 3- 

or lining. Along the lower edge of this yoke, 
between the outside and the lining, the gathers 
are fastened. The gathers should be sewed 
down on the outside, and where the breadth is 
plain, the yoke should be stitched on ; on the 
under side it requires only to be hemmed across. 

The two parts of the shirt are then put to- 
gether by basting the shoulder of the yoke from 
the neck to the arm-hole, down upon the front 
from the point a to d (this is afterwards to be 
stitched), and by sewing over and over the sides 
c c, leaving for the sleeves an opening on each 
side from half way up the height of the shirt- 
bosom, and also, at the bottom of the side seams, 
an opening of about four inches in length. 

When these two halves ot the shirt have 
been thus put together, we cut the garment out 
in the neck from the point /i (Fig. i), the height 
in front, to t, the height of the shoulder. In 
the back we have the neck already cut out, and 




we ascertain if it be correctbyapplying the neck 
measure. The garment is then finished around 
the neck by a binding made to be about an inch 
wide when it is finished, upon which are sewed 
the buttons that will hold the collar in place. 

The sleeves (Fig. 4) are cut in the follow- 
ing manner : take the five-eighths of material 
reserved for the purpose, lay it upon the 
lap-board or work-table, and fold it over from 
each side to meet in the middle, the ma- 
terial being placed in such a manner that 
the cut edges will be represented by a i> ^, 
c d h, in Fig. 4, and the selvages meet from 
the point e downward. We have thus the 
two sleeves each five-eighths in length and half 
the width of the material in breadth, lying 
before us, but not cut apart, and our first care 
is to unite them still more by basting together 
the two selvages and holding that seam in its 
place as represented in the figure, by pins at 
top and bottom. Thus prepared we fold it 
diagonally as shown in Fig. 
4, and cut from g to h. We 
then sew each portion of the 
basted selvages ; and the 
sleeves, each with its gore, 
are ready. Before sewing 
them up, however, we gather 
each at its lower edge, leaving 
about an inch plain at each 
end, near the opening a (Fig 
5), which opening is to be left 
about two inches long, and is 
hemmed on each edge. We 
then lay the gathers of the 
sleeve, and apply the wrist- 
band or cuff. The plain 
wristband is cut double, and 
is about four inches deep 
when finished. Its length is 
decided by the wrist measure. 
It should be run together at the two extremities 
and turned over and stitched all around the edge, 
then basted on to the sleeves and the gathers 
sewed down upon it on the upper and under side. 
The bottom of the sleeves being thus finished, 
we sew the sleeves up and prepare the top. 
Usually the sleeve should be about the same 
width as the arm-hole into which it is to be sewn. 
It may be larger, and can then be gathered a 
little upon the top, and this is preferred by 
some ; but it should on no account be smaller. 
The arm-hole of the shirt is cut out by taking 
the back and front together at the shoulder k 
(Fig. i), and cutting straight down as far as 7; 
then with a curve half an inch further to the 
side seam. In basting in the sleeves, place the 
seam upon the seam of the shirt, bringing the 
gore on the back. Then stitch the sleeves in 
with a wide seam, and fell it down upon the 
shirt all around the arm-hole. 

We have now to make button-holes, three in 
the left-hand hem of the bosom, one in each 
wristband; or two if sleeve-buttons are worn, 
and to sew on the corresponding buttons. Also 
it is customary to sew a little pointed bit of 
double cloth, the tongue (9, Fig. 6), on the lower 




Fig. 5- 



f Ig. 4» 



484 



SHIRTS 



SHRIMPS 





Fig. 7. 



Fig. 6. 

edge of the shirt-bosom, which has a button- 
hole, corresponding to a button on the waist- 
band of the drawers, and is designed to keep 
the shirt-bosom well in place. Further it is 
useful to put very small gussets in at the bot- 
tom of the side-seams and the sleeve seams, 
as is shown in Fig. 6. 

We shall now explain the construction of 
the shirt-collar which, originally a part of the 
garment itself, has of late years assumed an 
independent existence. It would seem, judg- 
ing from the ever new variety of names applied 
to that article, that the variety in collars must 
be endless ; in fact, however, all may be re- 
duced to three original 
types, the remaining 
variations being simply 
differences of height,or 
of the contour of the 
edge. These three 
styles are : the standing 
collar, the turn-down 
collar, and the collar 
divided in the back. All collars should be made 
threefold, as they retain their stiffness much 
longer. All three varieties require a binding 
which should be cut of the same length as the 
neck-band of the shirt and have a button hole 
in the middle to correspond to the but- 
ton on the neck-band. For this binding 
two strips about an inch wide should be cut, 
and should be cut sloping towards the ex- 
tremities ; the collar also should be hol- 
lowed out a little in the middle, and as rep- 
resented in Figs. 7, 8, -somewhat more for 
a turned over than for 
a standing collar. The 
collar divided in the 
back is cut in four pieces 
and is put together so 
that one half overlaps 
the other. 

Cuffs of every size and 
shape are also made 
separate from the shirt. In this case the wrist- 
band should be about two inches wide, and 
the cuffs require an additional button hole by 
which to attach them to the button on the 
wristband. 




FiR. 8. 



In specifying the amount of material neces- 
sary for making a shirt, we assumed that it 
was to be made throughout of the same ma- 
terial ; but it is far more common to make the 
cuffs, collar, and bosom of something finer than 
the rest of the shirt ; as for instance when the 
shirt is cotton ; these portions are usually made 
of linen, and we must abate from the quantity 
indicated the length necessary for the bosom, 
cuffs, and collar, and supply an equal length of 
the finer material. Having cut the lengths as 
directed, we remove from the front of the shirt 
the portion which would have been used for 
the folds, cutting it away by the dotted line in 
Fig. I ; we now take a length from the linen, 
corresponding to the length cut away, and we 
retain the whole breadth, to use if needed in 
the plaits. This breadth, divided in halves, 
gives the two sides of the shirt-bosom. The 
hems and plaits are then made as explained 
above, and the two halves are stitched into 
their places, beginning at the top at each 
side, after which the seam is felled down upon 
the body of the shirt, and this completes the 
work. 

Besides the plaited shirt-bosom, there is 
also the plain front. This is made by turning 
back the linen, after ascertaining the proper 
width of the bosom, and facing or lining it, in 
its whole extent. The edges should receive a 
double row of stitching, and rows of stitching 
should also represent the hem which is to re- 
ceive the button-holes. 

To strengthen a shirt-bosom m the part 
most likely to wear, it is customary to put a 
false hem underneath the left hand hem, and 
to make the button-holes in this. It must of 
course be a little narrower, so as to be out of 
sight when the garment is worn. Or, if pre- 
ferred, the hem of the front itself may be nar- 
rowed a little and receive the button-holes, and 
a strip of linen, stitched on outside, conceals 
it, and represents the hem. In either case, any 
repair of the button-holes is thus concealed, or 
the whole strip may be renewed with but little 
trouble. 

SHOES. {See Boots and Shoes.) 

SHOWER-BATH. {See Bath.) 

SHRIMPS.— This lively little animal, of a 
shape somewhat resembling the lobster; is not 
much used for the table in this country, though 
when of good size they are sweet and well- 
flavored. Many are used in making dressings, 
sauces, etc. {See Sauces.) The Prawn or 
big Shrimp is much larger than the common 
shrimp, and more delicate. 

To shell shrimps or prawtis, though a most 
simple process, would appear, from the manner 
in which it is performed by many people, to be 
a very difficult one ; and indeed it is not un- 
usual for some who, from lack of a little skill, 
find it slow and irksome, to have recourse to 
the dangerous plan of eating the fish entire. 
It need scarcely be remarked that very serious 
consequences may result from the shells being 
swallowed with them, particularly when they 
are eaten in large quantities. Unless the 



SHRIMPS 



SICK-ROOM 



485 



slirimps are stale, when they are apt to break, 
they will quit their shells easily if the head be 
held firmly in the right hand and the tail in the 
other, and the fish be straightened out to the 
full length, then the two hands pressed quickly 
towards each other, and the shell of the tail 
broken by a slight vibratory motion of the right 
hand, when it will come off with the head ad- 
hering to it; a small portion only will then 
remain on the other end, which can be removed 
in an instant. 

Boiled Shrimps. — Throw them into plenty 
of fast boiling water to which salt has been 
added in the proportion of from five to six 
ounces to a gallon ; take off all the scum, and 
boil the shrimps five or six minutes, or less 
should they be very small. As ^oon as they 
are tender, drain them well in a cullender, and 
spread them out on a soft cloth to cool : or dish 
them on a napkin, and send them hot to table 
when they are liked so. Prawns are cooked in 
the same way, but must be boiled two minutes 
longer. 

Potted Shrimps. — Boil two quarts of shrimps 
in their shells, shell them quickly, and just be- 
fore they are put into the mortar, chop them a 
little with a very sharp knife ; pound them 
perfectly smooth with two to four ounces of 
butter, a small saltspoonful of mace, and one 
third of a saltspoonful of cayenne. Set the 
mixture in a cool place for three or four hours 
to harden before it is put into the potting-pans. 
If it is to be kept some time, pour lukewarm 
melted butter over the top. This is a delicious 
preparation. 

Stewred Shrimps. — Wash two quarts of 
shrimps well, and put them into a saucepan 
with four sliced onions, two sprigs of parsley, 
one of thyme, two cloves, salt and pepper ; add 
two ounces of butter, and half a pint of white 
wine, pour in just enough water to cover all, 
and set on a brisk fire ; stew till quite tender, 
drain, and serve warm. Garnish with green 
parsley. 

SICKNESS. {See Children, Convales- 
cence, Diet, Fever, Nursing, Sick-Room 
and each disease by name.) 

SICK-ROOM. The rooms in which the 
sick are nursed should be as capacious as pos- 
sible, because then the patient has more air to 
breathe, and it does not require renewal so 
often as the air in a small room does, and thus 
frequent exposure to draughts is avoided. A 
fair amount of ventilation is carried on by the 
door, windows, and fire-place (there should 
always be a fire-place if possible), but at least 
twice a day the windows should be opened so 
as to thoroughly change the air of the room. 
If the patient can leave the room for a short 
time, so as to allow of a free current of air, so 
much the better ; if not, the patient should be 
lightly covered over during the airing so as not 
to feel any draught, In cases of fevers and 
any contagious disorders, it is best to remove 
from the room all unnecessary articles, as cur- 
tains, hangings, carpets, etc., and let there be 
disinfectants about. {See Disinfectants.) 



In chronic cases, in all cases in fact where a 
contrary course is not ordered by the physic- 
ian, the sick-room should be made as cheerful 
as possible, and the amount of light should be 
regulated so as to please the patient ; in cold 
weather the fire should be kept nice and bright; 
and, when possible, flowers and plants should 
be placed in the room. A thermometer should 
be in the room so as to have the temperature 
properly regulated. 

The furniture of a sick-room should consist 
only of such articles as are really necessary. 
Bear in mind that wool holds smell and disease- 
germs much longer than cotton or linen, there- 
fore do not have woollen curtains. It is better, 
in fact, to have no curtains at all, but if the 
room seems bare and cheerless without them 
use light muslin, or something that may be 
washed easily. Have no woollen-covered sofa 
or chairs ; cane-bottomed or plain wood are 
preferable, and the floor is infinitely better with- 
out any carpet, except perhaps a narrow strip 
to walk upon just to prevent noise. In cases 
of accident or chronic diseases, the bed may be 
placed where the patient feels most comfortable, 
only in the former case it should be where there 
is a good light to see and dress the wound ; but 
in fever and small-pox let it be between the 
door and the fire-place. The reason for this is 
that there is a slight draught from the door to- 
ward the fire-place, which will insure pure air 
on the side of the bed next the door while the 
air contaminated by passing over the patient 
will be carried up the chimney. 

The bed should not be too high, or it will 
prove a source of discomfort to both patient 
and nurse. For the convenience of both, the 
height of the bed should be such as to admit of 
the patient's head, when he is sitting upj being 
on a level with the nurse's shoiflder as she 
stands beside him. It is also a disadvantage 
to have the bed too wide ; and if the bed be 
very wide, a good plan is to make a division 
down the middle with a board a few inches high 
covered with the under bed-clothes. This not 
only prevents the invalid from slipping away 
when he is lifted, but answers the purpose in 
some degree of two beds. As to the bed itself, 
the best is the hair, or prepared spring mat- 
tress, and the worst is one made of feathers. 
A good and cheap mattress can be made from 
cornhusks ; even clean straw or chaff is better 
than feathers. Wadded quilts or comforters 
are very objectionable, on account of the diffi- 
culty of cleansing them properly ; and especial- 
ly when they are wadded with cotton. 

The bed-clothes should be changed as fre- 
quently as possible. To change the bed-clothes 
when the patient is unable to sit up, place him 
on one side of the bed, then roll up the sheet 
lengthwise to the centre ; and having previous- 
ly prepared the clean sheet by rolling it in the 
same way to the middle, (lengthwise, of course,) 
spread the part left unrolled over the half of 
the bed, bringing the roll of the clean sheet 
close to the roll of the soiled one ; now lift the 
patient over on to the clean sheet, pull out the 



486 



SILK 



SILVER- WARE 



soiled one, and unroll the clean one, and the 
thing is done. When it is desirable to keep 
the head cool, a pillow made of hair, prepared 
sponge, or oat chaff, is very much to be pre- 
preferred to a feather one. 

Foul gas is generated by burning a kero- 
sene lamp all night. This can be remedied 
by the following simple arrangement: Take a 
raisin, or any other box that will contain the 
lamp when set up on end. Place the lamp in 
the box, outside the window, with the open 
side facing the room. When there are blinds, 
the box can be attached to each by leaving 
them a little open and fastening with a cord : 
or the lamp-box can be nailed to the window- 
casing in a permanent manner. The lamp burns 
quite as well outside, and a decided improve- 
ment in the air of the room will be the result. 
{See Hot-Water Bag, Ice-Bag, Nursing 
AND Sponge Poultice.) 

SILK. — The manufacture of silk which was 
first practised by the Chinese has now spread 
over a great part of the world, though France 
and Italy are the only European countries in 
which the silk-worm, which furnishes the raw 
material, seems to thrive. In California the 
Qulture of the silk-worm has succeeded admir- 
ably, and promises to become one of the lead- 
ing industries ; and as good plain silks, especial- 
ly black, are now manufactured in the United 
States as in either France or England. For 
the richest silks, however, especially in fancy 
colors and patterns the looms of Lyons are un- 
equalled. The English black silks of the high- 
er grades are equal to the French in appearance 
and are considered more durable. 

Figured silks do not generally wear well if 
the figure be large and satin-like. Black and 
plain-colored silks can be tested by procuring 
samples and making creases in them ; fold the 
creases in a bunch and rub them against the 
rough surface of the carpet or a rep-covered 
chair. Those which are poor soon wear off at 
the creases. Silk intended for dress should 
not be kept long in the house before it is 
made up, as lying in the folds will have a tend- 
ency to impair its durability by causing it to 
cut or split, especially if the silk has been 
thickened with gum. Hard silk should never 
be wrinkled, as the thread is liable to break in 
the crease and it can never be rectified. {See 
Floss.) 

Keeping Silk, — Silk articles should not be 
kept in white paper, as the chloride of lime 
used in bleaching the paper will probably im- 
pair the color of the silk. Brown or blue paper 
is better, and the yellowish smooth Indian 
paper is best of all. 

Renovating Old Silks. — In making over 
black silk dresses, etc., the following is an ex- 
cellent mode of cleansing : — Rub each breadth 
carefully with a woollen cloth to get the dust 
from the surface, then sponge it all off with 
water in which one or two black kid gloves have 
been boiled, a quart of water for a pair of 
gloves ; iron while wet, with extremely hot 
irons, on the wrong side. For colored silks. 



the same colored gloves to be boiled ; for this 
purpose it is well to save old kid gloves of all 
colors. Another mode is the same process of 
rubbing off the dirt with a woolen rag ; then 
mix an equal quantity of strong tea and vinegar, 
with which the silk is washed by rubbing it 
with a piece of flannel. It must be made very 
wet. Smooth the silk carefully, folding it, and 
in about fifteen minutes iron it on the wrong 
side with very hot irons. This applies only to 
black silks, black ribbons, cravats, etc., but might 
be injurious to colors. 

To Clean Silk. — Grate raw potatoes, washed 
and peeled, to a fine pulp ; add water in the 
proportion of a pint to a pound of potatoes ; 
pass the liquid through a coarse sieve into a 
vessel, where it is to remain till the fine white 
starch subsides to the bottom. Pour off the 
clear mucilaginous liquor, which is to be used 
for cleaning. To perform this process, spread 
the article to be cleaned upon a table, which 
should be covered with a linen cloth ; dip a 
sponge in the potato liquor, and apply it till the 
dirt is removed ; then wash the silk in clean 
water several times. Some use the whole of 
the pulp and water for the scouring; and others 
slice the potatoes, and rub them on the stuff as 
if it were soap. 

Grease-spots may be removed as follows : — 
To two ounces of spirits of wine add one ounce 
of French chalk and live ounces of pipe-clay, 
both finely powdered ; make up the mixture 
into a paste, roll it into pipes, and let it dry. 
Apply it by rubbing it on the spot of grease, 
slightly moistened, and then brushing it off, till 
the grease is all absorbed. 

Wrinkles, to Remove. — An excellent way to 
take the wrinkles out of silk scarves and hand- 
kerchiefs is to moisten the surface evenly with 
a spoon and some wheat glue, and then pin the 
silk, with some toilet pins, around the shelves 
or on a mattress or feather bed, taking pains to 
draw out the silk as smooth as possible. When 
dry, the wrinkles will have disappeared. Some 
silk articles may be moistened with weak glue 
or gum water, and the wrinkles ironed out with 
a hot flat-iron on the wrong side. 
SILLABUB. {See Syllabub.) 
SILVER-WARE.— The beauty of silver 
and its great durability cause it to be used for 
many articles of household furniture. The 
great progress which has been made in recent 
years in the art of silver-plating, it is true, has 
done away to a considerable extent with the 
solid table services which were once the pride 
of the household ; but spoons, forks, ladles, etc., 
are still in the great majority of cases made of 
the solid metal. The absence of any general 
law for assaying the precious metals in this 
country is felt and regretted both by respect- 
able vendors and purchasers of plate. The 
stamps usually found upon articles of silver or 
gold are nothing more than the initials or trade^ 
mark of the manufacturer, and his integrity is 
the only guarantee of the purity of the metal. 
Nor do the stamps upon silver-plate give any 
indication of the relative quality of the metal ; 



SILVER-WARE 



SITZ-BATH 



487 



all degrees of alloyed metal being stamped 
alike. The only safety of the purchaser lies 
in selecting a manufacturer whose reputation 
is a guarantee against wilful deception. 

To clean Silver-ware. — When the plate is 
only slightly soiled, a good plan is to put it into 
a large saucepan of cold water, with a lump of 
whiting and some shavings of yellow soap to 
make a good lather ; then boil it half an hour, 
rinse it in cold water, rub it with a soft cloth, 
and afterwards with a piece of chamois-skin. 
This prevents the rubbing off of the dead frost- 
work from the chasing, in removing tarnished 
spots. No plate-powder or rubbing will remove 
scratches, caused by the careless mixture of 
spoons and forks with the knives after using 
them. It is therefore of the greatest impor- 
tance to keep the silver in a tray by itself, and 
to wash it in soap and water immediately after 
it has been used, finishing with clean water, and 
rubbing it dry with a wash-leather. VVhen 
treated in this way, plate requires very little 
powder of any kind to renew its polish, and it 
is only for ill-used and scratched silver that the 
various and much-vaunted plate-powders are 
required. All those which are composed of 
chalk in any shape, or ammonia, are innocent, 
whilst the presence of mercury, as indicated by 
the slight tinge of a slate-blue color in the 
powder, is exceedingly prejudicial. Servants 
are very fond of these mercurial preparations, 
because they act quickly, and give a good polish 
after cleaning ; but this soon tarnishes, because 
a certain portion of the amalgam made with the 
silver and mercury is left on the surface of the 
former, and the consequence is that it tarnishes 
by oxidation on exposure to the air. Gas and 
sulphurous coals are very apt to blacken silver, 
the former from not being completely purified 
from sulphureted hydrogen, and the latter from 
causing its presence in large volume. To re- 
move this deep stain, or that caused by long 
exposure to the air, requires something more 
than mere chalk, and the jewellers use an oxide 
of iron called rouge ^ which is an innocent prep- 
aration, being prepared by the precipitation of 
sulphate of iron by carbonate of potash, and 
then exposing the dried powder to a high heat. 
The leathers which are employed are the wash- 
leathers of the shops, and they should be wash- 
ed occasionally when they become greasy and 
blackened with the oxide. A piece of soft 
chamois-skin is as good as anything else, but it 
is spoiled by wetting, and should only be used 
in polishing. 

Plate-Powder. — Take one pound of the best 
whiting, or of prepared chalk, and rub it to a 
fine powder. Then sift it. Mix together four 
ounces of spirits of turpentine, two ounces of 
spirits of wine, one ounce of spirits of camphor, 
and half an ounce of spirits of hartshorn. 
Then add the whiting gradually to the liquid, 
stirring in a little at a time, and mixing the 
whole thoroughly till it is of the consistence of 
cream ; put it into a very close vessel (a large 
bottle or a white jar), and cork it tightly, tying 
down a leather over the cork. To use the mix- 



ture, stir it up, pour out a sufficient portion 
into a bowl, and with a soft clean sponge cover 
the silver with it so as to give it. a coat like 
whitewash. Set the silver aside for ten minutes, 
till the paste has dried. Brush it off, and 
polish first with a buckskin, then with a silk 
handkerchief. It will be found very convenient 
to keep this mixture always in the house. 

Water in which Irish potatoes have been 
boiled has a remarkable cleansing influence on 
silverware of all kinds, especially spoons that 
have become blackened by eggs. Delicately 
chased and engraved articles can be made 
bright by this method even better than by the 
use of polishing-powder, which is apt to settle 
in the depressions, requiring particular care in 
its removal. The water should be strained 
(unless the potatoes were washed before being 
put into it) and the articles washed in it. 

SILVER-PLATING. {See Plate.) 

SINKS. — Every kitchen should have a sink. 
It should be placed in a good light. The water 
pipe should pass below into a drain, in which 
there should be a stench-trap to prevent any 
bad smells rising. Porous stone is a bad ma- 
terial for sinks; the best is either wood lined 
with lead, glazed stone-ware, or stone. When 
of iron, the inside should be painted and a fresh 
coat given now and then. The drain should 
deliver at a distance from the house, and 
should be ventilated by having suitable means 
for the admission of air at its mouth, and a pipe 
at least four inches in diameter rising from the 
end nearest the house to a point that will se- 
cure a good draught, and that is not under a 
window. {See Drainage and House.) 

SIRUP. {See Syrup.) 

SITZ-BATH.— This is a form of the bath 
much used in the hydropathic practice and rec- 
ognized as beneficial in certain cases by the 
regular physicians. The tub for the sitz-bath 
should be just large enough to sit in with com- 
fort ; the patient sits in this, with the feet rest- 
ing on the floor, from eight to forty minutes, 
according to the severity of his disease, and 




Sitz-Bath. 



sometimes as often as three times a day. The 
sitz-bath is unquestionably a powerful remedy 
in certain disorders of the head and abdomen. 
It draws the bad humors from the head, 



488 



SKATE 



SKIRTS 



strengthens the digestive organs, and braces 
the entire system. Only a small quantity of 
water is used generally, and thus soon becomes 
warm. It is not advisable to take the bath 
except under medical advice. 

SKATE. — The smooth skate is a variety of 
the Ray, and is even less often in market. It 
is a large fish with a smooth back, a stout tail, 




three rows of short stiff fins, one over each 
side and the other on top of the tail. For 
Cooking, see Ray. 

SKELETON, The Human. — The skeleton 
of a full grown human being consists of 200 
distinct bones, exclusive of "the little bones in 
the internal ear. They are thus distributed: — 

The spine 26 bones. 

Skull 8 " 

Face 14 " 

Ribs and breast-bone 26 " 

Upper extremity ... ^ ... 64 " 

Lower extremity 62 " 

These bones are divided into four classes, 
known as Long, Short, Flat and Irregular. 

The long bones are those which exist in the 
limbs, and are employed in locomotion ; their 
characteristics are, that they consist of a shaft 
and two articular extremities, these extremi- 
ties being covered with what is termed articu- 
lar cartilage, and being capable of mutual 
movement upon each other by one or another 
form of joint, the gliding movements of such 
joints being assisted by the presence of bags 
containing joint oil [Synovia), which is placed 
between these articular cartilages. The shaft of 
a long bone is cylindrical, or nearly so, and its 
extremities ire expanded. The shaft consists of 
compact tissue, whilst the extremities are com- 
posed of spongy, having a thin layer of compact 
tissue coated over them. The long bones 
are the cubit, the two bones of the fore-arm, 
the thigh bone, the shin and splint bones, the 
bones of the fingers and toes, and the collar- 
bone. 

Short Bones. These are compact, strong 
bones, having several articular surfaces for 
mutual adaptation, and are found in those 
parts of the body where strength and limited 
motion are required, such as in the wrist, 
bones of ankle, and instep. They consist of 
spongy tissue, with a coating of compact struc- 
ture. 

Flat Bones. These bones afford broad, flat 
surfaces for the attachment of muscles, and for 
the protection of cavities ; they consist of two 



layers of compact tissue, containing a layer of 
spongy between them. They are the skull 
bones, blade bones, haunch bones, breast bones 
and ribs. 

Irregular Bones are those which, as their 
names would suggest, cannot be grouped with 
the previously named, such as the bones of the 
spine, jaw bones, and several of those bones 
which make up the skull. 

The natural position of the human skele- 
ton is erect, and this is in great measure due to 
combined muscular action. The natural archi- 
tecture of the skeleton adjusts its own centre of 
gravity. All those joints which transmit weight 
to the ground, lie in one vertical plane, and 
such a line would be described as passing from 
the top of the head, through the joints, between 
the head and first bone of the spine, through 
that between the last bone of the vertebras and 
the sacrum, and through those between the 
sacrum and haunch bone, the hip, knee, and 
ankle. The spine, consisting of a great number 
of bones, peculiarly articulated together by 
interposed elastic cushions, increases in size 
from above downwards, and, moreover, pos- 
sesses several well-marked curves. The ob- 
ject of these cushions and curves is to receive 
the shock of sudden blows and falls, and to 
disperse their effects ; again the curves are 
arranged alternately, so as to distribute the 
weight with greatest advantage to the centre 
of gravity of the body, which passes through 
all the curves, and falls on the centre of the 
base of the column. It will be observed that 
all the bones of the limbs are slighdy curved, 
thus assisting in the individual and mutual 
transmission of shock. The pelvis (sacrum 
and haunch bones) is very broad and strong in 
man, and the plane of its arch is in such a di- 
rection that the weight is transmitted vertically 
from the sacrum to the heads of the thigh bones. 
The thigh bone being curved inwards, allows 
of the weight of the body being brought under 
the pelvis, and transmitted to the broad ex- 
panded ends of the bones forming the knee 
joint. The foot, in its turn, consists of an arch, 
or rather double arch, which receives the trans- 
mitted weight, at its crown, directly through the 
leg bones. Thus it will be seen that the upper 
limbs take no part in the maintenance of this 
natural upright condition. 

SKEWERS. — Small pins of wood or iron 
for fastening meat to a spit, or for keeping it in 
shape while roasting Those designed for use 
in this way are perfectly plain ; but some are 
made m very ornamental shapes, and are used 
to decorate different joints when sent to table. 
These should be removed just before carving. 

SKIRTS. — .A dress is composed of a waist 
and skirt, but in respect to the latter, fashions 
vary so much that it is impossible to give any 
fixed rule for the quantity of material needful 
or the number of breadths required. The ac- 
companying figure represents the manner in 
which a breadth is gored, and it is now (1875) 
customary to use one straight breadth in the 
back, two gores on each side (the straight side 



SKIRTS 



SLEEP 



489 



of the gore nearest the front of the skirt in all 
cases,) and a front breadth sloped on the sides. 
With 24 or 27 inch material, this makes the 



strciiglit IreadtK 




Fig. I. 

breadth of the skirt about four yards, which is 
a fair average width. 

The breadths being cut out and laid together 
require to be all rounded a little, at the bottom 
and at the top, the front and first gores on 
either side, to make the skirt hang evenly. A 
facing of suitable depth, 12 inches or therea- 
bouts, should be cut by each breadth and tacked 
to it before the breadths are run up, leaving one 
edge of the facing free on each side, to be 
hemmed down afterwards in order to cover the 
raw edges. This facing is cut the other way 
of the material, as it hangs better and is less 
likely to sag. 

The skirt thus prepared should be bordered 
by a worsted braid (or if the dress is silk, a 
silk braid is sometimes used,) which has been 
thoroughly wet and dried to secure it from 
shrinking after it is put on. This braid may 
be bound on, or faced on, leaving one edge to 
come in sight below the edge of the dress. 

A band should be prepared of strong mate- 
rial, or a broad linen tape, for the waist. The 
skirt is marked in the middle of the front and 
at the back, and the band marked to corre- 
spond. The skirt is then arranged for sewing 
on, but it is useless to give minute rules for 
this, since fashion constantly varies in respect 
to the distribution of fulness. 



In the trimming of the skirt the greatest 
variety prevails ; crosswise bands or folds, 
gathered and plaited ruffles, and flounces are 
the principal styles, and in many cases these 
are all combined upon one skirt. 

For gathered ruffles a quarter of a yard extra 
is allowed to every yard, for the fulness. 
In plaitings which touch each other's edges, 
whether box-plaiting, kilt, or knife-plaiting, 
three times the length around the skirt must 
be allowed. In all plaitings, however, this 
amount may be scanted by leaving more or less 
plain space between the plaits. 

Flounces and ruffles are frequently, and folds 
are always, cut on the bias, and much care 
should be taken to cut exactly on the bias ; 
this is found by folding the material over cross- 
wise until the woof, the thread that crosses the 
material, lies exactly upon the selvage. 

SLAP-JACKS.— This is the name com- 
monly given to what are properly speaking flap- 
jacks. To make, scald a quart of Indian meal 
with enough boiling water to make a thin batter ; 
when lukewarm, stir it well, and add half a pint 
of water, half a teacupful of yeast, and a little 
salt ; set it away to rise, and when light fry 
them in just fat enough to prevent their stick- 
ing to the frying-pan. 

Another method of making them, which is 
very nice, is to turn boiling milk or water on 
the Indian meal, in the proportion of a quart 
of the former to a pint of the latter ; stir in 
three tablespoonfuls of flour, three eggs well 
beaten, and a couple of teaspoonfuls of salt. 
Make into a light batter and fry as above. 

SLA"W. (Cold.)— Cut a head of fine white 
cabbage into shreds ; dissolve, in a teacupful of 
vinegar, two teaspoonfuls of sugar and a tea- 
spoonful of salt ; add a little pepper, and pour 
the mixture over the cabbage. More vinegar 
may be added if this does not make the slaw 
sour enough. 

Hot Slaw. — Cut the cabbage into fine 
shreds, and boil it in clear water until it is per- 
fectly tender, allowing so little water that when 
the cabbage is cooked sufficiently there will be 
scarcely any left in the stewpan. Just before 
dishing, add a teacupful of sharp vinegar, half a 
tablespoonful of butter, a little salt, and a dust 
of pepper ; turn into a deep dish and cover close. 

Or, shred the cabbage and put it into a deep 
dish. To a teacupful of vinegar, add a table- 
spoonful of sugar, a tablespoonful of butter, 
half a teaspoonful of salt, and a dust of pepper ; 
put them over the fire, let them boil a few min- 
utes, and turn the mixture scalding hot over 
the cabbage ; set it aside and let it become per- 
fectly cold before serving. 

SLEEP. — Sleep is as necessary to existence 
as food, and yet sleep is in fact a partial sus- 
pension of some of the functions of life itself, 
all of which are performed with intermissions. 
It is the essential condition of the repose and 
repair of those nervous centres upon which in- 
cessant demands are made during every mo- 
ment of our waking life ; and without it these 
nervous centres would soon cease to perform 



490 



SLEEP 



their functions and either death or insanity 
would result. The immediate cause of sleep — 
that is, the mechanism in the body by which it 
is produced — was until recently quite misunder- 
stood. It was formerly supposed that pressure 
on the brain afforded the explanation. Most 
writers on the subject have adopted this view, 
and some of the facts by which it is supported 
are very striking. Apoplexy is caused either 
by unnatural fulness of the vessels of the brain, 
or by the rupture of a vessel which allows the 
escape of blood, and in either case pressure on 
the organ is established. This affliction is 
attended by drowsiness or complete uncon- 
sciousness, according to the degree of pressure 
thus exerted. From this fact it was inferred 
that sleep is caused by accumulation of blood 
in the head ; and in support of this view certain 
other facts have been advanced, such as that 
full-blooded people are usually the best sleepers, 
and that the recumbent posture, which promotes 
the flow of blood to the brain, induces sleep- 
Many instances have occurred in which a por. 
tion of the brain has been laid bare by accident, 
or as a curative measure ; and in all cases of 
this sort it was found that consciousness can be 
instantly suppressed by pressure upon the 
brain. This also was supposed to give strong 
confirmation to the pressure theory of sleep. 
But there is a wide difference between stupor 
and sleep ; the one is a result of diseased action, 
and it is difficult or impossible to rouse the per- 
son from it, while the other is a natural state 
from which he is easily aroused. 

It has now been determined that so far from 
containing more blood than usual, the brain 
during sleep contains much less blood. We 
are told on very high authority that " the blood 
is the life " of the body, and the tendency of 
modern physiology is 'to regard the blood as 
the origin of all force, and of all the functions 
of the system. Now when the circulation in 
the brain is diminished, it becomes deprived of 
the proper stimulus by which its state of activity 
is maintained : its vitality, in fact, becomes 
lowered, and it sinks into a state of quies- 
cence. It then obtains rest, which during our 
waking hours it never has for a single instant ; 
and it is doubtless during sleep that the waste 
which the brain has previously undergone is 
repaired, and the injuries inflicted upon it by 
over-exertion made good. For it must be borne 
in mind that every act of hfe, whether it be the 
wielding of an axe, or the action of the brain in 
conceiving a thought — or of the tongue in ex- 
pressing it, is accompanied by waste. 

In perfect sleep there is no consciousness ; 
it is a temporary death as far as concerns all 
action and motion which lie under the power of 
the will. Dreams generally occur when sleep 
is unsound, and are, in fact, an indication that 
it is unsound. The affection called nightmare 
is in certain respects different from ordinary 
dreaming. While the imagination and the 
memory are in full activity, the power of the 
will is either absent or greatly impaired. In ad- 
dition to this the function of respiration is much 



impeded ; and out of this, in some shape or 
other, a horrible association of ideas usually 
springs. Nightmare, in fact, furnishes some of 
the most distressing sensations that can be ex- 
perienced ; all the store of horrors which the 
mind has accumulated or conceived seem to 
come up at its call, and from these whatever is 
most disgusting or appalling is selected and 
moulded into torturing shapes. Indigestion is 
unquestionably the chief cause of nightmare, 
as well as of dreaming. Any one whose di- 
gestion is not strong may almost infallibly bring 
it on by taking, without appetite, a late heavy 
supper. The disorder also plagues people who 
are asthmatic. The cure of nightmare, uncon- 
nected with organic disease, consists in avoiding 
late suppers, attention to diet in general, plenty 
of fresh air, and healthful exercise. 

The approach of sleep is generally heralded 
by a feeling of langour and heaviness, during 
which we see some of the unobserved functions 
of the nervous system make themselves appar- 
ent. Thus, first of all, the eyelids droop — we 
are not aware of any strain in keeping them 
open, yet the moment our attention, involuntary 
though it be, is taken off, they gradually sink. 
So, too, the head, ordinarily held erect, falls for- 
ward, and the limbs fall unconsciously into the 
easiest posture. Even if the individual lies 
down, it will be noticed that as sleep comes on 
a different posture is assumed, one which allows 
of relaxation of all his limbs and all his muscles. 
The respiration, too, is slower, gentler, and more 
prolonged, — it is carried out with the least 
amount of work, and the same may be said of 
the heart. Waking, probably, depends on the 
return of blood to the brain in obedience to the 
stimulus given by one or more of the senses, as 
light, noise, or touch. Habit, too, has a strong 
effect. 

The proper duration of sleep cannot be abso- 
lutely fixed. Some men require much more 
than others; and age, the amount of work per- 
formed during the day, whether physical or 
mental, and other circumstances, regulate the 
demands of the system. Infants sleep the 
greater part of the time — children require more 
than adults, and as a rule, the middle-aged more 
than the old. In the dotage of old age, how- 
ever, as if to complete the parallel between the 
first and second childhood, sleep again claims 
a great part of the time. " Perhaps," says Dr. 
Hinton, from whose excellent work on physi- 
ology the substance of the present article was 
taken, " no better division of time can be made 
than that of Alfred the Great. He assigned 
eight out of the twenty-four hours to work, 
eight to amusement, and eight to sleep. The 
demands of modern life in most instances sadly 
disturb such-a relation between work and play ; 
but the period he assigned for sleep seems to 
accord with the general experience. Less than 
eight hours' sleep is sufficient for most men 
and women when in health, and more is un- 
necessary or even injurious. In this matter, 
however, there are exceptions. Jeremy Taylor 
trained himself to exist on three hours' sleep 



SLEEPLESSNESS 



491 



out of the twenty-four. Frederick the Great 
and John Hunter slept only four or five hours 
in the same time. Wesley lays down the pro- 
per duration of sleep at six hours, and Lord 
Coke at seven." 

The hour of going to bed must of course de- 
pend on the habits of the individual. Persons 
who get up early should go to bed early, and 
vice versa. Much has been written in praise 
of early rising, and with some truth ; there is 
an undoubted relation between sleep and night, 
when, with few exceptions, all animated nature 
reposes. It is also a good, though not an in- 
dispensable, rule of health to retire to rest 
early ; the real point being to obtain, sooner or 
later, the requisite eight hours' sleep. 

For refreshing sleep, it is essential that the 
bedroom be well ventilated, and those who ac- 
custom themselves to sleeping with the windows 
open find the practice of great value. The bed 
should be in the middle of the room, not in a 
corner, and no curtain of any kind should sur- 
round it. No greater domestic improvement 
has been effected than the substitution of hair 
mattresses for feather-beds. Perspiration is 
more active during sleep than when we are 
awake, and it is unduly encouraged by the 
sinking of the body in a soft bed, which also 
enervates the entire system. The open state 
of the pores of the skin makes sleeping in the 
open air hazardous ; but the belief that moon- 
beams exercise a peculiarly noxious influence 
on a sleeper who is exposed to them is un- 
founded. Most people sleep best on the right 
side ; the chief reason of this is that the heart 
lies toward the left side, and when a person 
lies on the right side, greater freedom is given 
to its motions. It is somewhat strange that 
such opposite conditions as great heat and great 
cold should equally be the cause of sleep, while 
a moderate degree of cold keeps a person 
awake. As for the last, it seems to act simply 
as an uneasy sensation would do in preventing 
sleep. Extreme cold causes the blood to ac- 
cumulate in the internal organs, including the 
brain, because it is driven from the surface by 
contraction of the superficial blood-vessels ; 
the result of this is not sleep, but stupor. The 
effect of great heat, on the contrary, is to in- 
crease the amount of blood circulating in the 
superficial parts and in the extremities of the 
body ; which causes a lessened flow of blood 
through the brain, followed by sleep. 

SLEEPLESSNESS.— The effects of pro- 
tracted wakefulness {Insojnnid) sooner or later 
show themselves on the strongest constitution. 
The person becomes gloomy, irritable, and peev- 
ish ; the memory is defective and the thoughts 
confused. Perhaps the most terrible punishment 
which Chinese ingenuity has devised is pro- 
longed loss of sleep. In some instances it pre- 
cedes, and even seems to. be the cause of in- 
sanity ; and under all circumstances it is one of 
the most troublesome affections with which one 
can be called upon to deal. In the preceding ar- 
ticle we have treated at length of the causes and 
conditions of sleep, and it will be necessary to 



read that carefully in order to understand what 
we now have to say about sleeplessness. 

The simplest form of wakefulness is that 
which is produced by a violation of one or more 
of the conditions appropriate to sleep. Thus, 
a bright light in the room, an unusual noise, or 
an Uncomfortable bed, suffice to keep most per- 
sons awake. An excess of the very causes 
which induce sleep also commonly prevents it. 
Over-fatigue is usually followed by wakeful- 
ness ; and, such is the effect of habit, some 
persons are unable to sleep if they remain out of 
bed beyond their usual time of retiring to rest; 
or, on the other hand, if they go to bed unusu- 
ally early. When the brain has been once 
stimulated to activity, it requires some time 
before the circulation of blood through it re- 
gains the balance which is maintained in the 
waking state ; when this balance is regained, 
most persons easily fall asleep if other circum- 
stances are favorable. Many people, indeed, 
possess the faculty of sleeping at will by merely 
closing the eyes and otherwise shutting out ex- 
ternal impressions. A great many persons, on 
the other hand, and particularly those of a ner- 
V'ous temperament, sleep with difficulty, and 
some may be said to obtain it only by strata- 
gem. Any intellectual effort immediately be- 
fore going to bed is sure to be followed in such 
cases by a restless night. Nothing banishes 
sleep more effectually than pain ; patients suf- 
fering from neuralgia have been almost sleep- 
less for months. Coldness of the feet is a 
very common cause of wakefulness. A sen- 
sation of dry burning in the soles of the feet and 
palms of the hands, to which some people are 
liable, and which also accompanies certain dis- 
eases, is another cause ; sponging the parts 
with vinegar and water relieves this affection. 
Of all the numerous causes of wakefulness 
however, indigestion is the most common. Any- 
thing which acts as an irritant to the stomach 
is apt to irritate the brain by means of the 
close union which exists between these organs 
through the medium of the nerves. On the 
other hand, that kind of exhaustion which re- 
sults from want of food frequently prevents 
sleep ; if, for instance, a person accustomed to 
dine late happens to dine early, and goes to 
bed without any substantial refreshment, he is 
very liable to find himself utterly sleepless. 
This kind of sleeplessness is apt to be very 
persistent, because the exhaustion increases in 
proportion to the time during which the person 
remains awake. In such a condition a sand- 
wich and a glass of wine or ale act better and 
more speedily than an opiate ; no sooner has 
food been taken than a glow of comfort and a 
tendency to repose succeed, and the person 
soon falls into refreshing sleep. Another cause 
of sleeplessness, little recognized, is taking 
stimulating drinks; those who indulge freely 
at night are apt to awaken very early in the 
morning and remain long sleepless. Tea and 
coffee also have a tendency to produce wake- 
fulness ; and opium, belladonna, and Indian 
hemp, or hashish, in small doses, have the 



492 



SLEEPLESSNESS 



SMALL-POX 



same effect. There are good reasons for be- 
lieving that all these articles act alike, in at 
least one respect, namely, by increasing the 
circulation of blood in the brain. 

In order to promote sleep when it is want- 
ing, it is of course necessary in the first place 
to remove every exciting cause of wakefulness. 
It is usually essential to give up the use of 
tea and coffee, and, as has been said, it is 
sometirrves necessary to leave off taking stimu- 
lants. The person should be careful not to go 
to bed either with cold feet, or with a stomach 
that has been either long empty or recently 
filled. Many devices for inducing somnolence 
have been practiced with more or less success ; 
one of these is combing the hair, which has a 
very soothing effect on some persons. An- 
other is to have the feet gently shampooed. 
Walking about the bedroom in one's night- 
dress, so as to get what Dr. Franklin called an 
air bath, is a good plan ; and the cold water 
bath, just before retiring to rest, by virtue of 
its stimulating action, is often successful. In 
more refractory cases the warm bath may be 
tried — it acts by withdrawing the blood from 
the brain. On the same principle, the upright 
position, by favoring the return of blood from 
the head, is sometimes useful. Sufficient out- 
door exercise should in every case be taken, 
and those who are strong enough should carry 
it to the point of fatigue. One of the most 
effectual modes of dealing with that common 
form of wakefulness which results from over- 
action of the brain is to force upon the atten- 
tion some monotonous train of thought, and to 
tire the brain by its constant repetition. Read- 
ing a dull book sometimes answers ; or repeat- 
ing short verses over and over again, or count- 
ing backwards. Monotonous sounds act in 
the same way. Boerhaave ordered for a sleep- 
less patient that water should be so arranged 
as to drop constantly on a metal pan. The 
whole chance of success lies in compelling the 
mind by a strong effort of the will to give up 
the train of ideas by which it has been occu- 
pied, and to take up the less interesting and 
more simple ideas presented to it. 

Some years ago a curious plan of procuring 
sleep by this means was announced as a great 
discovery by a Mr Gardner; and testimonials 
as to its efficacy were given by the late Prince 
Albert, Sir Fowell Buxton, Sheridan Knowles, 
and other men of eminence. This plan, the 
secret of which was bought by Mr. Binus, and 
published in his " Anatomy of Sleep," was as 
follows : The person who, after going to bed, 
finds himself wakeful, is to He on his right 
side, with his head comfortably placed on the 
pillow, having the neck straight, so that respi- 
ration may be unimoeded. Let him then close 
his lips slightly, and take a rather full inspira- 
tion, breathing through the nostrils, unless 
breathing through the mouth is habitual. Hav- 
ing taken the full inspiration, the lungs are to 
be left to their own action, that is, expiration is 
not to be interfered with. Attention must now 
be fixed upon the respiration. The person 



must imagine that he sees the breath passing 
from his nostrils in a continuous stream, and at 
the instant that he brings his mind to conceive 
this apart from all other ideas, consciousness 
leaves him, and he falls asleep. Sometimes it 
happens that the method does not at once suc- 
ceed. It should then be persevered in. Let 
the person take thirty or forty full inspirations, 
and proceed as before; but he must by no 
means attempt to count the respiratory acts, for 
if he does the mere counting will keep him 
awake. The plan is at all events safe, and can 
easily be tested. 

In many cases of prolonged sleeplessness, 
opium and other narcotics are of great use, not 
only by procuring forced repose, but by break- 
ing through the habit of not sleeping into 
which the system has fallen. But no one should 
venture upon the use of such remedies except 
under medical advice. 

SMAIjL-POX.-This is a febrile, eruptive, and 
contagious disorder, which in past times caused 
a frightful mortality, but in recent times has 
been brought largely under control by the dis- 
covery of vaccination. The most common va- 
rieties are: — the disc7-eie, in which the pustules 
are distinct; the coiifltiejit, in which the pus- 
tules run together; the malignant, which is 
often associated with purpura and an eruption 
resembling measles — a very dangerous form; 
the tnodijied, which comes on in those partially 
protected by vaccination, and is a kind that 
runs a very mild course. In cases of small-pox 
there is: — i. The stage of incubation, which 
lasts twelve days from the date of receiving 
the poison. 2. The stage of eruptive fever 
and invasion, lasting forty-eight hours. 3. The 
stage of maturation, wherein the rash is fully 
developed, lasting about nine days. 4. The 
stage of secondary fever or decline, lasting a 
variable time, according to the severity of the 
disease. Discrete small-pox is the simplest 
form of the disease, and is rarely attended with 
danger to human life ; confluent small-pox de- 
stroys the greatest number of lives, and may 
prove fatal to as many as 50 per cent. In the 
distinct or discrete form, the primary fever is 
less intense than, in the confluent form ; in the 
latter, there is often delirium, and more espec- 
ially in those who are intemperate in their 
habits. 

The malignant variety is terribly fatal ; the 
blood seems profoundly poisoned from the first, 
and is more fluid than usual ; bleeding from 
the mouth, nose and bowels is not uncommon : 
in women, there is also bleeding from the 
womb, and if they are pregnant abortion may 
ensue. In modified small-pox, the patient is 
often able to go about the whole time, and the 
rash may suddenly decline in the fourth or fifth 
day, and recovery follow. 

The symptoms, when small-pox first comes 
on, are fever, pains in the limbs and back, head- 
ache, vomiting, and pain on pressing the pit 
of the stomach. On the third day, small red 
spots appear on the face and head ; these 
gradually rise and enlarge, the eruption spreads 



SMELLING-SALTS 



SNAKE-BITES 



493 



over the whole body, into the ears, eyes, nose, 
mouth, and throat. The hands, feet, and face 
swell, there is great difficulty in swallowing; by 
the eighth day the face is a mass of pocks. 
In severe cases the eyes are often seriously 
affected and the sight sometimes lost. On the 
eleventh day the sores discharge and form a 
dry crust, which gradually dries and falls off. 
This is the time when it so frequently proves 
fatal. In seventeen to twenty days the dis- 
ease may be said to have run its course. Small- 
pox may be mistaken for measles, but in the 
latter disease there is running at the eyes and 
nose, and sneezing, and the rash comes out 
about the fourth day ; it may also be mistaken 
for chicken-pox, but in this disease there is 
little or no fever, the rash comes out in twenty- 
four hours, is vesicular and not shotty, and 
more abundant on the body and not so much 
on the face and forehead. 

Treatment. — There is no medicine which 
can check this disorder; when once taken it 
must go through its regular stages, and noth- 
ing will either cut short or cure it. The pa- 
tient should be at once isolated. The diet 
should be light, consisting of milk, tea, gruel, 
beef-tea, chicken-broth, and the like. The hair 
should be cut close, as it is impossible to brush 
it after the pocks have risen. Great pains 
should be taken to ventilate the room well 
without having too much draught, and it should 
be kept at a temperature of about 60°. Scru- 
pulous cleanliness must be observed, and all 
linen, clothes, etc., must be disinfected after 
being used. {See Disinfectants.) Bed-cur- 
tains, carpets, and hangings of any kind must 
be dispensed with. Flour, starch, or hair- 
powder may be sprinkled abundantly over the 
face and body to relieve the itching and dis- 
comfort, and to absorb any acrid discharge. 
OHve oil, cold cream, and glycerine and water, 
will also relieve the patient when locally ap- 
plied. To prevent pitting, keep the light from 
the patient's face, either by covering it with 
a piece of something black — say silk — with 
holes cut in it for the mouth and nostrils ; or 
by keeping the room dark. Covering the face 
is better tlian darkening the room — it is more 
convenient for the attendants, and has a better 
effect upon the skin. The part of the body 
covered by the clothes is scarcely marked in 
comparison with the parts exposed — as the 
face and hands. Small-pox is dreadfully infect- 
ious ; no one, therefore, must be allowed to 
come in contact with anything which the patient 
has touched until it has been carefully disin- 
fected. After recovery, disinfect the sick-room 
according to the directions given under scarlet- 
fever. {See Vaccination.) 

SMELLING-SALTS.— This popular remedy 
for faintness, etc., is prepared as follows : Liquid 
ammonia, one gill ; otto of rosemary and Eng- 
lish lavender, a quarter of a dram each ; ber- 
gamot and cloves, eight drops each ; mix and 
shake together in a stoppered bottle. This 
mixture is used by filling the smeUing bottles 
with asbestos, or sponge-cuttings, and pouring 



it upon them ; take care not to put in more 
than the sponge will retain, else, when the bot- 
tle is inverted, the ammonia may run out and 
stain certain colored fabrics. 
SMELLS. {See Deodorizers.) 
SMELT. — A small, nearly transparent fish, 
very abundant from October to April. Fresh 
smelts have a smell resembling that of cucum- 
bers ; when stale they lose their pleasant odor, 
and also their usual flavor. They weigh from 
two to four ounces, and are eaten generally 
bones and all. 




Smelt. 

Baked Smelts.— Draw the smelts at the 
gills, wash and wipe them dry in a cloth ; pour 
some clarified butter into the dish in which 
they are to be sent to table, arrange them neatly 
in it ; strew over them as much salt, mace, and 
cayenne, mixed, as will season agreeably ; cover 
smoothly with a rather thick layer of very fine 
bread-crumbs, moisten them equally with clari- 
fied butter poured through a small strainer, 
and bake in a moderately quick oven until the 
crumbs are of a fine, light brown. A glass of 
sherry, half a teaspoonful of essence of ancho- 
vies, and a dessertspoonful of lemon-juice, may 
be poured into the dish before the smelts are 
laid in, and will improve them greatly. 

Fried Smelts. — Prepare as for baking ; dip 
into beaten egg-yolk, and then into the finest 
bread-crumbs, mixed with a very small quantity 
of flour ; fry to a clear light brown, and serve 
crisp and dry, with celery sauce, sauce tartare, 
or drawn butter. They may also be dipped into 
batter instead of bread-crumbs, or rolled in 
flour only. 

SMOKING CHIMNEYS. {See Chim- 
neys.) 

SMOKE-TREE. — This garden tree or shrub, 
also called the " purple fringe," presents a 
fine appearance from midsummer to autumn. 
It maybe planted in spring in any good garden 
soil, is perfectly hardy, and requires but little 
care. 

SNAKE-BITES.— The rattlesnake and the 
viper, or adder, are the only snakes in this coun- 
try whose bites are generally fatal. The more 
rapidly the symptoms of poison appear after 
the bite of a snake, the more dangerous it is 
likely to be. The two fangs of the reptile com- 
monly enter and produce two minute wounds, 
from which only one or two drops of blood rnay 
at first issue. A smarting, burning pain is im- 
mediately perceived, the part begins to swell, 
and a puffiness almost to bursting of the skin 
spreads in a short time over the whole limb; 
there is fever, often accompanied by delirium, 
slow pulse, pain in the region of the heart, and 
convulsions. These symptoms are attended 
with a feeling of anxiety and lassitude, laborious 



494 



SNIPE 



SOAP 



respiration, thirst, nausea, vomiting, and syn- 
cope. Death from the bite of a rattlesnake 
has been known to occur within a few hours. 
Even if the individual survive the first effects, 
the wounded part may become livid and gan- 
grenous ; and he may sink under the irritative 
fever which sets in. 

Treatment.— h^?, soon as the bite is received 
apply a ligature to the poisoned extremity as 
tightly as possible above the bite; suck out 
the wound by the mouth, if the mouth is free 
from wounds or sores, or with cupping glasses. 
Afterwards apply red-hot iron or strong caus- 
tic, as the fuming nitric acid, to the wound. If 
the limb swells from the ligature, loosen it 
for a time, but replace as soon as symptoms 
of poisoning of the system (contracted pupils 
slow breathing, convulsions, etc.), occur. A 
finger or two if bitten by a very poisonous 
snake should be amputated at once. If the 
place is such that no ligature can be apolied, 
cut out the wound and surrounding tissues as 
soon as possible. The patient should be kept 
quiet, hot spirits and water should be frequent- 
ly given, but not enough to produce intoxica- 
tion. It is said that much more can be taken 
without intoxication than under ordinary cir- 
cumstances. 

SNIPE. — The common snipe (also called 
English and Wilson's snipe) is one of the most 
highly esteemed of the smaller birds, the rich- 
ness and delicacy of their flesh being consid- 
ered second only to that of woodcock. Their 
bills are about twice as long as their head, 
neck short, legs slender, feet bluish gray, 
feathers brownish black on the back, and gray- 
ish yellow below. They are found in the mar- 
kets from about the 20th of March to the 20th 
of April, and again in October. There are 
other varieties of the snipe which are sold under 
the same name. Among these are the robin 
or red-breasted snipe, which are a great deli- 
cacy ; they are in season in April and May, 
and again in August, September, and October ; 
the quail-snipe\?\'AO called Dowicher), which 
are abundant in April and May, and from 
about the middle of July till the end of Octo- 
ber, being best in September and October ; 
the black-breasted or winter snipe, which is in 
season in April and May, and again in Sep- 
tember and October ; and the yellow-legged 
snipe, which are very plentiful in April and May 
and again in August' and September, but are not 
much esteemed for the table. Prepare, cook, 
and serve snipe as directed for Woodcock. 

SNO"W-DROP. — This favorite flower is the 
earliest blooming of the spring bulbs. Clus- 
ters of the roots should be planted in October 
and November among the grass nearest the 
house, and early in March and April they will 
appear in full bloom. They will grow in any 
soil ; but will run out if new homes are not 
provided for them every three or four years. 
They multiply rapidly. The great Snow-drop 
is double the size of the common kind, but does 
not bloom so early. The small sorts can be 
planted an inch apart and two inches deep, but 



the larger ones should be planted five inches 
apart and four inches deep. 

The Snow-drop also succeeds well in the 
house ; a large number must be planted in a 
pot to make a display. The proper soil for 
them is loam and sand. The large Crimean 
snow-drop is very pretty but not common. 

SOAP. — All soap is a compound in definite 
proportions of some oil, fat, or resin, with a 
saponifying base, which must be alkaline if it 
is intended for cleansing purposes. Fats are 
composed of a solid substance called stearine, 
and a liquid one called oleine. When either 
of these is boiled with a strong solution of 
caustic potash or soda, a remarkable change 
take place, called saponification. The product 
is a viscid homogeneous and transparent mass, 
freely soluble in warm water, and partially so 
in cold, but insoluble in saline solutions. The 
basis of all scented or toilet soaps is good soap 
of the ordinary kinds, either soft or hard, which 
they re-melt and mix with various perfumes. 
The soaps are first reduced to thin shavings, 
and these are put in a copper pan with a water- 
bath ; if the soaps are new they will melt on the 
application of heat, but if they are old a little 
water is added ; when the fusion is complete, 
some perfume, and, if required, some coloring 
matter, are added, and the soap is then poured 
into moulds. Camphor soap, for instance, 
consists of curd soap, oil of rosemary, and 
camphor ; honey soap, of yellow soap, fig soft 
soap and otto citronella; sand soap has a large 
quantity of silver sand sifted into it ; and Ful- 
ler''s earth soap contains that detergent. 
Cheap scented soaps contain a very large pro- 
portion of yellow soap, or of common curd. 
Medicated soaps (sulphur, iodine, bromine, 
creosote, mercurial, and croton oil) for cutane- 
ous diseases, should be used only under medi- 
cal advice. Glycerine soap is pleasant to use, 
very effective in curing chapped hands, and, 
though quite unctuous, does not grease the 
skin. 

Bar or Yellc-w Soap is more economical to 
buy than to make. Buy a box at a time, cut it 
into squares, and lay it away on a dry shelf to 
improve by hardening. 

Castile Soap. — The best Castile soap comes 
from Spain, but an excellent article may be 
made by mixing the following articles in the 
given proportions (ico is taken as the unit): 
— Soda, 9 pounds ; olive oil, 761^ pounds ; 
water and coloring matter, 141^ pounds. The 
coloring matter may be dispensed with. 

Hard Soap. — Put six pounds of common 
washing soda and three pounds of unslacked 
lime into a pot, and pour over it four gallons of 
boiling water; let it stand till perfectly clear, 
and then drain off; pour in two gallons of cold 
water, let it settle clear, and drain that off into 
a pan or other vessel. Now add to the soda 
and lime six pounds of clean fat, and boil 
them about two hours, till the mixture begins 
to harden, thinning from time to time with the 
two gallons of cold water which was poured on 
the alkaline mixture after draining off the four 



SOAP 



SODA 



495 



gallons of hot water — add it when there is 
danger of boiling over ; try the thickness by 
cooling a spoonful on a plate. Stir in a hand- 
ful of salt just before taking from the fire ; wet 
a tub to prevent sticking, turn the soap into 
it and let it stand till solid ; then cut it into 
bars, and put on a board to dry (it should dry 
two or three months). This will make about 
forty pounds of soap, greatly superior to the 
common bar or yellow soap. 

Myrtle Soap. — Dissolve two pounds and a 
quarter of white potash in five quarts of water, 
then mix it with ten pounds of myrtle wax. 
Boil the whole over a slow fire till it turns to 
soap, then add a tea-cup of cold water — let it 
boil ten minutes longer — at the end of that 
time turn it into tin moulds or pans, and let 
them remain a week or ten days to dry, then 
turn them out of the moulds. If you wish to 
have the soap scented, stir into it any essential 
oil that has an agreeable smell, just before you 
turn it into the moulds. This kind of soap is 
excellent for shaving and chapped hands — it is 
also good for eruptions on the face. It is fit 
for use three or four weeks after it is made, 
but it is better in ten or twelve months. 

Soft Soap. — ^I. Place 20 pounds of grease 
in a barrel, pour upon it a hot lye, made by 
boiling sixteen pounds of potash, or caustic 
soda in four gallons of water. Mix well ; let 
it stand till the grease is eaten up ; then fill up 
the barrel with cold soft water. 

H. Heat twenty-six pounds of clean grease ; 
when melted, mix with it a lye made Ijy dissolv- 
ing twenty pounds of white potash in ten gal- 
lons of water. Let the whole stand in tlie sun, 
stirring it frequently ; in about a week fill the 
barrel with weak lye. When more convenient, 
a lye made by letting water soak through wood 
ashes (^Sce Lye) may be used. 

White, or Curd Soap. — This is made of 
soda and tallow, or olive oil, but it is more eco- 
nomical to buy it ready-made. It improves 
with keeping. 

Windsor Soap. — To make this celebrated 
soap nothing more is necessary than to slice 
the best white soap as thin as possible, and 
melt it over a slow fire. Remove it from the 
fire when melted and when it is just lukewarm, 
add enough of the oil of caraway to scent it ; 
if any other fragrant oil is liked better it may 
be substituted. Turn it into moulds, and set 
it in a dry place for five or six days. To make 
brown Windsor, add a little yellow soap to the 
white, and color with caramel. 

SOAP SAVER.— A perforated tin box used 
in washing china and glass. It is three inches 




square, with a stiff wire handle. Place the 
soap in the box, shake it in the hot water to 
make a suds, then hang it up to dry. 



SODA. — The alkali used in cookery, under 
the name of soda, is the crysialized carbonate 
of soda. That used for washing is sal soda. 
It was once made by burning sea-weed, but is 
now by decomposing common salt. It should 
be bought in moderate quantities and kept in 
tightly corked jars. 

Bicarbonate of Soda only occurs in pow- 
der. It is but slightly alkaline, and not at all 
caustic. The preparations are an effervesc- 
ing solution — medicinal soda-water, and a loz- 
enge. Ordinary soda-water contains no soda, 
only carbonic acid ; if it is desired to have 
soda in it, the specially prepared soda-water 
must be used. Bicarbonate of soda is much 
used as an antacid, and to render other sub- 
stances alkaline. It sits better on the stomach 
than bicarbonate of potash. It does not act 
so much on the kidneys, and is less often given 
in acute rheumatism. For ordinary antacid 
purposes, especially to allay heart-burn, it is 
more used than the potash salt. The dose is 
from 5 to 30 grains, but more may be given, 
though seldom necessary. 

Sulphate of Soda, better known as Glau- 
ber's salt, is a substance which most undeserv- 
edly has fallen out of repute. It abounds in 
certain mineral waters and sea water. When 
pure it is colorless and transparent. Its taste 
is exceedingly bitter. It acts as a purgative, 
producing copious watery motions. It is the 
most important purgative constituent of many 
mineral waters. Tlie Carlsbad waters, which 
have a deservedly high repute in affections 
of the liver, are chiefly efficacious through the 
Glauber salts, which they contain. It may be 
given in doses of 2 drams to half an ounce. 
It is best mixed with some other purgative. 

Acetate of Soda is only used in the pre- 
paration of arseniate and phosphate of iron. 
By itself it can hardly be said to be used, 
acetate of potash taking its place. 

Sulphite of Soda is much more important, 
not for its soda, but for its sulphurous acid. In 
making it, sulphurous acid is passed through 
carbonate of soda to saturation. It exists in 
prisms which have a slight odor of sulphur- 
ous acid, readily soluble in water. It is given 
internally in the same cases as sulphurous, es- 
pecially to arrest vegetable growth in the form 
of sarcina;, etc. Externally it may be used as 
a lotion, where the acid would not be desirable. 
The dose is 20 grains to a dram. 

Hyposulphite of Soda is frequently em- 
ployed in the same way as the sulphite, but in 
the pharmacopoeia it is only introduced for 
analytic purposes. It occurs in crystals read- 
ily soluble in water. Sometimes it is used as 
a mouth wash. 

Phosphate of Soda, or tasteless purging 
salt, is got by adding to a solution of bone 
earth in sulphuric acid, carbonate of soda to 
neutralization, or more. The salt then formed 
appears in fine large crystals of a saline taste. 
In good large doses it purges, and having no 
disagreeable taste, is very useful for children 
and delicate persons. It requires to be given 



496 



SODA-WATER 



SORE-THROAT 



in doses of half an ounce or so. It is best 
given in soup or broth, in which it is as nearly 
as possible tasteless. In smaller doses it acts 
on the kidneys, but is not much used this way. 
The dose is 20 or 30 grains. 

Chlorinated Soda owes its efficacy not to 
the soda it contains but the chlorine. It is a 
bleaching solution constituted in the same way 
as bleaching powder, and used for similar pur- 
poses. It is alkaline in reaction, and is some- 
times made into a poultice. Internally, it has 
been given to get rid of foetid sloughs in the 
alimentary track, but is better used as a gargle, 
as in ulcerated mouths and sore throats. Ex- 
ternally it may be used much diluted as a wash 
to foetid sores. It is not much given internally. 
The dose is 10 or 20 drops freely diluted. 

Chloride of Sodium, or common salt, is 
more important as a food than a medicine. If 
not used ill-health follows, the bowels get dis- 
ordered, and worms form. In large doses it is 
emetic, and it may even give rise to dangerous 
consequences. It is chiefly used as an emetic 
in cases of poisoning where no other remedy is 
at hand. Two or three tablespoonfuls may be 
given well stirred about in lukewarm water, fol- 
lowed by copious draughts of the same. Warm 
salt water baths are frequently useful in chronic 
rheumatic pains. {See Salt.) 

The Citro-Tartrate of Soda, is a salt in 
many respects similar to Rochelle salt, which 
contains tartaric acid only. It is this substance 
in the granulated form which is commonly 
called citrate of magnesia. If well prepared 
and well kept, it constitutes a good laxative and 
sits well on the stomach. If not kept in care- 
fully stoppered bottles, the carbonic acid is 
gradually given off and it will not effervesce. 
The dose is about a dram or two drams. (See 
Rochelle Salt.) 

SODA-WATER. — A well-known effervesc- 
ing beverage, consisting of water impregnated 
with carbonic acid gas. In many cases of 
fever and thirst this is a very pleasant and 
grateful beverage ; and when mixed with a 
brandy or wine it forms an exhilarating draught 
in periods of exhaustion and depression, 
often being preferable to champagne, as it 
contains no sugar. A substitute may be made 
by dissolving, in separate glasses, one-third 
filled with water, thirty grains of bi-carbonate 
of soda and twenty grains tartaric acid. Mix. 

SOLANUM. — Afamily of climbing vines, 
the most attractive of which is the Bitter-sweet 
{celastnis scandens.) In the autumn, when its 
orange berries are in full color, this is an ex- 
tremely ornamental vine. It twines so close 
to the trees that it sometimes chokes out 
the life of young saplings. It grows wild in 
great abundance from New England to Arkan- 
sas, and bears transplanting and cultivating 
with good effect. 

One member of the family, the solatttwt Jas- 
minoides, a. pretty climber, with dark green 
foliage, and large clusters of white flowers, is 
an excellent house-plant and shows to great 
advantajre trained around a window or to cover 



a frame-work. If potted in a soil of rich loam, 
and placed where it can get sun and air, it 
grows very rapidly, and will bloom all winter. 
SOLE. — The A'^ew Y'ork sole is very in- 
ferior to the European fish of this name. The 




fish commonly called sole, is ^ro^ptrXy Jloimder. 
It is small and flat, and unusually full of bones. 

Fried Soles. — Clean, wash and wipe the 
fish quite dry ; lay them in a large dish and 
salt and dredge them with flour ; and fry in hot 
lard, drippings or butter, to a light brown. 

SOLUTION. — Salt will dissolve in water, 
but sand or flint will not; this illustrates 
the distinction between soluble and insoluble 
substances ; but every substance is soluble 
in something; and that something is called its 
solvent or menstruum. Thus, limestone will 
not dissolve in water, but it will in strong acid ; 
all the metals are insoluble in water, but 
soluble in some acid : thus oil of vitriol will 
dissolve copper easily, but lead scarcely at all, 
except it be heated. Resins are not soluble in 
water, but are in alcohol. Salt is soluble 
in cold water as well as in hot ; but water can 
dissolve only a certain quantity of it, and then 
the solution is said to be saturated. Hot 
water dissolves more of some salts than cold, 
and when the hot water cools, it lets fall all the 
salt above the quantity that it could hold in 
solution when cold. On the contrary, water 
will dissolve sugar without any limit, until it 
becomes a syrup. 

Solutions are said to be co7ice7itrated or in- 
spissated when some of the water is driven 
from the solution by evaporation. This pro- 
cess, with most animal and vegetable matters, 
is best performed in a water-bath, to prevent 
burning, as in the case of portable soup. 

SORA. (See Rail.) 

SORBET. {See Punch, Roman, and 
Sherbet.) 

SORE EYES. (See Ophthalmia.) 

SORE THROAT. — A common symptom in 
many diseases. It may come from the follow- 
ing causes : — I. A common cold; the throat 
may be slightly relaxed, or it may be inflamed, 
and quinsy produced. Wrap some warm flan- 
nel around the throat, inhale steam by putting 
the mouth over a jug of boihng water, keep in 
a warm room, so as not to breathe in a cold 
atmosphere, and drink something warm at bed- 
time, so as to encourage perspiration. (See 
Quinsy.) II. Relaxing and damp weather, or 
ifving badly and working hard. For this two 
or three glasses of good wine at dinner, and 
swabbing the throat with a solution of tannin 
and glycerine (tannin, 2 drachms ; glycerine and 
rose water, 2 oz. each), or tincture of steel and 
glycerine, are serviceable. HI. Scarlet fever, 
when there will also be the usual rash on the 



SORGHUM 



SOUFFLE 



497 



second day. {See Scarlet Fever.) IV. It 
may come on with an attack of diphtheria, in 
which case there will be an ashy gray mem- 
brane on the fauces and back part of the mouth, 
without much swelling. {See Diphtheria.) V. 
Sore throat now and then comes on in clergy- 
men, but it is very doubtful if it is caused by 
speaking too much. It is chiefly found among 
the younger and more studious clergy, who are 
otherwise out of health. Cold bathing, out-door 
exercise, and tonics, with regular living, will 
generally cure it. VL Sore throat is common in 
those who have had syphilis, and in them there 
is no swelling of the part, but generally ulcera- 
tion of the tonsils. These ulcers have a grey- 
ish surface, are generally symmetrical, and 
have a rounded outline ; there may be also 
other symptoms of the disorder, but those who 
have once had a bad throat are very liable to 
another slight attack on taking cold. Iodide 
of potassium and mercury form the best remedy 
in such cases, and the throat should be brushed 
over with some astringent solution. 

SORGHUM. — A species of sugar-cane, also 
called Chinese sugar-cane, which has been 
much cultivated in some portions of the South 
during late years. The grain which it produces 
is used as food in Asia and Africa, but it is 
cultivated here only for the syrup and sugar 
obtained from it. Sorghum syrup has a pleas- 
ant flavor, and will readily take the place of or- 
dinary syrup or molasses in the principal uses 
of the latter. Its sweetening flavor is said to 
oe much greater, while the taste is more delicate. 

SORREL. — This plant, which grows wild in 
fields and meadows throughout the country, is 
used largely in French cookery, and to some 
extent in English, but is seldom used in this 
countr)', and almost never cultivated. There 
are numerous varieties of it, known as the 
French, English, broad-leaved, blistered-leaf, 
round-leaved, heart-shaped, or wood sorrel, etc. 
There is also a species called tuberous rooted 
wood sorrel or tuberous rooted oralis, of which 
the tubers as well as the leaves are edible. 
Sorrel is used in sakids, sauces, soups, stews, 
etc., and in France is boiled and served Hke 
spinach. It is as well, perhaps, that sorrel is 
comparatively unknown to our cookery, for 
such herbs when used at all are used much 
more liberally by American cooks than by any 
others, and one of the component parts of the 
acid which gives to sorrel its extremely acid 
flavor is oxalic acid, which is a deadly poison. 

SOUFFIife. — The extreme lightness and deli- 
cacy of a well-made souffle render it generally 
a favorite dish. It may be varied greatly in its 
composition, but in all cases it must be served 
the instant it is taken from the oven. A com- 
mon souffle-pan costs but little, but those of 
silver or plated-ware, such as are represented 
in the engraving, are of course expensive ; the 
paste in which the souffle is baked is placed 
within the more ornamental dish when it 
is taken from the oven, and thus sent to 
table. A plain, round cake^mould, with a strip 
of letter-paper six inches high, placed inside 
32 



the rim, will answer very well. The following 
receipt will serve as a guid.^ for making 




Souffle Pans, 

Soufflds : the process is always the same 
whether the principal ingredient be whole rice 
boiled very tender in milk and passed through 
a sieve, bread-crumbs soaked as for a pudding 
and worked through a sieve also, arrow-root, 
corn-starch, potato-flour, or anything else of 
which light puddings in general are made. 

Take from a pint and a half of new milk or 
of cream enough to mix four ounces of rice- 
flour to a perfectly smooth batter ; put the re- 
mainder into a clean well-tinned sauce-pan or 
stew-pan, and when it boils stir the rice briskly 
to it ; let it simmer, stirring it constantly, for 
ten minutes, or until it is very thick ; then mix 
well with it two ounces of butter, one and a half 
ounces of sugar, and the grated rind of a lemon 
(or let the sugar which is used for it be well 
rubbed on the lemon before it is crushed to 
powder) ; in two or three minutes take it from 
the fire, and beat quickly to it by degrees the 
yolks of six eggs ; whip the whites to a very 
stiff froth, and when the pan is buttered and 
all else quite ready for the oven, stir them 
gently to the other ingredients ; pour the mix- 
ture immediately into the pan, and put it in a 
moderate oven, of which keep the door closed 
for a quarter of an hour at least. When the 
souffle has risen very high, is of a fine color, 
and quite done in the centre, as it will be in from 
a half to three quarters of an hour, send it in- 
stantly to table. 

The so7ijffl^ may be flavored with vanilla, 
orange-flowers, or anything else that is liked. 
Chocolate and coffee also may be used for it 
with soaked bread : a very strong infusion of 
the last, and an ounce or two of the other, 
melted with a little water, are to be added to 
the milk and bread. Generally souffles are 
served under the name of the article used to 
flavor them, as souffli au cafi (i-^??;^/ flavored 
with coffee.) 

A souffle is commonly served in a dinner of 
ceremony as a remove of the second-course 
roast ; but a good plan is to have it quickly hand- 
ed round instead of being placed upon the table. 

SOUP. — The art of preparing good, whole- 
some, palatable soup, which occupies so im- 
portant a place in French cookery, has been 
very much neglected in this country ; yet it 
presents no difficulties which a little practice and 



498 



SOUP 



the most ordinary care will not readily overcome, 
while if the art were more generally cultivated 
there would be a certain gain to both pocket and 
health. For a well-made soup is not only one 
of the most wholesome forms in which food can 
be taken, but it is also one of the most econo- 
mical. Even a very rich soup is less expensive 
than almost any other dish ; and from the varied 
produce of a well-stocked kitchen-garden, or 
from the abundance of vegetables in American 
markets, it may be made excellent at a very 
trifling cost ; and where fish is fresh and 
abundant it may be cheaply supplied nearly 
equal in quality to that for which a full propor- 



j tion of meat is commonly used. No branch 
I of cookery is more worthy of the attention of 
American housewives. 

Directions to the Cook. — In whatever vessel 
soup is boiled, see that it is perfectly clean, and 
let the inside of the cover and the rim be equal- 
ly so. Wash the meat and prepare the veo-e- 
tables with great nicety before they are laid into 
it; and be careful to keep it always closely shut 
when it is on the fire. Never, on any account, 
set the soup by in it, but strain it off at once into 
a clean pan, and fill the stock-pot immediately 
with water ; pursue the same plan with all stew- 
pans and sauce-pans directly they are emptied. 




The Soup Digester shown in the cut is a 
great improvement over the ordinary pot or 
kettle for making soup. Its construction is 
such that the water within may be raised to a 




Soup Digester. 

much higher temperature than 212°, without 
the heat escaping into space ; and the cooking 
is thus accomplished more effectually, and in a 
shorter time. An automatic arrangement pro- 
vides for the escape of steam when a certain 
pressure is reached, thereby removing all 
danger from explosion. A "soup digester" 
should be found in every kitchen. 

Skim the soup thoroughly when ity?rj/ begins 
to boil, or it will not be easy afterwards to 
render it clear ; throw in some salt, which will 
assist to bring the scum to the surface, and 



when it has all been taken off, add the herbs 
and vegetables ; for if not long stewed in the 
soup, their flavor will prevail too strongly. 
Remember that the trimmings, and the bones 
of fresh meat, the necks of poultry, the liquor 
in which a joint has been boiled, and the shank- 
bones of mutton, are all excellent additions to 
the stock-pot, and should be carefully reserved 
for it. The remains of roast poultry and game 
also will improve both the color and the flavor 
of broth or soup. {See Stock.) 

Let the soup be very slowly heated, and after 
it has been well skimmed, and has boiled for a 
few minutes, draw it to the side of the stove 
and keep it simmering softly, but without ceas- 
ing, until it is done ; for on this as will hereaf- 
ter be shown, its excellence principally depends. 

Pour boiling water, in small quantities at 
first, to the meat and vegetables of which the 
soup is to be made when they have been fried 
or browned ; but otherwise, always add cold 
water to the meat. 

Unless precise orders to the contrary have 
been given, onions, eschalots, and gadic should 
be used for seasoning with great moderation ; 
for not only are they very offensive to many 
eaters, but to persons of delicate habit their 
effects are sometimes extremely prejudicial ; 
and it is only in coarse cookery that their flavor 
is allowed ever strongly to prevail. 

A small portion of sugar, about an ounce to 
the gallon, will very much improve the flavor of 



SOUP 



499 



gravy-stock, and of all rich brown soups; it 
may be added also to some others with advan- 
tage ; and for this directions will be given in 
the proper places. 

Two ounces of salt may be allowed for each 
gallon of soup or broth, in which large quan- 
tities of vegetables are stewed ; but an ounce 
and a half will be sufficient for such as contain 
few or none ; it is always easy to add more if 
needful, but oversalting in the first instance is 
a fault for which there is no remedy but that of 
increasing the proportions of all the other ingre- 
dients, and stewing the whole afresh, which is 
troublesome and for which there may not be time. 

As no particle of fat should be seen floating 
in soup when it is sent to table, it is desirable 
that the stock should be made the day before it is 
wanted, that it may be quite cold ; when the fat 
may be entirely scraped off without difficulty. 

Spices should be put in whole into soups ; 
allspice is one of the best, but beware of using 
it too freely. Seville orange-Juice has a finer 
and milder acid than lemon-juice ; but both 
should be used with caution. Sweet herbs, for 
soups or broths, consist of knotted marjoram, 
thyme, and parsley, a sprig of each tied together. 
The older and drier onions are, the stronger 
their flavor ; in dry seasons, also, they are very 
strong; the quantity should be proportioned 
accordingly. Although celery may be generally 
obtained for soup throughout the year, it may 
be useful to know that a drachm of dried celery 
seed will enrich half a gallon of soup as much 
as will two heads of celery. Mushrooms are 
much used, and when they cannot be obtained 
fresh, mushroom catsup will answer the purpose ; 
but it should be used very sparingly, as 
nothing is more difficult to remove than the 
over-flavoring of catsup. A good proportion of 
wine is a gill to three pints of soup ; this is as 
much as can be used without the vinous flavor 
predominating, which is never the case in well- 
made soups. Wine should be added late in the 
making, as it evaporates very quickly in boiling. 

When Cayenne pepper is not mixed with the 
thickening, grind it down with the back of a 
spoon and stir a little liquid to it before it is 
thrown into the stew-pan, as it is apt to remain in 
lumps, and so occasion great irritation of the 
throat when swallowed. 

For thickening soups, arrow-root is best for 
white soups, and rice-flour for all others. It 
should be passed through a lawn sieve, blended 
thoroughly with the salt, spices, catsup or wine 
used in flavoring; sufficient liquid should be 
added to it very gradually to render it of the 
consistency of batter, and it should also be per- 
fectly smooth — to keep it so it should be moist- 
ened sparingly at first, and beaten with the 
back of a spoon until every lump has disap- 
peared. The soup should boil quickly as the 
thickening is stirred into it, and be simmered 
for ten minutes afterwards. From an ounce 
and a half to two ounces of rice-flour will 
thicken a quart of soup. 

Serve all soups as hot as possible. 

Apple Soup. — Clear the fat from five pints 



of goou mutton oroth, bouillon, or shm of beef 
stock, and strain it through a fine sieve ; put it 
on the fire, and when it boils, add a pound and 
a half of good cooking apples, and stew them 
down in it to a smooth pulp ; press the whole 
through a strainer, add a small teacupful of 
powdered sugar and plenty of pepper; simmer 
the soup for a couple of minutes, skim, and 
serve it very hot, accompanied by a dish of 
boiled rice. 

Artichoke Soup. {See Palestine Soup.) 

Asparagus Soup. — Cut three pounds of veal 
and half a pound of salt pork into small pieces, 
pour a gallon of water to it, and boil an hour ; 
then add the stalks of ih?-ee bunches of aspar- 
agus cut into bits an inch long; boil two hours 
longer and strain, pressing the pulp of the as- 
paragus very hard to extract the green color- 
ing ; return the liquor to the pot, add the heads 
of the asparagus, and boil briskly twenty 
minutes ; then season with pepper. Lay small 
squares of toast in the bottom of the tureen, 
pour the soup over them, and serve at once. 

Bean Soup. — Any kind of dried beans will 
answer for this purpose. Soak a quart of them 
over night in lukewarm water ; next morning 
put them on to boil with a gallon of cold water 
and a couple of pounds of salt pork ; cover the 
pot, and boil slowly for three hours ; then add 
a head of celery shred fine, and season well 
with pepper ; simmer half an hour longer, strain, 
and serve hot. Send round sHces of lemon 
with it. 

Beef Soup. — L For very choice beef soup see 
Bouillon and Julienne (below). A very good 
beef soup may be made as follows : — Shred a 
head of celery and one quarter of a head of 
white cabbage very fine ; cut two turnips, three 
carrots, and two onions into quite small pieces ; 
put all together into a soup-pot, with half a 
gallon of cold water, and boil it two hours; then 
add two quarts of good beef-stock and boil an 
hour longer ; mix three tablespoonfuls of flour 
with half a pint of water, adding a little salt and 
pepper, and half an hour before serving stir it 
into the soup; put two tablespoonfuls of Indian 
soy into the tureen first ; pour in the soup, stir 
it up from the bottom, and serve. 

Soup made as above may be served as clear 
beef soup by laying some squares of toast in the 
bottom of the tureen, and straining the soup 
over them through a sieve. 

Very good beef soup may be made of beef- 
bones, scraps of beef-steak, etc., by cracking 
the bones well, and boiling them slowly till 
good stock is made ; then add any kind of 
vegetables, season with pepper and salt, and 
either thicken with flour (rice-flour is best) or 
serve clear. 

IL (Brown). — Put a piece of the round of 
beef, weighing about six pounds, into a pot with 
four or five quarts of cold water; add salt and 
pepper and a dozen cloves, and boil three hours ; 
then cut three carrots and two turnips into 
dice, and mince fine two onions and a head of 
celery ; add all these to the beef, with two 
slices of bread toasted brown ; boil two hours 



500 



SOUP 



longer, take out the meat, add a little soy, and 
serve hot. 

The meat may be stewed next day with veg- 
etables. 

Bouillabaisse. — This soup or stew is ex- 
tremely popular throughout France, but is made 
in greatest perfection at Marseilles. The basis 
of it is fish, and the more kinds of fish there 
are in it the better ; it must never contain less 
than two kinds. There are a hundred different 
ways of making it, and the following is easy and 
simple compared with some of them : — Put a 
gill of sweet-oil in a tin saucepan and set it 
over a quick fire, and when it is hot add two 
onions and two cloves of garlic sliced ; stir so 
as to partly fry them, and then remove from 
the fire. Now put into the pan about three 
pounds of fish cut into pieces about two inches 
long, — halibut, haddock, turbot, whitefish, or 
any similar fish will do, — adding also a dozen 
muscles dropped into boiling v.ater and taken 
from the shell ; season with a gill of white wine, 
a bay-leaf, two cloves, two slices of lemon, the 
juice of a tomato, salt, pepper, and a pinch of 
saffron ; cover the whole with cold water, and 
set the pan back on the fire, which should be 
brisk ; let it boil half an hour, then add a tea- 
spoonful of chopped parsley, and boil ten 
minutes longer. The usual way of serving is 
to put some slices of bread or toast in the bot- 
tom of a deep dish and turn the soup over it ; 
but a nicer way is to take out the fish and serve 
it on a separate dish, pouring the sauce only 
over the bread. In the latter case, serve a 
slice of bread and a piece of fish covered with 
the sauce to each person. The garlic and saf- 
fron may be omitted if not liked. 

Bouillon. — This soup, or broth as we should 
perhaps designate it, is made once or twice in 
the week, in every family of respectability in 
France ; and by the poorer classes as often as 
their means will enable them to substitute it 
for the vegetable or inaigre soups, on which 
they are more commonly obliged to subsist. It 
is served usually on the first day with slices of 
untoasted bread soaked in it; on the second, 
it is generally varied with vermicelli, rice, or 
the like. The ingredients are, of course, often 
otherwise proportioned than as we have given 
them, and more or less meat is allowed accord- 




Bouillon Bowl. 

ing to the taste or circumstances of the persons 
for whom the botiillon is prepared ; but the 
process of making it is always the same, and is 
thus described (rather learnedly) by one of the 
most skilful cooks in Europe : " The stock-pot 
of the French artisan," says Monsieur Careme, 



" supplies his principal nourishment ; and it is 
thus managed by his wife, who, without the 
slightest knowledge of chemistry, conducts the 
process in a truly scientific manner. She first 
lays the meat into an earthen stock-pot, and 
pours cold water to it in the proportion of about 
two quarts to three pounds of the beef; she 
then places it by the side of the fire, where it 
slowly becomes hot ; and as it does so, the heat 
enlarges the fibre of the meat, dissolves the 
gelatinous substances which it contains, allows 
the albumen (or the muscular part which pro- 
duces the scum) to disengage itself, and rise to 
the surface, and the ozmazome (which is the 
most savoy part of the meat ) to be diffused 
through the brotli. Thus, from the simple cir- 
cumstance of boiling it in the gentlest manner, 
a relishing and nutritious soup will be obtained, 
and a dish of tender and palatable meat ; but if 
the pot be placed and kept over a quick fire, 
the albumen will coagulate, harden the meat, 
prevent the water from penetrating it, and the 
osvtazome from disengaging itself; the result 
will be a broth without flavour or goodness, and 
a tough, dry bit of meat." 

It must be observed in addition, that as the 
meat of which the bouillon is made, is almost 
invariably sent to table, a part of the rump, or 
the leg-of-mutton piece of beef, should be select 
ed for it; and the simmering should be con- 
tinued only until this is perfectly tender. When 
the object is simply to make good, pure-flavor- 
ed, beef broth, part of the shin or leg, with a 
pound or two of the neck, will best answer the 
purpose. When the boiiilli (that is to say, the 
beef which is boiled in the soup), is to be serv- 
ed, bind it into a good shape, add to it a calf's 
foot if easily procurable, as this much improves 
the quality of the bouillon ; pour cold water to 
it in the proportion mentioned above, and pro- 
ceed, as Monsieur Careme directs, to heat the 
soup slowly by the side of the fire ; remove 
carefully the head of scum wjiich will gather 
on the surface before the boiling commences, 
and continue the skimming at intervals for 
about twenty minutes longer, pouring in once 
or twice a little cold water. Next, add salt in 
the proportion of two ounces to the gallon ; this 
will cause a little more scum to rise ; clear it 
quite off and throw in three or four turnips, as 
many carrots, half a head of celery, four or five 
young leeks, an onion stuck with six or eight 
cloves, a large half tea-spoonful of peppercorns, 
and a bunch of savory herbs. Let the whole 
stew very softly without ceasing, from four 
hours and a half to six hours, according to the 
quantity : the beef in that time will be extreme- 
ly tender but not overdone, and is excellent eat- 
ing. It should be served with a couple of cab- 
bages, which have been first boiled in the usual 
way, then pressed very dry, and stewed for ten 
minutes in a little of the broth, and seasoned 
with pepper and salt. The other vegetables 
from the bouillon may be laid round it or not 
at choice. The soup ff served on the same 
day must be strained, well cleared from fat, and 
sent to table with fried or toasted bread ; or 



SOUP 



501 



slices of untoasted bread may be laid in the 
bottom of the tureen, and the soup poured over 
them. 

Calf's-head Soup. {See Mock-turtle 
Soup.) 

Carrot Soup. — Boil some highly colored 
carrots in some slightly-salted water till they 
are quite tender ; then mash them to a smooth 
paste, and mix with them boiling gravy-soup or 
strong beef-broth {see Bouillon), in the propor- 
tion of two quarts to a pound and a half of the 
mashed carrots ; pass the whole through a 
strainer, season it with salt and cayenne, heat 
it in a clean stew-pan, and serve it very hot. 

A finer carrot soup may be made by cutting 
the carrots into quarter-inch slices, stewing two 
pounds of these in three ounces of butter for 
an hour (without browning), and then adding 
four pints and a half of brown gravy soup ; 
simmer gently an hour longer, press the whole 
through a sieve or strainer, season with salt and 
cayenne, boil five minutes, taking off all the 
scum, and serve as hot as possible. 

Chestnut Soup. — Strip the outer rind from 
some fine, sound Spanish chestnuts, throw 
them into a large pan of warm water, and as 
soon as it becomes too hot for the fingers to 
remain in it, take it from the fire, lift out the 
chestnuts, peel them quickly and throw them 
into cold-water as they are done; wipe and 
weigh them; take three-quarters of a pound 
for each quart of soup, cover them with good 
stock, and stew them gently for upwards of 
three-quarters of an hour, or until they break 
when touched with a fork ; drain and pound 
them smoothly, or bruise them to a mash with 
a strong spoon, and rub them through a fine 
sieve reversed ; mix with them by slow degrees 
the proper quantity of stock; add sufficient 
mace, cayenne and salt to season the soup, and 
stir it often until it boils. Three-quarters of a 
pint of rich cream, or even less, will greatly 
improve it. The stock in which the chestnuts 
are boiled can be used for the soup when its 
sweetness is not objected to ; or it may in part 
be added to it. 

Chicken Soup. — A full-grown fowl is best 
for making soup. Cut it into pieces as for fry- 
ing, and put these with half a pound of ham 
into a pot ; just cover with cold water, and stew 
gently for an hour, or until the breast will cut 
easily ; take out the breast, leaving the remain- 
der of the meat in the pot, add about three 
quarts of boiling water, and let it stew slowly. 
Now chop the white meat of the breast very 
fine, and add it to the yolks of four hard-boiled 
eggs which have been previously rubbed to a 
smooth paste with a few spoonfuls of the soup ; 
add also about a teacupful of fine bread-crumbs, 
and roll the mixture into small balls. When 
the soup has boiled till the meat will drop easily 
from the bones, strain the soup away from the 
meat and bones, season with salt, white pepper, 
and chopped parsley, and return to the fire ; 
drop in the meat-balls, boil ten minutes, and 
then add by degrees a pint of milk thickened 
with flour ; boil up once and serve. 



The meat-balls may be omitted, and all the 
meat boiled till reduced to shreds, but the soup 
will not be so nice. 

Cocoanut Soup. — Pare the dark rind from 
a fresh cocoanut ; grate the meat fine ; put five 
ounces to five pints of veal stock, gravy soup, 
or beef-broth, and simmer it gently for an hour ; 
then strain off the soup, pressing the cocoanut 
hard ; thicken with five ounces of rice-flour, 
a little salt and pepper, and half a teaspoon- 
ful of ground mace mixed with a quarter of 
a pint of cream ; boil ten minutes, and serve 
hot. 

When cream is not at hand a half pint of the 
stock will do to mix the thickening, etc., in. 

Comsomme. — See Consomme. 

Cucumber Soup. — Pare, split, and empty 
from eight to twenty fine, well grown, but not 
old cucumbers, — those which, have the fewest 
seeds are best for the purpose ; throw a little 
salt over them, and leave them for an hour to 
drain, then put them with the white part only 
of a couple of mild onions into a deep stew-pan 
or clean sauce-pan, cover them nearly half an 
inch with pale, but good veal stock, and stew 
them gently until they are perfectly tender, 
which will be in from three-quarters of an hour 
to an hour and a quarter ; work the whole 
through a hair sieve, and add to it as much 
more stock as may be needed to make the 
quantity of soup required for table ; and as the 
cucumbers, from their watery nature, will 
thicken it but little, stir to it when it boils, as 
much arrow-root, or rice-flour, as will bring it 
to a good consistence ; add from half to a 
whole pint of boiling cream, and serve the soup 
immediately. Salt and cayenne sufficient to 
season it, should be thrown over the cucum- 
bers while they are stewing. The yolks of six 
or eight eggs, mixed with a dessertspoonful of 
chili vinegar, may be used for this soup instead 
of cream ; three dessertpoonfuls of minced 
parsley may then be strewed into it a couple of 
minutes before they are added ; it must not, of 
course, be allQwed to boil after they are stirred 
in. 

Eel Soup. — Skin and clean three pounds of 
eels and cut them into pieces about two inches 
long ; put them into a pot, with half a pound of 
salt pork chopped fine, and pour to them two 
quarts of cold water; season with chopped 
sweet herbs, and a head of celery chopped fine 
(a small bag of celery seed may be used when 
celery is not in season) ; boil an hour, or until 
the fish and pork are in shreds ; and then 
strain ; return the soup to the pot, add a pint of 
hot milk, two well-beaten eggs, and a level 
tablespoonful of butter; boil up once, and serve 
with dice of toasted bread on the top. This is 
a rich and savory soup. 

Fish Soup. — An infinite variety of excellent 
soups may be made of fish, vv'hich should be 
stewed down for them in precisely the same 
manner as meat, and with the same addition of 
vegetables and herbs. When the skin is coarse 
or rank it should be carefully stripped off be^ 
fore the fish is used, and any oily particles 



502 



SOUP 



which may float on the surface should be en- 
tirely removed from it. Most fish soups are 
improved by adding a little anchovy or any 
other store yfj/^-sauce ; prawns and shrimps are 
also generally considered an improvement. 

For very savory soups, fry the fish and vege- 
tables, lay them into the soup-pot, and add 
boihng instead of cold water. 

Giblet Soup. — Take the giblets, feet, neck, 
and wings of two fowls, and put them into a 
pot with a pound and a half of veal and a slice 
of lean ham ; pour to them three quarts of cold 
water, and boil gently till the meat is very soft ; 
then strain off the hquor, and when cold, scrape 
off the fat, cut the giblets and meat into half- 
inch dice ; make a thickening with a table- 
spoonful of flour and a tablespoonful of butter 
mixed with a little of the soup; add all these 
to the soup, with some sweet herbs tied in a 
bag, and a little salt ; boil half an hour, and 
serve. 

Gravy Soup. — I. Cut two pounds of beef 
from the neck into dice and fry until brown. 
Break small two or three pounds of bones and 
lightly fry them ; bones from which streaked 
bacon has been cut make an excellent addition, 
but too many must not be used lest the soup 
be salt. Slice and fry brown a pound of onions, 
put them with the meat and bones and three 
quarts of cold water into the soup-pot, let it 
boil up, and having skimmed, add two large 
turnips, a carrot cut in slices, a small bundle of 
sweet herbs, and half a dozen peppercorns. 
Boil gently for four or five hours, and about one 
hour before it is finished add a few bits of celery 
or celery-seed tied in muslin. When done, strain 
the soup, and let it get cold in order to remove 
all the fat ; then put on the fire again, and when 
it boils stir into it a tablespoonful of rice-flour 
mixed in four tablespoonfuls of cold water; 
season to taste and serve. Small force-meat 
balls are an improvement to this soup. 

II. The shin or leg of beef, if not large or 
coarse, will answer for this soup, and afford at 
the same time a highly economical dish of 
boiled meat, which will be found very tender, 
and very palatable also, if it be served with a 
sauce of some piquancy. From about ten 
pounds of the meat let the butcher cut evenly 
off five or six from the thick fleshy part, and 
again divide the knuckle, that the whole may lie 
compactly in the vessel in which it is to be 
stewed ; pour in three quarts of cold water, and 
when it has been brought slowly to boil, and 
been well skimmed, as directed for bouillon, 
throw in an ounce and a half of salt, half a tea- 
spoonful of peppercorns, eight cloves, two 
blades of mace, a faggot of savory herbs, a 
couple of small carrots, and the heart of a root 
of celery ; to these add a mild onion or not, at 
choice. When the whole has stewed very 
gently for four hours, probe the larger bit of 
beef, and if quite tender, lift it out for table ; 
let the soup be simmered from two to three 
hours longer, and then strain it through a fine 
sieve, into a clean pan. When it is perfectly 
C9ld, clear off every particle of fat; heat a 



couple of quarts, stir in, when it boils, half an 
ounce of sugar, a small tablespoonful of good 
soy, and twice as much clear and fine mushroom 
or other catsup. If carefully made, the soup 
will be perfectly transparent and of good color 
and flavor. A thick slice of lean ham will im- 
prove it, and a pound or so of the neck of beef 
with an additional pint of water, will likewise 
enrich its quality. A small quantity of good 
broth may be made of the fragments of the 
whole boiled down with a few fresh vegetables. 
Caper sauce, or hot horse-radish sauce, or 
any other sharp sauce, may be served with the 
portion of the meat which is sent to table. 

Gumbo or Okra Soup. — Put two quarts of 
okras sliced thin into a pot with two pounds of 
beef and half a pound of ham cut into small 
pieces ; pour in just enough cold water to cover 
them, and stew gently for an hour ; then add a 
quart of sliced tomatoes, and two quarts of 
boiling water ; boil three-quarters of an hour 
longer, skimming often. When the meat and 
vegetables have boiled to pieces, add four 
tablespoonfuls of butter, a pinch of cayenne 
pepper, and a little salt, if the ham has not 
made it salt enough ; strain and serve hot. A 
little vermicelli may be added to this soup after 
it is strained. 

Gumbo.— n. (Chicken). — Cut a good sized 
fowl as for a fricasee, season with salt and pep- 
per, dredge with flour, put it in the soup kettle 
with two ounces of butter, one of lard and two 
of onion, chopped fine ; fry until quite brown, 
then add four quarts of hot water, cover and 
let it simmer for two hours ; add a handful of 
tender, chopped okra and let it simmer half an 
hour longer ; add a pinch of cayenne with 
twenty or thirty oysters ; when these are well 
puffed, remove the kettle from the fire, sprinkle 
half a teaspoonful of filet powder over the 
soup, beating it in quickly, then serve at once. 
For filet powder, gather sassafras leaves in 
August ; dry them in the shade, powder them, 
sift and bottle. It is for sale in the New Or- 
leans market and probably in other southern 
cities. Prof. Dimitry says : " Never attempt to 
add the sassafras while the vessel is on the fire. 
The result would be to precipitate the powder, 
and literately send your gumbo to pot." 

Hare Soup. — Half roast a hare, and having 
cut away the meat in long slices from the back- 
bone, put it aside to make an entree. Fry four 
onions, a carrot and turnip, a httle celery, some 
bacon bones or a si-ice of lean ham, and having 
cut the body of the hare up into small pieces, 
put all on to boil in two quarts of good stock. 
When you have skimmed the pot, cover close 
and allow it to boil gently for three hours, then 
strain it, take off every particle of fat, and hav- 
ing allowed it to boil up, thicken it with a des- 
sertspoonful of corn-flour. Stir in two lumps 
of sugar, a glass of port wine, and season if ne- 
cessary. 

Hasty Soup. — Mince together a pound of 
lean beef, mutton, or veal, a small carrot, a small 
turnip, half an ounce of celery, the white part 
of a medium sized leek or a very small onion ; 



SOUP 



503 



and put them into a deep sauce-pan with three 
pints of cold water ; when the soup boils, take 
off the scum, and add a little salt and pepper. 
In half an hour it will be ready to serve with or 
without straining ; it may be flavored with cay- 
enne, catsup, or anything else that is preferred. 
Jenny Lind's Soup. — This receipt does not 
merely bear the name of " Mademoiselle Lind," 
but is in reality that of the soup which was 
constantly served to her, as it was prepared by 
her own cook. 

Wash a quarter of a pound of the best pearl 
sago until the water poured from it is clear ; 
then stew it quite tender and very thick in 
water or thick broth (it will require nearly or 
quite a quart of liquid, which should be poured 
to it cold, and heated slowly) : then mix gradu- 
ally with it a pint of good boiling cream, and 
the yolks of fbur fresh eggs, and mingle the 
whole carefully with two quarts of strong veal 
or beef stock, which should always be kept 
ready boiling. Send the soup immediately to 
table. 

Julienne Soup. — Wash and scrape a large 
carrot, cut away all the yellow parts from the 
middle, and slice the red outside an inch in 
length, and the eighth of an inch thick ; take 
an equal quantity of turnip, and three small 
onions, cut in a similar manner; put them in a 
stew-pan with two ounces of butter and a pinch 
of pounded sugar, stir over the fire until a nice 
brown color, then add a quart of clear, well- 
flavored stock, and let all simmer together gently 
for three hours ; when done skimthe fat off very 
carefully, and ten minutes before serving add a 
cabbage lettuce cut in shreds and blanched for 
a minute in boiling water; simmer for five 
minutes and the soup will be ready. Any clear 
soup may be converted into Julienne by adding 
prepared vegetables as above. 

Lobster Soup. — Bcril a shin of veal for three 
or four hours in a gallon of water, with two 
carrots, two onions, salt, and mace. At the 
time of putting the veal on the fire break up a 
large lobster and take the meat out of the shell ; 
break up the shell and put it into a sauce-pan, 
with water enough to cover it, and let it simmer 
while the soup is boiling. Strain the soup from, 
the meat and vegetables, and the liquor from 
the lobster-shell, and put them together into 
the soup-pot ; cut the lobster-meat up very fine 
add it to the soup, and boil two hours longer. 
If there was a row of coral (spawn) in the lob- 
ster, grate it, and add it with the minced meat. 
When nearly done,add a quarter of a pound of 
butter mixea with two tablespoonfuls of flour, a 
teacupful of white wine and a tablespoonful of 
vinegar, or the juice of a- lemon ; boil ten min- 
utes, and serve hot. 

Maccaroni Soup. — Throw four ounces of 
maccaroni (the best Italian) into a pan of fast- 
boiling water, with about an ounce of butter, 
and a small onion stuck with three or four 
cloves ; when- it has swelled to its full size and 
become tender, drain it well, cut it into half- 
inch lengths, and drop it into two quarts of 
clear gravy soup ; let it simmer for five or ten 



minutes, when it will be ready for the table. 
Observe that the macaroni should be boiled 
quite tender ; but it must not be allowed to 
burst nor to become pulpy. Serve grated Par- 
mesan cheese with it. 

Mock-turtle Soup.-To make a single tureen 
of this excellent English soup in the most econ- 
omical manner, stew gently down in a gallon of 
water four pounds of the fleshy part of a shin 
or neck of beef with two or three carrots, one 
onion, a small head of celery, a bunch of savory 
herbs, a blade of mace, a half-teaspoonful of 
peppercorns, and an ounce of salt. When the 
meat is quite in fragments, strain off the broth, 
and pour it when cold upon three pounds of the 
knuckle or of the neck of veal ; simmer this until 
the flesh has quite fallen from the bones, but 
be careful to stew it gently or the quantity of 
stock will be so much reduced as to be insuf- 
ficent for the soup. 

Next, take the half of a fine calf's head with 
the skin on, remove the brains, and then bone 
it entirely, or let the butcher do this. Strain 
the soup through a hair-sieve into a clean pan, 
and let it drain closely from the meat. When 
it is cold, clear off all the fat from it ; roll the 
head lightly round, leaving the tongue inside, 
or taking it out, as is most convenient, secure 
it with tape or twine, pour the soup over, and 
bring it gently to a boil upon a moderate fire ; 
keep it well skimmed, and simmer it from an 
hour to an hour and a quarter ; then lift the 
head into a deep pan or tureen, add the soup 
to it, and let it remain in until nearly cold, as 
this will prevent the edges from becoming dark. 

Cut into quarter-inch slices, and then divide 
into dice, from six to eight ounces of the lean ox 
raw ham ; free it perfectly from fat, rind, and the 
smoked edges ; peel and slice Tour moderate- 
sized eschalots, or if these should not be at 
hand, one mild onion. Dissolve in a well-tinned 
stew-pan or thick iron sauce-pan which holds a 
gallon or more, four ounces of butter ; put in 
the ham and eschalots, or onion, with half a 
dozen cloves, two middling-sized blades of mace, 
a half-teaspoonful of peppercorns, three or four 
very small sprigs of thyme, ihree tcaspoonfuJs 
of mixed parsley, one of lemon thyme and 
winter savory mixed, and when the flavor is 
liked, the very thin rind of half a lemon. Stew 
these as gently as possible for nearly or quite 
an hour, and keep the pan frequently shaken; 
then put into a dredging box two ounces of fine 
dry flour, and sprinkle it to them by degrees ; mix 
the whole well together, and after a few minutes 
more of gentle simmering, add very gradually 
five full pints of the stock taken free of fat and 
sediment, and made boiling before it is poured 
in; shake the pan strongly round as the first 
portions of it are added, and continue to do .so 
until it contains from two to three pints, when 
the remainder may be poured in at once, and 
the pan placed by the side of the fire that it 
may boil in the gentlest manner for an hour. 
At the end of that time turn the whole into a 
hair-sieve placed over a large pan, and if the 
liquid should not run through freely, knock the 



504 



SOUP 



sides of the sieve, but do not force it through 
with a spoon, as that would spoil the appearance 
of the stock. 

The head in the meanwhile should have been 
cut up, ready to add to it. For the finest kind 
of mock turtle, only the skin, with the fat that 
adheres to it, should be used ; and this, with the 
tongue, should be cut down into one inch 
squares, or, if preferred, into strips of an inch 
wide. For ordinary occasions, the lean jDart of 
the flesh may be added also, but as it is always 
sooner done than the skin, it is better to add it 
to the soup a little later. When it is quite 
ready, put it with the strained stock into a clean 
pan, and simmer it from three-quarters of an 
hour to a full hour ; it should be perfectly ten- 
der, without being allowed to break. Cayenne, 
if needed, should be thrown into the stock be- 
fore it is strained ; salt should be used sparingly, 
on account of the ham, until the whole of the 
other ingredients have been mixed together, 
when a sufficient quantity must be stirred into 
the soup to season it properly. A couple of 
glasses of sherry or Madeira, with a dessert- 
spoonful of strained lemon-juice, are usually add- 
ed two or three minutes only before the soup 
is dished, that the spirit and flavor of the wine 
may not have time to evaporate ; but it is some- 
times preferred mellowed down by longer boil- 
ing. 

Five minutes before the soup is taken from 
the fire, drop in force-meat balls made as fol- 
lows : — Rub the yolks of three hard-boiled eggs 
to a smooth paste with the back of a spoon, ad- 
ding gradually the brains which were taken 
from the calf's head, together with a little pep- 
per and salt , mix with these one egg beaten 
light, and make the paste into balls about the 
size of a pigeon's egg. 

This is perhaps the most delicious soup made, 
far superior to real turtle soup. And it is not 
nearly so difficult to make as the long receipt 
would seem to indicato. 

MuUagatawny Soup. — Slice, and fry gently 
in some good butter three or four large onions, 
and when they are of a fine equal amber-color 
lift them out with a slice and put them into a 
deep stew-pot, or large thick sauce-pan ; throw 
a little more butter into the pan, and then brown 
lightly in it a young rabbit, or the prime joints 
of two, or a fowl cut down small and floured. 
When the meat is sufficiently browned, lay it 
upon the onions, pour gradually to them a 
quart of good boiling broth or stock, and stew 
it gently from three-quarters of an hour to an 
hour ; then take it out, and pass the stock and 
onions through a fine sieve or strainer. Add 
to them two pints and a half more of stock, 
pour the whole into a clean pan, and when it 
boils stir to it two tablespoonfuls of curry- 
powder mixed with nearly as much of browned 
flour, and a little cold water or broth, put in 
the meat, and simmer it for twenty minutes or 
longer should it not be perfectly tender, add 
the juice of a small lemon, just before it is 
dished, serve it very hot, and send boiled rice 
to table with it. 



We have given here the sort of receipt com- 
monly used in England for mullagatawny, t)ut 
a much finer soup may be made by departing 
from it in some respects. The onions, of 
which the proportion may be increased or di- 
minished to the taste, after being fried slowly 
and with care, that no part should be overdone, 
may be stewed for un hour in the first quart of 
stock with three or four ounces of grated 
cocoa-nut, which will impart a rich mellow fla- 
vor to the whole. After all of this that can 
be rubbed through the sieve has been added 
to as much more stock as will be required for 
the soup, and the curry-powder and thickening 
have been boiled in it for twenty minutes, the 
flesh of part of a calf 's head, previously stewed 
almost tender, and cut as for mock turtle, with 
a sweetbread also parboiled or stewed in broth, 
and divided into inch-squares, will make an ad- 
mirable mullagatawny, if simmered in the stock 
until they have taken the flavor of the curry- 
seasoning. The flesh of a couple of calves' feet 
with a sweetbread or two may, when more con 
venient, be substituted for the head. A large 
cupful of thick cream, first mixed and boiled 
with a teaspoonful of flour or arrow-root to pre- 
vent its curdling, and stirred into the soup be- 
fore the lemon-juice, will enrich and improve 
it much. 

Mutton Soup. — Cut a neck c f mutton into 
chops, paring off every particle of fat ; tour 
hours before dinner, put it in the stew-pan, and 
cover it with boiling water ; add four carrots 
and six small turnips cut in slices, and boil 
gently till dinner-time ; flavor with salt, skisi off 
the fat, and serve. An ounce or two of rice, 
added with the vegetables, will improve this 
soup. 

Mutton soup may be made in all respects as 
directed for beef soup, but it is made less 
savory. 

Ox-cheek Soup. — This is an economica' 
soup, and at the same time, if well made, very 
good. Have the bones of the cheek well broken 
and wash it well in plenty of salt and water, 
put it in the soup-pot and cover with water, let 
it boil ten minutes, then pour away this water ; 
fry six large onions, and put them into the 
soup-pot with two carrots and turnips, a lit- 
tle celery and blade of mace, six peppercorns 
and cloves, and as much stock or water as 
will cover the cheek; let it boil gently for 
four hours, adding hot water from time to 
time. Remove the meat from the bones, and 
choose some of the best pieces to serve in the 
soup. The remainder can be used for other 
dishes and is verj^ good. When the soup is 
done, strain it, and let it get cold ia order to 
remove all the fat ; this done, return it to the 
fire, and when it boils, season to taste, and stir 
in a tablespoonful of flour or rice-flour mixed m 
four tablespoonfuls of cold water ; boil five or 
ten minutes and serve. A glass of sherry may 
be added with the seasoning if liked. 

Ox-tail Soup.— I. Get three small tails, 
joint them, rub them with salt, and soak them 
in luke-warm water for haif an hour ; put them 



SOUP 



505 



into a stew-pan with four sliced onions, a sliced las will make two quarts in all, season with salt 
turnip, a bunch of parsley, a little whole allspice | and white pepper or cayenne, give it one boil. 



and black pepper, and three quarts of water ; 
when the meat is quite tender, take it out and 
cut into mouthfuls ; thicken the soup with rice- 
flour or flour stirred in a little cold water, strain 
it into a clean stew-pan, put in the meat, boil up 
once, and serve hot. 

IL Ox-tail soup is rather insipid in flavor 
without the addition of some other meat, and 
the following is r. better method of making it : — 
Joint one ox-tail, and fry the pieces brown in but- 
ter ; take out the meat and fry in the same pan two 
carrots and three onions, sliced ; when these 
are done tie them in a bag with a bunch of 
thyme and drop into the soup-pot. Lay the 
fried ox-tail also in the pot, and add two pounds 
of lean beef cut into small slices ; grate over 
them two carrots, season with salt and pepper, 
and add a gallon of cold water ; boil slowly four 
or five hours. When done, strain, thicken with 
two tablespoonfuls of browned flour, and boil 
ten minutes longer. Serve very hot. 

Oyster Soup. — I. Boil a knuckle of veal 
in a gallon of water till the water is reduced to 
two quarts, strain this broth off and add to it 
the juice from a quart of oysters ; season to 
taste with pepper and salt, and return to the 
fire ; when it boils well, put in the oysters ; 
when puffed, skim them into the tureen; add 8 
rolled crackers, and simmer 5 minutes ; add i 
pt of boiling milk; pour on the oysters, and serve. 

II. Put three pints of new milk over boiling 
water ; drain two quarts of oysters ; put the 
liquor over the fire ; wash the oysters and re- 
move all bits of shell ; when the milk is hot 
add three ounces of butter rubbed smooth with 
an ounce and a half of flour, and stir until 



slightly thickened ; then add the liquor, which 
must be well boiled, skimmed and hot ; add the 
oysters ; season with salt, white pepper and 
mace ; when the oysters are puffed, serve with 
a plate of crackers crisped in the oven. 

Palestine or Artichoke Soup. — Wash and 
pare quickly some freshly-dug artichokes, and 
to preserve their color throw them into clear 
water as they are done, but take them out as 
soon as all aro ready. Boil three pounds of 
them in water for ten minutes ; lift them out, 1 



skim, and serve very hot. 

We can recommend this soup to those who 
like the peculiar flavor of parsnips. 

Pea (Dried) Soup.— I. Save the water in 
which beef or pork has been boiled, and if it is 
too salt put an equal quantity of fresh water to 
it ; or use fresh water only with roast-beef 
bones, a ham-bone, and an anchovy or two. 
Simmer these with some dried peas (whole or 
split); the smaller the quantity^of water at first 
the better. Simmer till the peas are quite soft; 
then mash them through a colander, and return 
the pulp to the soup, with two carrots, a turnip, 
a leek, and a stick of celery cut into bits, or 
celery seed; stew until all are quite tender, 
then season with salt and pepper; strain, and 
serve with toast cut in dice, or with bread fried 
in the same shape. 

II. (Rich.) Soak a quart of fine yellow split 
peas for a night, drain them well, and put them 
into a large soup-pot with five quarts of good 
brown gravy soup ; and when they have boiled 
gently for half an hour, add to the soup three 
onions, as many carrots, and a turnip or two, 
all sliced and fried carefully in butter ; stew the 
whole softly until the peas are reduced to pulp, 
then add as much salt and cayenne as may be 
needed to season it well, give it two or three 
minutes' boil, and pass it through a sieve, pres- 
sing the vegetables with it. Put into a clean 
sauce-pan as much as may be required for table, 
add a little fresh stock to it should it be too 
thick, and reduce it by quick boihng if too thin; 
throw in the white part of some fresh celery 
sliced a quarter of an inch thick, and when this 
is tender send the soup quickly to table. A 
dessertspoonful or more of curry-powder greatly 
improves pea soup : it should be smoothly 
mixed with a few spoonfuls of it, and poured 
to the remainder when this first begins to boil 
after having been strained. 

When more convenient, six pounds of neck 
of beef, fried brown, may be boiled gently with 
the peas and fried vegetables in a gallon of 
water (which should be poured to them boiling) 
for four or five hours. 

Pea (Green) Soup. — ^I. Put a shin of veal 



and slice them into three pints of boiling beef in a gallon of cold water, with two onions and 
or mutton or veal stock ; when they have stew- two carrots ; season with pepper and salt, setit 



ed gently in tkis from fifteen to twenty minutes, 
press them with the soup through a fine sieve, 
and put the whole into a clean saucepan with a 
pint and a half more of stock ; season with salt 
and cayenne, skim it well, and after it has sim- 
mered two or three minutes, stir into it a pint 
of boiling cream. Serve immediately. 

Parsnip Soup. — Put four ounces of butter 
into a wide stew-pan or sauce-pan, and as soon 
as it has melted, slice in two pounds of sweet 
tender parsnips ; let them stew very gently till 
they are quite soft, then pour in gradually 
enough veal stock or good broth to cover them, 
and boil the whole slowly from twenty minutes 



on tho fire and let it boil four hours ; then add 
two quarts of green peas (not very young), and 
boil an hour and a half longer ; strain the soup 
through a sieve, and return it to the pot ; add 
a quarter of a pound of butter with an ounce 
of flour, stir well, boil fifteen minutes, and serve. 
n. (Excellent.) Take, at their fullest size, 
but before they are of bad color or worm-eaten, 
three pints of green peas, and boil them as for 
table (Sec Peas) with half a teaspoonful of soda 
in the water, that they may be very green. 
When they are quite tender, drain them well, 
and put them into a couple of quarts of boiling 
beef or veal stock, and stew them in it gently 



to half an hour ; then work it with a wooden 1 for half an hour ; then work the whole through 
spoon through a fine sieve, add as much stock I a fine hair sieve, put it into a clean pan and 



606 



SOUP 



bring it to the point of boiling ; add salt, should 
it be needed, and a small teaspoonful of pound- 
ed sugar ; clear off the scum entirely, and serve 
the soup as hot as possible. A superior variety 
of it is made by adding a half pint more of stock 
to the peas, and about three-quarters of a pint 
of asparagus points, boiled apart, and well 
drained before they are thrown into it, which 
should be done only the instant before it is 
sent to table. 

When there is no stock at hand, four or five 
pounds of shin of beef boiled slowly down with 
three quarts of water to two, and well seasoned 
with savory herbs, young carrots, and onions, 
will serve instead quite well. A thick slice of 
lean, undressed ham, or of dried beef, would 
improve it. 

III. A common pea soup for family use may 
be made somewhat thinner than the last ; add 
to it, just before it is dished, from a half to 
three-quarters of a pint of young peas boiled 
tender and well drained. This is often pre- 
ferred to any other. 

Potato Soup. — Mash to a smooth paste 
three pounds of good mealy potatoes, which 
have been steamed, or boiled very dry ; mix 
with them by degrees two quarts of boiling 
broth, or milk; pass through a strainer, set it 
again on the fire, add pepper and salt, and let 
it boil five minutes ; remove carefully the black 
scum that will rise upon it; serve very hot with 
fried or toasted bread. When the flavor of 
onions is hked, two ounces of them, minced 
and fried to a light brown, may be added to the 
soup and stewed in it ten minutes. With milk use 
grated onion, chopped parsley, and 3 oz of butter. 

Pot-au-Feu. — Directions for making this 
famous French soup are given in its alphabet- 
ical place in the book. {See Pot au Feu.) 

Rabbit Soup. — L Cut the rabbit up in small 
pieces, break the bones, and proceed as direct- 
ed for Venison Soup, adding three onions in- 
stead of one, and a bunch of sweet herbs. 
Hares or squirrels may be used instead of rabbit. 

II. Cut down into joints, flour, and fry lightly, 
two full grown, or three young rabbits ; add to 
them three onions of moderate size, also fried 
to a clear brown ; on these pour gradually seven 
pints of boiling water, throw in a large tea- 
spoonful of salt, clear off all the scum with care 
as it rises, and then put to the soup a faggot of 
parsley, four not very large carrots, and a small 
teaspoonful of peppercorns ; boil the whole 
very softly from five to five and a half hours ; 
add more salt if needed,strain off the soup, let it 
cool sufficiently for the fat to be skimmed clean 
from it, heat it afresh, and send it to table with 
sippets of fried bread. Spice, with a thicken- 
ing of rice flour, or of wheaten flour browned in 
the oven, and mixed with a spoonful or two of 
very good mushroom catsup, or of Harvey's 
sauce, can be added at pleasure to the above, 
with a few drops of eschalot wine, or vinegar ; 
but the simple receipt will be found extremely 
good without them. 

Rice Soup. — This soup may be served either 
thickened with the rice, or clear. For the form- 



er, wash and wipe in a dry cloth eight ounces of 
rice, and add it (in small portions at a time) to 
f6ur quarts of hot soup (any kind of clear meat 
soup), of which the boiling must not be checked 
as it is thrown in ; boil it slowly an hour and a 
half, and serve. When a clear soup is wanted, 
wash the rice, boil it in water five minutes, 
drain it well, throw it into as much boiling stock 
or broth as will keep it covered till it is done, 
and simmer it very gently until the grains are 
tender but still separate ; drain it, drop it into 
the soup, and let it remain in it a few minutes 
before it is served, but without simmering. 

An easy mode of making rice soup is this : 
put the rice into plenty of cold water, set it on 
the fire, and when it boils add a small quantity 
of salt ; let it simmer ten minutes ; then drain 
it well, throw it into the boiling souj^, and sim- 
mer it gently from ten to fifteen minutes longer. 

Sago Soup. — Wash in several waters, and 
float off the dirt from three ounces of fine pearl 
sago ; put it into three pints of good cold gravy ; 
let it stew gently from half to three-quarters of 
an hour, and stir it occasionally, that it may 
not burn nor stick to the stew-pan. (A quarter 
of an ounce more of sago to each pint of liquid, 
will thicken it to the consistence of peas soup.) 
It may be flavored with a tablespoonful of 
Harvey's sauce, as much cayenne as it may 
need, the juice of half a lemon, half an ounce 
of sugar, and a glass of sherry. Or these may 
be omitted, and good beef-broth may be sub- 
stituted for the gravy-soup, for a simple family 
dinner, or for an invalid. Or again, it may 
be converted into inexpensive white soup by 
the addition of some cream smoothly mixed 
with a dessertspoonful of arrow-root, or of thick 
cream and new milk in equal portions ; veal 
broth would be the most appropriate for this, 
or it might be made with half veal and half 
mutton. 

Sorrel Soup. — Carefully wash half a pound 
of sorrel, and having picked, cut it in shreds ; 
put it into a stew-pan with two ounces of fresh 
butter, and stir over the fire for ten minutes. 
Now stir in an ounce of flour, mix well togeth- 
er, and add a pint and a half of good white 
stock, made as for veal broth. Let it simmer 
for half an hour. Having skimmed the soup, 
stir in the yolks of three eggs beaten up in 
half a pint of milk or cream. Stir in a little 
pat of butter, and when dissolved pour the 
soup over thin sippets of French roll in the 
soup tureen. 

Tapioca Soup. — This is made in all res- 
pects like sago soup, but it must be simmered 
from fifty minutes to an hour. 

Tomato Soup. — Put three pounds of beef, 
veal, or lamb into a gallon of cold water, set on 
the fire and boil the meat to rags and the 
water down to two quarts ; strain the stock away 
from the meat, and return it to the pot ; add 
two quarts of fresh tomatoes, peeled and cut 
up very fine, and boil half an hour ; season with 
parsley, or any other green herb, salt and pepper; 
strain again, stir in a teaspoonful of sugar and a 
tablespoonful of butter, and serve at once. 



SOUP 



507 



Canned tomatoes may be used instead of the 
fresh ; a chopped onion and a handful of chop- 
ped okra boiled with the tomatoes would im- 
prove the soup. 

Turkey Soup may be made from the " leav- 
ings" of a roast turkey by the addition of a little 
fresh meat. Cut two pounds of lean beef into 
small pieces, and pour to it five pints of cold wa- 
ter ; heat it very slowly ; skim the liquor when it 
begins to boil, and add to it an ounce of salt, a 
small onion, a little celery, and the meat and 
bones of the turkey, with any gravy or stuffing 
that may have been left with them. Let these 
boil gently for about three hours ; then strain 
off the soup through a coarse sieve or cullen- 
der, and let it cool till the fat can be entirely 
removed from it. When this is done, return 
it to the pot or stew-pan, thicken with rice which 
has previously been boiled very dry, and season 
with a heaping tablespoonful of chopped pars- 
ley, and as much salt and pepper or cayenne 
as may be required ; boil gently for ten minutes, 
and serve. 

Turnip Soup. — ^L Make in exactly the same 
manner as Cat-rot Soup. 

II. Wash and wipe the turnips, pare and 
weigh them ; allow a pound and a half for 
every quart of soup. Cut them in slices about 
a quarter of an inch thick. Melt four ounces 
of butter in a clean stew-pan, and put in the 
turnips before it begins to boil ; stew them 
gently for three-quarters of an hour, taking 
care that they shall not brown, then have the 
proper quantity of soup ready boiling, pour it 
to them, and let them simmer in it for three- 
quarters of an hour. Pulp the whole through 
a coarse sieve or soup strainer, put it again on 
the fire, keep it stirred until it has boiled three 
or four minutes, take off the scum, add salt or 
pepper if required, and serve it very hot. 

III. Pare and slice into three pints of veal or 
mutton stock or of good broth, three pounds 
of young mild turnips ; stew them gently from 
twenty-five to thirty minutes, or until they can 
be reduced quite to pulp ; rub the whole 
through a sieve, and add to it another quart of 
stock, a seasoning of salt and white pepper, and 
one lump of sugar ; give it two or three min- 
utes' boil, skim and serve it. A large white 
onion, when the flavor is liked, may be sliced 
and stewed with the turnips. A Httle cream 
improves much the color of this soup. 

Turtle Soup. — L The green turtle is best 
for this purpose. Cut the desired quantity of 
the meat into dice, and throw it in boiling 
water for two or three minutes ; then put it into 
a stew-pan with one-fourth as much ham, also 
cut in dice, and some sliced onion ; season 
with salt, pepper, parsley, thyme, and bay-leaf ; 
add a wineglassful of Madeira or of good 
brandy, cover the whole with strong beef or 
veal broth, set on a good fire, and boil about 
an hour. Ten minutes before taking from the 
fire, chop the eggs of the turtle, after having 
boiled them, and add them to the soup ; if the 
turtle has none, chop and use the yolks of hard 
boiled eggs instead. When done, throw away 



the parsley, thyme, and bay-leaf, turn the soup 
into a tureen, and flavor with grated lemon-peel. 
Serve hot. 

It may be strained before putting it into the 
tureen, if desired, but it is better to serve the 
meat with it. 

n. (Dried Turtle.) — Take a quarter of a pound 
of dried turtle {see Turtle), soak it in cold 
water for tJwee days, and then stew it in three 
quarts of strong veal stock for six hours ; take 
the turtle out and set the soup aside to cool ; 
when cold take off all the fat, and return the 
soup to the pot ; fry one small onion in butter, 
and add it to the soup ; boil about ten minutes 
and strain. Cut the turtle up, not too small, 
and put it into the strained soup ; add a tea- 
spoonful of Worcestershire sauce, and a wine- 
glassful of sherry, season to taste with salt and 
cayenne, and simmer all together a few minutes 
before serving. Send sliced lemon round with 
it. This quantity is enough for twelve persons, 
is an excellent soup, and costs scarcely half as 
much as green turtle soup. 

Veal Soup. — Take a knuckle of veal and 
put it into a pot witli enough salted water to 
cover it ; add a pound of lean ham, set it on a 
moderate fire, and boil gently till the meat is 
very tender ; then take up the meat, strain the 
soup, return it to the pot, and add a head of 
celery chopped fine, one onion, a carrot and a 
turnip sliced, four tomatoes also sliced, a dozen 
peppercorns, and salt to taste ; thicken with 
three tablespoonfuls of rice, or vermicelli, or a 
thin flour-paste ; simmer gently till all the vege- 
tables are done, and serve hot. This is an ex- 
cellent plain soup. 

Vegetable Soup. — Take all kinds of vege- 
tables, slice them thin, put them into a stew-pan 
with a good lump of butter, and stew until quite 
tender ; then add any stock, gravy, or broth there 
happens to be in the house, thicken with either 
flour or bread-crumbs, and season with pepper 
and salt to taste ; boil ten minutes and serve. 

Venison Soup.— Cut three pounds of venison 
and one pound of ham or salt pork into small 
pieces, and put them into a pot with a head of 
celery chopped fine and a sliced onion; pour in 
just enough cold water to cover them, and boil 
gently for an hour; then add two quarts of 
boiling water, and season with a few blades of 
mace and a pinch of cayenne ; boil slowly two 
hours longer, strain the soup from the meat and 
vegetables, and return it to the pot ; salt to 
taste, and add a tablespoonful of butter ; thick- 
en with a tablespoonful of browned flour, made 
into a thin paste with four tablespoonfuls of 
cold water ; add a tablespoonful of mushroom 
or walnut catsup, a teaspoonful of Worcester- 
shire or any other pungent sauce, and a wine- 
glassful of sherry, or Madeira ; boil five minutes, 
and serve hot. 

Vermicelli Soup. — L Put a shin of veal 
into a pot with four quarts of cold water, and 
add two carrots, two turnips, and two onions, 
all cut up into small pieces ; boil slowly for 
three hours, strain the soup from the meat and 
vegetables, and return it to the pot ; add two 



508 



SOUR-KROUT 



SPECTACLES 



teacupfuls of vermicelli and boil half an hour 
longer. 

(Without Meat). — II. Blanch six ounces of 
vermicelli by setting on the lire in cold water ; 
when it boils, drain off the water and put it 
again into cold water; let it remain a few 
niinutes, drain the water entirely from it, and 
put it into a sauce-pan with two quarts of milk ; 
boil it till tender; meanwhile beat up the yolks 
of four eggs, add gradually to them a pint of 
boiling cream, and strain through a sieve ; now 
lift off the sauce-pan, add the eggs and cream, a 
small lump of white sugar, and a teaspoonf ul of 
salt ; stir the soup over the fire till it is near 
the boiling-point, and then serve. 

White Soup. — Break the bone of a knuckle 
of veal in one or two places, and put it on to 
stew, with three quarts of cold water to five 
pounds of meat ; when it has been quite cleared 
from scum, add to it an ounce and a half of salt, 
and one mild onion, twenty white pepper-corns, 
and two or three blades of mace, with a little 
cayenne pepper. When the soup is reduced 
one third by slow simmering, strain it off, and 
set it by till cold ; then free it carefully from 
the fat and sediment, and heat it again in a 
very clean stew-pan. Mix with it, when it boils, 
a pint of thick cream smoothly mixed with an 
ounce of good arrowroot, two ounces of very 
fresh vermicelli previously boiled tender in 
water slightly salted and well drained {rom it, 
and an ounce and a half of almonds blanched 
and cut in stripes. Give it one minute's boiling, 
and turn into the tureen. 

SOUR-KROUT. {See Sauer-Kraut.) 

SOUSE. — This is made either of the head, 
ears, and tongue of pigs (-when it is sometimes 
called Head-Cheese), or of the ears and feet 
only. To make the former : — Boil the head, 
ears, and tongue in salted water until the meat 
is ready to drop from the bones; take out the 
bones, and chop the meat very fine as for sau- 
sage. Season the liquor well with pepper, salt, 
cloves, nutmeg, and cinnamon, or with pepper, 
salt, and sweet herbs ; mix the meat with it, and 
while hot tie in a strong bag, and lay a board 
with a heavy stone upon it till quite cold. Or 
it may be packed into pans or moulds, and a 
plate with a weight placed over it till cold. In 
the latter case drain off the liquor as it is pres- 
sed out. The souse will be ready for use in two 
days, or it may be kept several weeks by 
immersing it in enough cold vinegar to cover it. 
It is usually sliced and eaten cold for supper, 
but it may also be fried lightly in butter. 

Or, cleanse pigs' ears and feet thoroughly, 
and soak them in salt and water for a week, 
changing the water every other day ; then boil 
them till they are tender. When cold, put 
them into stone jars and pour on them boiling 
vinegar, strongly spiced with pepper-corns and 
mace ; cloves improve the taste, but turn 
them a dark color ; add a little salt. They may 
be kept in this way five or six weeks. When 
wanted, either fry them in lard, or dip them in 
beaten egz and then in cracker-crumbs before 
frying. The feet may be eaten cold. 



SOY. — Put on the fire i s^^ lbs. of sugar with 
a half pint of water ; boil rapidly until it begins 
to look frothy, and on being dropped from the 
spoon has the appearance of thick gum; then 
slacken the heat and stir it faithfully until it, 
looks very dark, almost black; then add to it 
1 6 oz of salt, 1 6 cloves, 5 anchovies, a bunch 
of thyme, a bunch of marjoram, 12 blades of 
mace, 8 large bay leaves, and a quart of water; 
boil until the sugar is dissolved, then strain, 
and bottle it tightly. 

SPASM. — The violent and uncontrollable 
action of some particular set of muscles. 
Spasms are generally described as of two sorts, 
viz. : tonic and clonic. In tonic spasms the 
muscles of a part contract violently, and remain 
rigid and immovable by the will of the patient 
for a greater or less length of time. Such con- 
tractions occur in tetanus and in ordinary cramp. 
Clonic spasms consist in sudden contraction 
and relaxations regularly alternating. The 
jumping of the legs and arms, which occur 
under certain conditions, are examples of this. 

Spasms, again, in the ordinary sense of the 
word as used by the vulgar, mean gripes, and 
commonly depend on indigestion and constipa- 
tion. In most cases they are best relieved by 
a purgative, containing a good deal of stimu- 
lant substance, such as the essential oils. In 
children, the so-called spasms depend almost 
invariably on imperfect digestion of food, which 
ferments in the bowels, and so gives rise to 
diarrhoea and gripes. To do any permanent 
good in these cases, it is necessary to reform 
the diet completely, as they are perhaps most 
commonly due to giving starchy food too early ; 
or the milk given turns sour. Limewater given 
along with the milk is a good thing. One par- 
ticular form of spasm, called ti'ismtis nasceti- 
tiinn, is very fatal to children when newly 
born. It seems due to a foul atmosphere. 

SPECTACLES (Hints on the use of).— 
From a valuable little book, " Practical Re- 
marks on Impaired Vision," by Mr. Cooper, 
the well-known London optician, we extract the 
following: — " It cannot be too strongly urged 
upon any one about to use spectacles for 
the first time that that power which will enable 
him to read without much exertion by candle- 
light is the only power suitable for him. It is 
by candle-light only that he should use glasses 
at first, and as soon as he finds that he stands 
in need of glasses by day as well as by candle- 
light, and that the glasses he uses no longer 
afford him sufficient assistance by candle-light, 
It will be proper to use the next power for the 
evening, but for the evening only, and to al- 
low himself the use of the others — and their 
use only — during the day. 

"The greatest caution as to increasing the 
power of glasses should be observed ; for per- 
sons who change their glasses, unnecessarily 
increasing their power each time, are exhausting 
the resources of art, instead of economizing 
them as much as possible. Optical aid can 
only be extended to a certain point, and the 
steps to that point should be as slow and 



SPERMACETI 



SPINACH 



509 



as numerous as possible. By exercising prudent 
precautions, persons may often attain great age, 
and yet never require the aid of glasses beyond 
a very moderate power ; others, on the contrary, 
who from ignorance frequently increase the 
power of their glasses, may run through the 
whole assortment, and leave themselves only 
the most inconvenient resources to fall back 
upon — viz., the very highest powers."* 

Common, cheap spectacles sometimes appear 
to answer as well as those which cost three or 
four times as much ; but cheap glasses are not 
to be depended upon ; they are sometimes 
ground irregularly and imperfectly, and then 
they injure the eyes. It is better, therefore, to 
have spectacles from a respectable optician, 
who has a character to maintain. Spectacles 
having lenses called pebbles^ which is rock 
crystal, are not liable to be scratched like glass ; 
but they are not in any degree better than those 
of glass for the eyesight; and if care be taken 
of the latter they do just as well. 

There are three kinds of spectacle-glasses, 
the Comdex, the concave, and the periscopic. 
The first are to correct short sight, the second 
to correct long sight, while the periscopic are 
for either. This last description of lens is 
both concave and convex, the former on the 
side nearest the eye, the latter on the side 
furthest from it. For long sight, as well as 
short, the convexity and concavity are made to 
differ so as to furnish any required focus. It 
is to be observed that in glasses of this form 
the aberration of light is greater than in any 
other lenses, and that periscopic glasses are 
liable to be scratched. They have, however, 
one very great advantage, which is this :— With 
common glasses, especially concave, the wearer 
can see only through the exact middle of the 
lens ; he must, therefore, turn his head when- 
ever he directs his view to any lateral object. 
With periscopic glasses he may see through 
any part of them, and can observe objects by 
his side without turning his head. If, however, 
periscopic glasses be defectively made, they 
are injurious to the eyes. They should be 
gauged and examined before they are pur- 
chased, to be assured of their accuracy. 

SPERMACETI. — A white, waxy substance 
obtained from the head of the sperm whale, 
where it lies encased in a large hollow, which 
contains from half a ton to a ton of it mixed 
with sperm oil. The two together are pressed 
in horse-hair bags from which the oil runs out, 

* In his "Physiology for Practical Use" Dr. Hinton ob- 
serves on this point : — " The risk of using them [spectacles] 
too strong is not great, and the subject may be allowed to se- 
lect for himself those that suit him best for reading. They 
ought to enable him to read easily at twelve inches' distance. 
It is a natural result from the slowly progressive character of 
the failure of sight, that stronger and stronger glasses will be 
necessary as age advances. If the progress is rapid, and es- 
pecially if the glasses do not relieve it so much aftera while as 
they did at first, then advice is needed. You sometimes notice 
at church an old man with his spectacles on the tip of his nose, 
and his prayer-book held as far off as possible. These are 
sure signs that he wants stronger glasses. The effect of put- 
ting the spectacles further from the eyes is to increase their 
power. The glasses used ought, however, to be strong enough 
to allow of their being kept close to the eyes, and it ought not 
to be necessary to hold the book more than a foot away." 



leaving the spermaceti itself behind, and it only 
requires to be heated and skimmed, and then 
washed with a solution of potash to make it fit 
for the market as pure spertnaceti This has 
little or no smell or taste, and is of a semi- 
transparent whitish color, which is more bril- 
liant than that of wax. By the assistance of a 
wick it burns with a clear white flame, superior 
to that of tallow, and without any disagreeable 
odor ; consequently it is much employed in the 
manufacture of candles. {See Candles.) It 
also possesses the property of softening the 
skin, and is much .used in making cold cream, 
pomatums, etc. In medicine it is the principal 
ingredient of the well-known spermaceti oiiit- 
tnent (consisting of spermaceti, white wax, and 
almond oil), which is largely used as an emol- 
lient, and applied to coverings of various kinds 
to keep them from adhering to sores. To 
make, melt together half an ounce of sperma- 
ceti, a quarter of an ounce of white wax, and 
two ounces of almond oil. 

SPICE-BUSH.— A favorite shrub for the 
garden, of which there are many species, all 
bearing a general resemblance to each other. 
The foliage is of a light glossy green, which is 
highly ornamental, and though the flowers are 
rather dull in color, they are extremely fra- 
grant. The entire plant — leaves, branches, and 
flowers — is highly aromatic; and it is sometimes 
called the strawberry shrub, from a fancied 
resemblance to the odor of that berry. Plant 
it in spring in a rich soil, and in a sunny part 
of the garden. 

SPICES. — The ordinary spices which are 
used in housekeeping, and which are sold by 
the grocers, are allspice or pimejito, cinnamon, 
cloves, ginger, mace, mustard, nutmegs, and 
pepper (white, black, and cayenne). These 
are all treated of in their respective places, and 
need only be enumerated here. 

SPINACH.— This excellent vegetable (also 
called Spinage) succeeds well in any good gar- 
den soil, and by a succession of crops is kept 
in season throughout the greater portion of the 
year. The best varieties are the broad-leaved, 
Savoy or curly-leaved, and prickly-leaved. The 
Flanders is the most desirable kind of all, its 
leaves being the largest and most succulent. 
The New Zealand Spinach thrives best during 
the heat of summer. Spinach is generally 
boiled as greens, but it may also be used in 
soups and stews. 

Boiled Spinach — Boil it very green and 
tender in plenty of water, drain, and press all 
the moisture from it ; then chop it fine, put it 
into a clean sauce-pan, with a slice of butter, 
and stir the whole until well mixed and very 
hot ; smooth it in a hot dish, mark it in dice, 
and send to table. 

A common English way of preparing spinach 
is to pick leaf by leaf from the stalks, and to 
free it by frequent washings from every particle 
of sand or earth ; then put it into a sauce-pan 
or stew-pan, with the water only which clings 
about it ; throw in a teaspoonful of salt, and 
keep the spinach constantly pressed down with 



510 



SPIREA 



SQUASH 



a wooden spoon, and turned often, for about a 
quarter of an hour, or until perfectly tender ; 
drain, chop quickly, dish, and serve at once. 
Garnish with fried bits of bread. Season with 
butter, cream, pepper, and salt. 

SPIREA. — This deservedly popular shrub 
in some one of its very numerous varieties is 
found in every garden. It is perfectly hardy, 
and will thrive without attention under almost 
any conditions ; the foliage is ornamental, and 
the flowers are both beautiful and profuse. 
Plant in good soil, and treat every spring to a 
compost of manure. 

Among the best varieties W general cultiva- 
tion are S. Bella^ flowers pink, in June ; .5". Cal- 
losa, flowers red and pink, all the season ; S. 
ya/^wzVrt, dwarf, flowers white, in June; ^. Opu- 
lifolio, flowers white, in June ; S. Prjinifolia, 
flowers white, in May ; S. Revesii, clusters of 
pure white flowers, in June ; S. Salcifolia, flow- 
ers white, tinted with rose, in June and July. 

SPIRIT-LAMP. {See Lamp.) 

SPIRITS. — This term was formerly applied 
by chemists to all volatile substances collected 
by distillation. Three principal kinds were 
distinguished : inflammable or ardent spirits, 
acid spirits, and alkaline spirits ; at present the 
name is almost exclusively confined to the first. 
Pure spirits is alcohol. Proof spirits is that 
which comes up to the legal standard. Spirits 
of wine or rectified spirit is the most concen 
trated form in which it can be prepared in large 
quantities for the purposes of trade. {See 
Alcohol, Arrack, Brandy, Gin, Liqueurs, 
Rum, Whiskey, and Wine.) 

SPONGE, when new, usually contains a 
great deal of sand, which must be carefully 
worked out. The best is extremely fine and 
soft to the touch, while the common kinds have 
a rough texture with large pores. Sponge may 
be kept a long time by attention to the following 
rules : Never wring a sponge, as this breaks the 
fibres and injures its elasticity ; squeeze it as 
dry as possible after using, and hang it by a 
string to dry in the air. Leaving it soapy soon 
spoils a sponge ; when used with soap it 
should be squeezed well in warm water, and 
left to lie a few minutes in cold. 

SPONGE POULTICE.— A sheet of felt or 
sponge kept by druggists, which can be soaked 
in hot water and used as a poultice. Very 
clean and convenient. 

SPRAINS. — Wherever muscles and tend- 
ons bind together joints or different bones 
there may be a sprain, but the most common 
sprains are those of the ankle, wrist, knee, and 
back. Before proceeding to treat a sprain, be 
certain that it is one and not a fracture, for the 
feelitts; is the same in both. Examine the joint 
carefully, compare it with the other one, and if 
any bone be loose or pushed out of place, go at 
once to a physician. If it is only a sprain (a 
fact which frequently can only be determined 
by a physician), wrap up the part in several 
folds of flannel, dipped in water as hot as can 
be borne with comfort, and cover it with a dry 
bandage ; if possible, with a sheet of oiled silk 



or sheet gutta percha. If it is very pamful, wet 
a piece of linen or cotton cloth with laudanum, 
place this next the skin, and cover with the wet 
flannel as before. Many kinds of poultices 
have a popular reputation for sprains ; so long 
as they are wet, soft, and warm, they are use- 
ful ; but nothing is so cleanly and so effective 
as the laudanum and hot water. 

Sprains can only be cured by thorough rest 
of the injured part. The part must be kept 
quiet not only while painful, but even after the 
pain has gone ; for by exercising the joint too 
soon, great mischief may be done. Keep the 
warm applications on constantly till all pain 
and inflammation are gone ; then, twice a day, 
hold the joint under a tap or stream of cold 
water for a few minutes, till it begins to feel 
painful ; then bind it up with a common band- 
age, and bring it back to its work very gradu- 
ally. A great deal of pain and swelling can be 
avoided by keeping the limb in a proper posi- 
tion. Whether wrist or ankle, it imist not hang 
down. If it be the wrist, let it be comfortably 
supported in a sling; if the ankle, let the per- 
son lie or sit with the foot raised as high as is 
comfortable. When the back is sprained the 
patient must lie as quiet as possible in bed 
until all pain has ceased ; as soon as he can 
sit up comfortably, some stimulating liniment 
may be used, and a warm poultice applied to 
the loins. 

SPRATS. — There are none of these excel- 
lent little fish in or near American waters ; they 
are imported under their French name Sardines. 

SPROUTS.— A ragged leaved plant that 
grows somewhat like the dandelion, in a tuft or 
cluster of long leaves, which make excellent 
greens when young and tender. It is in season 
very early in spring, and remains fit for use 
until the flower stalk begins to grow, when the 
leaves become tough and bitter. Sprouts are 
one of the few vegetables which lose but little 
of their bulk when boiled. Prepare, cook, and 
serve as directed for Spinach. 

SPRUCE-BEER. {See Beer.) 

SQUABS. {See Pigeon.) 

SQUASH. — The varieties of this excellent 
vegetable are numerous, but are generally clas- 
sified as summer and winter squashes. Of the 
summer varieties the best are the early bush, 
which is the first ready for use, ihe. yellow but- 
ter, the scolloped bush, and the crook-neck; 
these are in season from June to August. Of 
the winter varieties, the Boston marrow is the 
best of the early sort, Yokahama is good, and 
the Hiibbard is best of all. The latter will 
keep all winter, if stored in a dry place. To 
raise squash, plant four or five seeds together, 
in hills far enough apart to allow the vines to 
run. They do well in any good garden soil. 

Boiled Squash. — Summer squashes, if very 
young and tender, maybe boiled whole ; other- 
wise it is best to pare them, cutting away 
as little besides the thin outer rind as possi- 
ble ; quarter them, and take out the seed. 
Boil till quite tender, and then put them in a 
strong cloth and press out all the water; mash 



SQUILL 



STAINING - 



611 



them perfectly smooth, season them to taste 
with salt, pepper, and butter, and serve hot. 

Winter squashes require more boiling than 
the summer kinds. Cut in narrow strips, pare 
off the rind, drop the pieces into hot water, 
and boil till tpnder. Dress as before, or cut 
in pieces four inches square, bake and serve 
like potatoes. 

SQUILL. — The bulb of the sea onion sliced 
and dried. It grows along the shores of the 
Mediterranean, partly in the water. 

SQUIRREL— Cook as directed for Rabbit. 

STAIN. — Directions for removing most of 
the stains which are liable to be received in 
the operations of the household are given un- 
der special articles. {See Ink-stains, Mar- 
ble, Mildew, Mould, and Paint.) 

Acid Stains. — These will generally yield to 
an application of ammonia or hartshorn. To 
take acid stains out of linen, wet the part and 
lay on it some oxalate of potash (salt of sorrel), 
or essential salt of lemons ; rub it without di- 
luting with more water, and then wash it out. 
Or, tie up in the stained part some pearlash ; 
then scrape some soap with cold water to make 
a lather, and boil the linen in it till the stain 
disappears. Nitric acid stains require the ap- 
plication of permanganate of potash solution 
and then the fabric while moist should be ex- 
posed to the fumes of burning sulphur. If the 
spot is small, burning a sulphur match under 
it will usually suffice. 

Alkaline Stains. — These should be treated 
with weak acids ; for instance, if the color be 
taken out of cloth by whitewash, wash it with 
strong vinegar. 

Bleaching powder (chloride of lime) so- 
lution, Javelle water or Labarraque's solu- 
tion should not be applied to any but white 
goods, as they will usually partially or entirely 
remove the color from dyed fabrics. 

Fruit stains. — -Moisten with solution of 
bleaching powder or javelle water followed by 
a solution of i part muriatic acid to 5 of water. 

Mildew on cotton. — Steep in solution of 
washing soda, then apply solution of bleaching 
powder or javelle water, and then a solution of 
one part muriatic acid to 5 of water. 

Milk Stains. — Should be first washed with 
benzine to remove the fatty portion of the milk 
and afterwards with warm borax water as strong 
as it can be made and containing potash at the 
rate of half an ounce to a pint; if the stain is old 
it cannot always be entirely removed. 

Nitrate of Silver Stains. — Wet the spots 
with cold water, rub into them some powdered 
iodide of potassium, and let it remain exposed 
to the light, keeping it slightly damp for a few 
hours. If the stain is not completely removed, 
repeat the process. 

Paint. — Bisulphide of carbon, or turpentine, 
will usually prove effective ; when old, chloro- 
form will remove it. 

Spots on colored fabrics. — May often be 
removed by a mixture of ammonia and alcohol ; 
the color may sometimes be dulled by the 
ammonia, when a little weak oxalic acid will 
brighten it. 



StEiins of aniline red (magenta). — May be 

removed by cyanide of potassium. 

Tar. — May be removed by first applying 
butter or oil, allowing it to stand on the spot for 
a short time then scraping off or otherwise 
removing the excess and then applying turpen- 
tine, afterwards a mixture of turpentine and 
benzine and finally benzine alone. Paint may 
also be removed in this manner. 

Wine Stains. — Rub the linen on each side 
with yellow soap, then lay on the mixture of 
starch and cold water very thick ; rub it well 
in, and expose the linen to the sun and air till 
the stain comes out. If not removed in three 
or four days, rub the starch, etc., off, and re- 
peat the application. 

STAINING. (For dyeing woven fabrics and 
leather see Dyes.) 

Bone, Horn or Ivory, maybe colored red by 
first soaking in hydrochloric (muriatic) acid 
(commercial acid diluted with an equal bulk of 
water) and then in an ammonia solution of picric 
(carbazotic) acid and magenta. Use " strong 
ammonia" diluted with 3 or 4 volumes of water, 
picric acid in proportion of i oz. to i gal. of the 
solution, and magenta enough to give the de- 
sired shade. If yellow alone is desired, use the 
picric acid alone. Blue is apphed by a bath con- 
taining soluble indigo (sulphate), and carbonate 
of soda sufficient to neutralize the acid of the 
solution, so that the last addition of soda gives 
no perceptible effervescence. 

Grasses, &c. may be colored by dipping in 
water containing coal-tar colors {see Dyes,) in 
solution. Hot borax water will color immor- 
telles yellow to orange. If any other color is 
desired upon immortelles, the yellow coloring 
matter naturally existing in them must first be 
removed by dipping them in boiling soap suds 
and drying,' after which the color may be ap- 
plied. 

Metals may be superficially colored by 
a solution of 4 oz. hyposulphite of soda in i ''/i 
pints of water, mixed with a solution contain- 
ing I oz. sugar of lead in the same bulk of wat- 
er. The solutions should be mixed cold, the 
articles then introduced and the temperature 
gradually raised. Lead and tin are not colored 
by this process. Iron takes a steel blue, zinc a 
bronze, and copper or brass a yellow, reddish 
or blue tint, according to the length of time the 
articles are immersed. By using blue vitriol 
(sulphate of copper) instead of the sugar of lead, 
brass may be made to take a rosy, green or 
brown color according to the time of immer- 
sion. 

"Wood may be colored yellow to brown 
by the use of nitric acid, (i part concentrated 
acid to 3 of water) or permanganate of potash, 
{% lb. to I gallon of water) or by asphaltum in 
turpentine ; black by repeated application of a 
decoction of equal parts of Brazilwood chips, 
powdered gallnuts and alum ; cherry by anatto 
(4 oz. in 3 qts. water) with sufficient potash to 
give the desired tint ; purple by a decoction of 
logwood chips in about three times their weight 
of water, pearlash and indigo ; blue by copper 



512 



STARCH 



STEWING 



filings dissolved in nitric acid (i part filings in 
6 to 8 parts commercial acid), followed by solu- 
tion of pearlash (2 0zs. in i pint of water) \green 
by a mixture of verdigris and vinegar, i part 
verdigris, 8 of water, 9 of vinegar and about 
y^ part of sap green. 

Small articles in wood may be colored with 
the coal-tar colors (see Dyes) by dipping them 
first in a mixture of i part oHve oil, i part cal- 
cined soda, and 12 parts boiling water. They 
will then take a stain from a water solution of 
any of the coal-tar colors. 

STARCH. — Commercially there are two 
classes of starch, those used as food and those 
for the laundry. For the former, see Arrow- 
root, Sago, and Tapioca. Laundry starch 
is usually made of wheat or rice. Poland starch 
is considered superior to the American or Eng- 
lish. There is a potato-starch, which, though 
inferior to these, has the advantage that it can 
be easily made at home. Wash good mealy 
potatoes, grate them in a pan or tub of clean 
water and stir well. Soon the thickest part will 
subside to the bottom; then pour off all the 
white water into another vessel, keeping back 
all the pulp. Add more water to the pulp, stir 
again, and pour the whitened water off as be- 
fore. Repeat this process as long as the water 
comes off whitish. Let the whitened water that 
was poured off remain undisturbed for some 
time, and the white part will settle to the bot- 
tom, leaving the water quite clear; this subsided 
matter is the starch. Pour off the water and 
dry the starch in the sun ; it will generally 
weigh one-fifth of the best potatoes. 

To make good flour-starch, mix flour gradu- 
ally with cold water, so that it may be free from 
lumps. Stir in cold water till it will pour easily; 
then stir it into a pot of boiling water, and let 
it boil five or six minutes, stirring it frequently. 
A tallow or spermaceti candle, stirred round in 
the starch several times, will make it smoother 
— strain it through a thick cloth. Starch made 
in this manner will answer for both cotton and 
linen very well. Some people do not boil their 
starch, but merely turn boiling water on the 
mixed flour and water, but it does not make 
clothes look nice. When rice is boiled in a pot 
without being tied up in a bag. the water in 
which it is boiled is as good as Poland starch 
for clear-starching muslins, if boiled to a thick 
consistency after it is turned off from the boiled 
rice, and then strained. Muslins to look clear, 
should be starched and clapped dry, while the 
starch is hot, then folded in a very damp cloth, 
and suffered to remain in it till they become 
quite damp, before ironing them. If muslins 
are sprinkled they are apt to look spotted. 
Garments that are not worn, when laid by, 
should not be starched, as it rots them when 
not exposed to the air. 

STEAM COOKER. {See Cooker.) 

STEAMING. — The application of steam to 
culinary purposes is becoming general in kitch- 
ens at the present day, especially in those of 
large establishments, many of which are fur- 
nished with apparatus for its use, so admirably 




Saucepan with Steamer. 



constructed and so complete, that the process 
may be conducted on an extensive scale with 
very slight trouble to the cook ; and with the 
further advantage of being at a distance from 
the fire, the steam being conveyed by pipes to 
the vessels intended to receive it. Fish, butch- 
ers' meat, poultry, vegetables, puddings, mac- 
caroni, and rice, are all subjected to its action, 
instead of being immersed in water, as in sim- 
ple boiling ; and the result is to many persons 
perfectly satisfactory ; though, as there is a dif- 
ference in opinion amongst first-rate cooks with 
regard to the comparative merits of the two 
modes of dressing 7neat and fish, a trial should 
be given to the steaming on a small scale be- 
fore any great expenses are incurred for it, 
which may be done 
easily enough with a 
common saucepan or 
boiler, fitted like the 
one shown here with 
a simple tin steam- 
er. Servants not ac- 
customed to the use 
of these, should be 
warned against boil- 
ing in the vessel itself 
any thing of coarse or 
strong flavor, when the article steamed is of a 
delicate nature. The vapor from soup contain- 
ing onions, for example, would have a very bad 
effect on a sweet pudding, and on many other 
dishes. Care and discretion, therefore, must 
be exercised on this point. The quite inexpe- 
rienced cook may require to be told that any 
article of food which is to be cooked by steam 
in a saucepan of the form exhibited in the en- 
graving must be prepared exactly as for boiling 
and laid into the sort of strainer affixed to the 
top of the sauce-pan ; and that water, or some 
other kind of liquid, must be put into the sauce- 
pan itself, and kept boiling in it, the lid being 
first closely fixed into the steamer. 

STEARINS. — A white, crystalline, neutral 
fat, existing in most oils and fats. It forms 
the largest constituent of mutton tallow, from 
which it may be separated by heating that sub- 
stance with ten times its volume of ether; and 
this is the chief source from which the stearine 
of commerce is derived. The well-known 
Stearine candles are among the best. 

STEWING. — Stewing differs from boiling 
{See Boiling) only in this, that the heat is never 
raised to the boiling point, but only to a very 
gentle simmering, with a very small quantity of 
water. Of course, it requires a much longer time 
to cook in this manner ; but in stewing, the tex- 
ture of the meat is rendered more tender, the 
gelatinous parts are more completely dissolved, 
and instead of a considerable part going into 
the water, as in boiling, the whole of the juices 
are preserved in the stew, which is therefore 
very nutritious. Stewing is therefore one of 
the best modes of cooking ; and it is also one 
of the most economical, for a very small quan- 
tity of fuel, properly applied, is sufficient to 
keep up the required simmering for a great 



STIMULANTS 



STOMACH-PUMP 



513 



length of time. The constant practice of stew- 
ing is one of the secrets of the perfection of 
French cookery. 

The enamelled or porcelain-lined stew-pans 
are much superior to the old-fashioned metal 
ones for most purposes. They should always 
be filled with water immediately after being 
used, and will then merely require to be well 
washed and rinsed with more boiling water; 
but when they have been neglected, strong 
soda and water should be boiled in them for a 
few minutes. 

STIFF-NECK. (Sef Neck.) 
STIMULANTS. — In medicine, stimulants 
are either general or local — that is to say, they 
either act on the whole system, or on indi- 
vidual parts. Thus, alcohol and ammonia act 
on the whole system, wkile mercury stimulates 
the glands and absorbents. This class of med- 
icines is, however, scarcely fit for domestic use. 
(a) Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 5 to 8 grains ; 
compound tincture of lavender, 20 minims ; 
sulphuric ether, 30 minims , camphor-mixture, 
I ounce. Mix. (A stimulating draught in case 
of faintness.) 

STINGS. — These are not often very serious, 
though of common occurrence. From mos- 
quito-bites to the stings of bees and hornets, 
the best remedies are Cologne-water, spirits of 
hartshorn (ammonia), and tincture of camphor. 
Sometimes the insect's sting is broken off in 
the wound, and it is therefore well to look for 
this ; it is known by the black dot in the centre 
of the poisoned spot. This can be seized by 
delicate forceps and pulled out, and the do- 
ing of this affords immediate relief. If it 
remain, there is no danger, as is commonly 
supposed ; the worst result is an increase of 
the soreness, and a formation of matter by 
which its discharge is after some time effected. 
STINKS, (^■^e Deodorizers.) 
STOCK — The water in which meat has been 
boiled as directed for soups ; it forms the basis 
of all soups and gravies. Stock made from 
fresh meat, is made exactly like soup, omitting 
the thickening and seasonings ; but by sav- 
ing the bones from roasts, etc., and using 
them as follows, a constant supply of it can 
be kept on hand at a very small cost : — Put 
whatever bones are at 
hand in a pot, cover them 
with cold water, and boil 
them slowly three or four 
hours ; then pour off the 
liquor into another pot, 
and add to each gallon 
the meat off a knuckle 
of veal, a pound of lean 
beef, and a pound of 
lean bacon, all sliced,with 
two or three scraped carrots, two onions, two 
turnips, and two quarts of water ; stew till the 
meat is quite tender, but do not let it burn. 
Stock thus prepared will serve either for soup 
or for brown or white gravy. (S^e Soup.) 
STOCKFISH. (See Hake.) 
STOCKINGS, Silk, To Wash.— To wash 
33 




Large Stockpot. 



w/it'/e silk stockings, make a lather of white 
soap and warm soft water ; stretch the stock- 
ings on a table, and with a roll of rough coarse 
cloth, dipped in the lather, rub them hard, first 
on one side, then on the other. Repeat the pro- 
cess with three lathers. Then dip them in three 
waters to rinse them, and when quite clean hang 
them up,without rinsing, the wrong side outward. 
When half dry take them down, stretch and 
pin them, the right side out, on a cloth. Do 
not iron them, but rub them till smooth with a 
small roll of clean flannel. 

To wash d/ac^ silk stockings, cut some white 
soap into thin bits and boil it in soft water till 
thoroughly dissolved ; then mix a little of it in 
cold water, adding a teaspoonful of gall. Hav- 
ing turned the stockings wrong side outward, 
and rubbed some of the boiled soap on the 
dirtiest places, wash them well through the 
lukewarm suds ; repeat the washing in fresh 
suds and water, till they are quite clean ; then 
rinse them through two cold waters, adding to 
the last a little blue from the blue-bag ; then 
squeeze them well, stretch them evenly, and 
hang them out immediately. While still damp, 
turn them right side out, stretch, and pin them 
on an ironing blanket, and with the end of a bit 
of roUed-up flannel, on a smooth stone, rub them 
hard and quick one way, till they are quite dry, 
and look smooth and glossy. This is better 
than to iron them, which always gives silk 
stockings an old appearance. 

STOMACH-PUMP. — This is an apparatus 
by means of which, in cases of poisoning, fluids 
can be introduced artificially into the stomach, 
or be withdrawn from this organ. It consists 
in a small pumping apparatus, to which is at- 
tached a long elastic tube of sufficient length 
to be passed down the gullet into the stomach. 
This tube, at the point where it passes into the 
mouth, is usually guarded from the action of 
the patient's teeth by a perforated gag of wood. 
The stomach-pump, though not used so fre- 
quently and indiscriminately as in former days, 
is, however, an invaluable and indispensable 
aid in the treatment of cases of poisoning by 
opium and other narcotics, and of extreme 
drunkenness caused by poisonous quantities of 
spirits. It may be laid down as a general rule, 
that the stomach-pump ought always to be used 
when the patient, under the influence of a nar- 
cotic or alcoholic poison, is too much exhausted 
or too insensible to swallow emetics or anti- 
dotes, or where, as in cases of attempted sui- 
cide, he obstinately refuses to swallow. One 
or two pints of lukewarm water should first be 
pumped into the stomach, and then be with- 
drawn with part of the contents of the stomach 
and of the poison. This process should be re- 
peated until the injected water, when pumped 
back again, is found to be clear and colorless. 
Very often, however, the simple introduction of 
the stomach-pump, or the presence of a small 
quantity of warm water, will cause vomiting ; 
but in cases of intense narcotic poisoning, the 
stomach is generally insensible to the presence 
of the tube, and requires to be well washed 



614 



STRAINERS 



STRAWBERRY 



out. When, in dases of poisoning, the patient 
is able or wiUing to swallow, and vomiting can 
be produced by the frequent administration of 
warm drinks, the stomach-pump ought not to 
be used. This instrument is not always a 
harmless one, and when used by inexperienced 
hands, and in circumstances exciting haste and 
confusion, may do considerable mischief. The 
mucous membrane of the throat, gullet, or 
stomach, may be wounded by the violent in- 
troduction of the tube, and some bleeding from 
the raw surfaces may be produced. A more 
serious accident is the introduction of the tube 
into the air-passages instead of the gullet and 
stomach. A case has been recorded in which 
after death from sulphuric acid poisoning 
treated by the stomach-pump, the windpipe, 
bronchi, and large portions of the spongy tissue 
of the lungs were found choked and plugged 
with chalk mixture, which it had been intended 
to introduce into the stomach. Another dan- 
ger attending the use of the stomach-pump is 
laceration of the mucous membrane of the 
stomach, strips of which are drawn into the 
orifices of the tube as the fluid contents of the 
stomach are being withdrawn. This occurs 
only in cases where the inner coat of the stom- 
ach has been softened by some corrosive agent, 
and on this account it has been laid down as a 
rule that the stomach-pump ought not, except 
under special circumstances, to be used in cases 
of poisoning by the mineral acids. 

STOVES. {See Warming.) 

STRAINERS. — These are made of cloths, 
of metal, of earthenware pierced with holes, or 
of wire-cloth. The cloth strainers are best, and 
those made of metal should not be used at all. 

STRAMONIUM. — By this term is com- 
monly implied the leaves of the Datura Stra- 
moniutn or Thorn Apple, but the seeds of the 
same plant are also now used to a considerable 
extent. The leaves are large and much in- 
dented at the edges, with a peculiarly rank and 
disagreeable odor. These should be gathered 
when the plant is flowering. The seeds are 
very small, kidney-shaped, and rough on the 
surface, and have a peculiar taste. All parts 
of the plant contain an alkaloid identical with 
that contained in belladonna, but called datura 
instead of atrophia. This may be obtained in 
white crystals, which yield a peculiar odor on 
being moistened by sulphuric acid. The prep- 
arations are made from the seeds only, and are 
an extract and tincture. The leaves are mainly 
used for smoking. 

The properties of stramonium are much like 
those of belladonna, as might be expected 
from their similarity of composition. Never- 
theless, stramonium, more perhaps from habit 
than anything else, is most frequently given 
for maladies which are not usually treated by 
belladonna. Stramonium is, in point of fact, 
prescribed almost entirely for spasmodic lung 
affections, especially asthma. For this malady, 
whether merely spasmodic or partly dependent 
on disease of the organ itself, stramonium is 
usually prescribed in the form of tincture, or 



the leaves are given for smoking. These gen- 
erally do well, and procure relief for a time at 
all events. Dose, 20 minims of the tincture 
three or four times a day. 

Stramonium is sometimes given with the 
intention of relieving pain. An ointment may 
be made of the leaves and spread over a pain- 
ful part, but this plan is not often adopted. 
For smoking, twenty grains of the dried leaf 
may be made into a cigarette and smoked, 
taking care to inhale the smoke. This at 
first gives rise to cough, but by-and-by pro- 
fuse expectoration follows, and then comes 
relief. Some mix stramonium with tobacco, 
but the smoke of this is more irritating, and 
cannot well be inhaled. In some cases stra- 
monium fails altogether, and in all the dose 
must be increased. The Datura tatula has 
been used for smoking like the Datura Stra- 
monium. 

STRANGULATION. {See Choking.) 
STRAWBERRY. — The strawberry belongs 
only to temperate and rather cold climates, and 
no fruit of these latitudes that ripens without the 
aid of artificial heat is comparable to it in point 
of flavor. It has also a delicious fragrance, it 
is sub-acid and cooling, and has the peculiar 
advantage of not creating acidity when taken 
into the stomach. It is nutritious and very 
wholesome, and may be safely eaten where 
other fruit is forbidden ; physicians indeed 
rank strawberries among their pleasant reme- 
dies, particularly in cases of fever. There arc 
many varieties of the strawberry; among the 
earliest and best being the early scarlet, Hovey 
seedlings, McAvoy''s sitperior. Burros pines, 
Scotch runners, Black Prince, Boston pines, 
etc. The first strawberries make their appear- 
ance from the South about the 1st of April, 
when they fetch very high prices : in May they 
are more abundant, and by the ist of June arc 
generally quite plentiful, continuing so till the 
25th of June, when the supply begins to fail. 
By the middle of July they have generally dis- 
appeared entirely. Besides being used for des- 
sert, strawberries are preserved in several ways. 
(.5"^^ Compotes, Ice-cream, Ices, Jam, Jeli.y, 
Marmalade, Pies, Preserves, Puddings, 
and Tarts.) 




Chantilly Basket. 

Chantilly Basket.— This is a very ornamen- 
tal dish. Take a mould of any sort that will 



STRYCHNINE 



STUFFINGS 



515 



serve to form a basket on, just dip the edge of 
some macaroons into melted barley sugar, and 
fasten them together with it; take it out of the 
mould, keep it in a dry place until wanted, then 
fill it high with whipped strawberry cream which 
has been drained on a siev-e from the preced- 
ing day, and stick very fine ripe strawberries 
over it. It should not be filled until just before 
it is served. 

STRYCHNINE. — VoiSQ-ff. —Sy7nptoms : 
Shortness of breath, rigidity of muscles of neck 
and back, spasms of the extremities. Treat- 
ment. {See Nux Vomica.) In proper doses it 
is a valuable tonic, especially in nervous exhaus- 
tion. It is also very useful in paralysis, partic- 
ularly when the parts begin to improve. The 
dose is about the -J^th part of a grain. It is a 
deadly poison, however, and should never be 
taken except under medical advice. 

STUARTIA. — The Stuartia Pentagynia is 
one of the most desirable of the hardy shrubs. 
It grows wild in the mountains of the Middle 
and Southern States, but has been reduced to 
cultivation by Messrs. Parson within the past 
few years, and should find a place in every gar- 
den, however small. The plant itself is grace- 
ful, the foliage is very pretty, and it is covered 
in August with a profusion of large camellia- 
like flowers, white, with purple centre. Plant 
it in the spring in any good soil, where the sun 
is not too powerful. 

STUCCO. — A term frequently applied to va- 
rious kinds of lime or cement coatings laid in 
masonry in imitation of stone. Speaking more 
strictly, it means a species of plastering worked 
up by hand to a face adapted to receive paint. 
The common stucco is nothing more than plas- 
tering which has received an additional amount 
of manipulation. Marble stucco is made with 
fine lime mixed with calcareous powder and 
chalk in such proportions and worked in such 
a way as to produce a hard uniform surface 
which admits of being colored, painted, and 
polished, so as to resemble various colored 
marbles. Owing to the great variations of tem- 
perature — the extreme cold of winter and the 
heat of summer — in this country, stucco should 
never be applied to the outside walls of a 
house of any pretensions. It will begin to 
crack and peel off within two years. 

STUDENT LAMP. {See German Stu- 
dent Lamp.) 

STUFFINGS.-In making stuffings and force- 
meats, the special tastes of those who are to 
eat them must be consulted in the matter of 
seasoning, and no exact rules can be given on 
this point. No one flavor should predominate 
greatly ; and if several dishes with force-meat 
are served at the same meal there should be a 
marked difference in their taste. Force-meat 
should be consistent enough to cut with a 
knife, but not dry or heavy. The ordinary 
stuffing for turkeys, chickens, veal, etc., is made 
of bread-crumbs, mixed with butter, pepper, 
salt, thyme, or sweet marjoram, and wet with 
hot water or milk. The yolk of an egg or two 
may be added if desired ; and besides thyme 



and sweet marjoram, parsley and sweet basil 
may be used for seasoning. 

Bread-crumb Stuffing. — Crumble bread 
quite fine — do not grate it — and to a pint, allow 
an ounce of butter, an even teaspoonful of 
salt, half a teaspoonful of pepper, and the 
same of celery seed ; stir the whole in 
a frying-pan until thoroughly heated, when it 
is ready for use. Fresh celery, chopped, may 
be used instead of the seed, or chopped parsley 
instead of either ; also parboiled oysters, or 
chopped ham. This is excellent for all boiled 
fowls. For roast fowls use summer savory, 
or any of the sweet herbs in addition to the 
pepper and salt. Use grated onion if liked. 
The bread is sometimes soaked, but it makes 
a sodden mass which can hardly be preferred 
to the light dry stuffing which rolls out in the 
carving, and moistens itself in the gravy. In 
stuffing for veal, omit the salt and add a gill of 
pork chopped fine. Geese are often stuffed 
with mashed potatoes seasoned with butter, 
pepper, salt, and sweet marjoram. 

Chestnut Stuffing. — Roast chestnuts and 
skin them, removing also the white envelope 
beneath the outside skin ; fill the inside of the 
chicken or turkey till half full, add one or two 
ounces of butter, and finish the filling. 

Egg Balls. — Beat three hard yolks of eggs 
in a mortar, and make into a smooth paste 
with the yolk of a raw one ; roll it into small 
balls, and throw them into boiling water two 
minutes to harden. 

Force-meat Balls. — Mix a pound of fresh 
suet (for a garnish or for soup), take: veal, 12 
oz ; salt pork, 3 oz ; grated bread, 2 oz ; salt i even 
teaspoonful ; pepper and summer savory, y^ 
teaspoonful each ; sweet cream, 3 tablespoon- 
fuU ; egg (beaten with the cream), i. 

Chop the meat fine as possible, mix with the 
other ingredients and make into smooth balls, 
a little larger than a marble ; roll in beaten ^gg, 
then in bread that has been grated and sifted ; 
place them on a frying basket and sink it in deep 
hot lard, first testing the heat with a bit of bread. 
They will brown at once ; then reduce the heat 
and let them remain two or three minutes that 
the veal may be well cooked. If intended for 
soup, lay a dozen balls in the tureen. They 
may be made of any cold meat, and seasoned to 
the taste. 

Lobster Force-meat. — Take the flesh and 
soft parts of a middling sized lobster, half 
an anchovy, a large piece of boiled celery, the 
yolk of a hard-boiled tgg, a little cayenne, 
mace, salt, and white pepper, with two table- 
spoonfuls of bread-crumbs, and one of oyster 
liquor, two ounces of butter warmed, and two 
eggs ; beat well together in a mortar, make 
into balls, and fry to a fine brown in butter. 
This is excellent for fish, soups, or stews. 

Onion and Sage Stuffing.— Boil three 
large onions from ten to fifteen minutes, 
press the water from them, chop them small, 
and mix them with an equal quantity of bread- 
crumbs, a heaped tablespoonful of minced sage, 
an ounce of butter, a saltspoonful of salt, and 



516 



STURGEON 



SUCKER 



half as much pepper. This is a very popular 
stuffing for geese, ducks, pork, etc. Part of 
the Uver of the goose or duck boiled two or 
three minutes and sliced fine is sometimes ad- 
ded to these, and the wlwle is then bound 
together with yolk of egg ; but they are not 
necessary. The onions can be used raw when 
their strong flavor is not objected to ; but the 
odor of the whole dish will then be somewhat 
overpowering. 

Oyster StuflBng. — Prepare a stuffing of 
four ounces bread-crumbs, mixed with two 
ounces of butter, and seasoned with salt, pep- 
per, and thyme or sweet marjoram ; mince a 
dozen oysters and stir into it ; and, if you are 
partial to the taste, wet the bread-crumbs with 
the oyster-liquor. This is an excellent stuffing 
for turkeys. 

Sausage Stuffing. — Prepare as directed 
for Oyster Stuffing, adding from four to six 
ounces of sausage-meat instead of the oysters. 

Or, set a saucepan on the fire with half an 
ounce of butter in it, and when the butter has 
melted add an onion chopped fine, and fry 
nearly brown ; then add the heart and liver of 
the chicken or turkey, chopped fine, and from 
six to eight ounces of sausage-meat (according 
to the size of the bird) ; stir for about twelve 
minutes, take from the fire, mix the yolk of an 
egg in it, and set back on the fire for five min- 
utes, stirring all the while. 

Suet Force-meat. — Mix well together six 
ounces of fine stale crumbs, with an equal 
weight of beef-kidney suet, chopped extremely 
small, a large dessertspoonful of parsley, mixed 
with a little lemon-thyme, a teaspoonful of salt, 
a quarter one of cayenne, and a saltspoonful or 
rather more of mace and nutmeg together; 
work these with three unbeaten egg-yolks, ^nd 
three teaspoonfuls of milk ; then put the force- 
meat into a large mortar, and pound it perfectly 
smooth. Take it out, and let it remain in a 
cool place 'for half an hour at least before it is 
used ; then roll it into balls, if it be wanted to 
serve in that form ; flour and fry them gently 
from seven to eight minutes, and dry them well 
before they are dished. 

The finely grated rind of half a lemon w.ould 
improve this force-meat for many. 

STURGEON. — A very large fish which is 
taken in great abundance in American waters, 
and sold in the markets cut up like halibut. It 
is not a delicate fish in flavor, but it is whole- 
some, and, when properly prepared, far from 
unpalatable. The young fat fish are consid- 
ered best ; their flesh has a light red or "beefy" 
appearance, and the fat is of a pale yellow 
color. The Sturgeon is in season from the 
middle of April to the ist of September. 

Baked Sturgeon. — Remove the skin and 
soak the fish in salt and water for halt an 
hour ; then parboil it to take out the oil of 
which there is generally too much. Make a 
force-meat of bread-crumbs, salt pork chopped 
very fine, butter, and sweet herbs ; cut deep 
gashes in the upper part of the fish, and rub 
this force-meat well in. Put into a baking-pan, i 



add a little water, and bake in a moderate oven 
for an hour. 

Roast Sturgeon. — Soak the fish in salted 
water for an hour, then wipe dry, and roast 
before a hot fire, basting frequently with but- 
ter. Serve with some piquant sauce. 

Steak (Sturgeon). — Skin carefully, soak in 
salted water for an hour, wipe dry, sprinkle 
with salt, and broil on a gridiron over hot coals ; 
when done, spread butter liberally over it, dust 
with pepper, and serve hot. Sliced lemon may 
be sent round with it. 

STYE. — This is an inflammation on the edge 
of the eyelid, resulting in the formation of mat- 
ter which must be let out. For two or three 
days it is very painful and red. Bathing with 
hot water is the best thing, and when a yellow- 
ish spot is seen, then the matter is pointing, 
and on being pricked with a needle or knife- 
point, the pus exudes and gives relief at once. 
Rubbing the spot with a smooth gold ring when 
the preliminary itching and tenderness are first 
felt is believed to act as a preventative. Some- 
times a succession of styes follow each other, 
one scarcely yielding, before another appears ; 
this indicates a bad state of the blood, and lo- 
cal treatment will be of little use. 

STYPTICS. — Substances applied to a part 
to arrest bleeding. Most of these are astrin- 
gents, and seem to act by causing the minute 
blood-vessels to shrink, and so prevent further 
hemorrhage. Cold is the best and simplest 
styptic, especially if applied as ice ; that will 
arrest most bleedings. Astringent substances, 
like galls in powder, catechu, matico in powder, 
and alum, may all be employed. The perchlo- 
ride and persulphate of iron, are also powerful 
styptics. {See Bleeding.) 

SUCCORY. {See Chicory.) 

SUCCOTASH.— This is usually made of 
green corn and Lima, string or butter beans. 

Take boiled corn on the cob ; score every row 
of grains lengthwise ; cut off the outer edge 
and with the back of the blade push out the 
heart and cream ; allow two thirds of corn to 
one of beans ; put them in a stew-pan, cover 
with boiling water, when tender let the remaining 
water boil away ; add a gill of rich milk, a lib- 
eral lump of butter ; pepper and salt to taste 
and let it simmer for fifteen minutes. If not 
thick as liked, add a teaspoonful of cornstarch. 

SUCKER. — A fair pan fish, with a somewhat 
earthy taste. The large-scaled ox blue sucker is 
a smaller fish than the common sucker, of a pale 
blue color, and not so good for the table. The 




horned sttcker has little horns between the eyes 
and nose ; it is good but not delicate eating. All 
are in season from October to April, but are sel- 



SUDORIFICS 



SULPHUR 



517 



dom very abundant. Boil or fry as directed for 
fresh Mackerel. 

SUCKING-PIG. {See PiG.) 

SUDORIFICS. — Remedies which cause and 
promote perspiration. They are also called 
diaphoretics. {See Diaphoretics.) 

SUET. — The fat which invests the kidneys 
of oxen or sheep ; that of the former is called 
beef-suet, and that of the latter is called mtition- 
suet. The internal fat of all ruminating animals 
is harder than that of others, and is slightly 
brittle ; when melted and separated from the 
membranes in which it is contained, it consti- 
tutes tallow. Good suet should be of a brighter 
shade than the meat or muscle fat, dry and hard, 
should break or crumble easily, and should 
show but little fibre through it. Besides being 
employed instead of butter or lard for greasing 
gridirons, frying-pans, etc., suet is used in 
many wjiys, {See Dumplings, Pies, Pud- 
dings, and Stuffings.) 

SUGAR. — There are two kinds of sugar 
which are chemically different, and are known 
as cane-sugar and grape-siis^ar, the former 
being obtained from the sugar-cane, the maple- 
tree, the root of the beet, the mallow, and some 
other forest trees and cultivated plants ; while 
the latter is contained in varying quantities in 
those fruits which are more or less sweet, es- 
pecially in the grape, fig, and plum. There are 
several other peculiar varieties of sugar, but the 
only one which requires mention is viilk-siigar, 
which is found in the milk of animals, and 
which may be obtained by evaporating whey to 
a syrup, and purifying the sugar, which crystal- 
lizes in the form of a four-sided prism, and is 
very hard, white, and transparent. By far the 
larger part of the sugar consumed in this 
country is the produce of the sugar-cane, some 
of it being imported from the West Indies, while 
a considerable portion of the whole is made in 
the Southern States. 

The impurities of cane-sugar consist of frag- 
ments of the cane, vegetable albumen, blood 
(from the material used in fining it), an animal- 
cule peculiar to it, woody fibre, and starch ; be- 
sides which may be enumerated lime, lead, iron, 
sand, and salt, all of which are found in the raw 
sugar, and but seldom in the refined sugars, 
unless these contain a portion of the molasses 
still adhering to their crystals. Some of the 
impurities are owing to the ordinary processes 
of manufacture, and are unintentional, while 
others are due to those wilful adulterations 
called in the trade " handling." This term is 
ostensibly applied to the mere mixing of differ- 
ent qualities of sugar together ; but too often it 
is simply a cover for the introduction of other 
substances. These adulterations have been 
shown to occur to a very great extent in the raw 
sugars sold in our shops ; but as they are 
scarcely practised at all in white or lump sugar, 
the public can avoid them by purchasing the 
latter article only. Loaf or refined sugar, when 
good, is of a close texture, of a fine white gloss, 
and is simply sweet to the taste, without other 
flavor; when inferior, it is coarse, with looser 



grain, crumbles easily, and is a little yellow- 
ish in color, and its sweetness has something 
of the taste of moist sugar. Moist or raw sugar, 
when good and unadulterated, is bright and 
composed of crystallized grains. A dull-looking 
moist sugar is always one of an inferior or 
doubtful quality. 

Loaf sugar should be stored in the papers on 
a shelf. The others should be kept in closely- 
covered kegs or covered wooden receptacles 
made for the purpose. It is not well to buy 
large quantities at a time. 
SUGAR-BEER. {See Beverages.) 
SUGAR-CANDY. {See Candy.) 
SUGAR-CANE. — A species of large, jointed 
reed or grass, of which there are several vari- 
eties, all of them being natives of tropical and 
sub-tropical countries. The common sugar- 
cane is a perennial, with a creeping root, send- 
ing up a number of stems from eight to twelve 
feet high, which have many joints, are of var- 
ious colors, and from one to two inches thick. 
They are filled for about two-thirds of their 
length with a loose, sweet, juicy pith. The 
leaves are ribbon-shaped, and four or five feet 
long, with a strong whitish middle nerve. The 
violet-colored sugar-cane is much esteemed and 
widely cultivated in the West Indies and in the 
Southern States. The sugar-cane is usually 
propagated by cuttings, the top joints being 
used for this purpose. The cuttings are planted 
in rows three or four feet apart, and at intervals 
of about two feet in the rows. The largest va- 
rieties, in rich moist soils, attain a height of 
twenty feet ; but in poor dry soils the height is 
sometimes no more than six feet. The best 
varieties are ready for cutting in about ten 
months from the time of planting, but other 
varieties are unfit for use until they have had 
from twelve to twenty months' growth. Fresh 
stems, called rattoons, sprmg from the root, 
after the old stalks are cut off, so that the plan- 
tation does not require to be renewed for several 
years ; but the cane of the first crop is largest, 
and a gradual decrease of size takes place. 
The Chinese Sugar-catte or Sorgho-grass was 
introduced into the United States in 1856, 
where its cultivation has extended as far North 
as Maine. {See Sorghum.) 

SULPHUR. — Sulphur is employed in medi- 
cine in two forms — sublimed sulphur and pre- 
cipitated sulphur or milk of sulphur. Sublimed 
sulphur is commonly used ; it is a bright yellow 
powder without taste or smell. It burns with 
a blue flame, and produces the unpleasant fumes 
of sulphurous acid. The precipitated sulphur is 
pale yellow, and its powder is much finer. The 
preparations of sulphur are a co7tfection and an 
ointment. The confection contains sulphur, 
cream of tartar, and syrup of orange-peel ; it is 
a valuable laxative in piles, or where it is not 
desired to do more than gently open the bowels. 
It is mainly, however, as an external application 
that sulphur is employed. Sulphur ointment 
still remains the great remedy for the itch, and 
it is useful in other forms of skin disease. {See 
Itch.) 



618 



SULPHURIC ACID 



SWANSDOWN 



SULPHURIC ACID. — Poison. Symp- 
toms: Great distress of the stomach. Treat- 
ment: Give a tablespoonful or two of pul- 
verized chalk or magnesia, with a little 
water. If neither is at hand, lime, or even 
plaster knocked from the wall and ground up. 

It is known as oil of vitriol; intensely acid, 
and chars any vegetable substance added to it. 
Commercial oil of vitriol often contains arsenic, 
from the use of impure sulphur. The diluted 
acid is used in two forms — aromatic sulphuric 
acid, which is flavored by cinnamon and ginger ; 
and dilute sulphuric acid, in which water alone 
has been added. The strong sulphuric acid is 
rarely employed, even as a caustic ; it is unman- 
ageable, and less powerful reagents are prefer- 
red. Internally, the aromatic or dilute sulphuric 
acid is mainly used as an astringent. In this 
way it is of much service in the wasting sweats 
of consumption ; and it may be of service where 
there is a chronic mucous discharge from the 
bowels. It is also of importance as an astrin- 
gent in diarrhoea. The ordinary dose of 
dilute or aromatic sulphuric acid is about 
lo or 15 drops, well diluted with water, 3 or 
4 times a day. In diarrhoea, that quantity 
ought to be given with as much laudanum, if 
irritating substances have been expelled. 

SULPHUROUS ACID.— A remedy of some 
importance. It may be prepared in a variety of 
ways, but it is most commonly obtained by redu- 
cing sulphuric acids by means of charcoal. 1 1 is 
most easily prepared by burning sulphur in the 
open air. It has the well-known odor of burning 
sulphur. Sulphurous acid is a powerful deoxi- 
dizing reagent, and is powerfully destructive of 
vegetable life. Apphed to the skin, it causes 
some reddening ; and if any vegetable parasite 
is present, as is not unfrequently the case in 
skin disease, it is destroyed. Hence arises its 
value in such maladies. Internally, if there is 
any tendency to fermentation, and if fungi are 
present in the stomach, it does great good. 
Used as spray in certain forms of sore throat, 
sulphurous acid is also of great use. It may 
be used, diluted as a gargle. Sulphites and hy- 
drosulphites, especially of soda, are frequently 
given internally in its stead. {See Soda.) 

SUMACH (POISON) See Poison Plants 

SUN-STROKE. — This is a sudden prostra- 
tion due to long exposure to great heat, es- 
pecially when one is fatigued or exhausted. It 
commonly results from undue exposure to the 
sun's rays in summer, but it may be caused by 
exposure to too great heat under any circumstan- 
ces. It begins with pain in the head or dizziness, 
quickly followed by loss of consciousness and 
complete prostration. Sometimes, however, 
the attack is as sudden as a stroke of apoplexy. 
As the symptoms advance, there is flushing of 
the face with increased action of the heart and 
labored breathing, and then coma, upon which 
in a few hours death will supervene. Slighter 
symptoms may occur, and either pass away 
under judicious treatment, or slowly merge into 
the severer form. 

Treatment. — The immediate aim should be 



to reduce the excessive heat. Take the patient 
at once to a cool and shady place, but dori't cany 
hitn far to a house or hospital. Loosen the 
clothes well about his neck and waist, and lay 
him down with the head a little raised. If the 
attack seems slight, apply wet cloths to the 
head, renewing them frequently, and mustard 
or turpentine to the calves of the leg and the 
soles of the feet. If the prostration is great, 
dash pails of cold water on his head and chest, 
or put him under a pump and pump water freely 
on him. If he can swallow, some stimulant 
should be given ; aromatic spirit is best, but 
some weak brandy or whiskey and water will 
answer. The patient too must be kept perfectly 
quiet. Exertion of any kind may cause the 
heart to stop, and thus result in death. Bleed- 
ing is often resorted to in cases of sun-stroke, 
but the advantage of this is doubtful, and no one 
but a physician should venture upon it. During 
convalescence the patient must avoid fktigue or 
exposure to heat, and must have a nutritious 
and stimulating diet. 

SUPPER AND TEA.— In the large cities 
where late dinners are the rule, tea is an obso- 
lete meal, lunch in the middle of the day hav- 
ing taken its place. Some, it is true, have 
adopted the continental practice of eating late 
suppers ; but the practice is unquestionably a 
bad one, except for those who sit up very late 
or who work hard at night. A dinner requires 
at least four hours to digest, even in a perfect- 
ly healthy stomach, and the digestive organs 
afterwards require a period of rest. To take 
in more food while the process of digestion is 
in full operation cannot but be injurious, and 
the consequences, in the shape of dyspepsia 
and sleeplessness, are not slow in manifesting 
themselves. When dinner is taken at mid-day, 
the tea may consist of any of the dishes sug- 
gested for breakfast and lunch. {See Break- 
fast and Lunch.) For late suppers, the 
lighter the food the better. Fresh fish, sar- 
dines, well-ripened fruit, a cream, light pud- 
ding, blanc-mange, a little iced fruit, fruit-jelly, 
prunes, etc., are appropriate. Strong tea or 
coffee should not be drunk ; nor wine, unless 
it be a very light one. 

SWAN. — There are two varieties of this 
bird which are found in our markets. The 
tru7)ipeter swan is most abundant ; they are 
generally shot near the Chesapeake Bay. The 
young are pretty good eating, but the old are 
very dry and tough. The wild or whistling 
swan is only occasionally to be had. The cyg- 
nets (young) are very fine eating, but they should 
not be more than a year or two old. They re- 
quire five or six years to reach maturity. The 
third year the bill becomes black. Very old 
birds have a hard protuberance on the bend of 
the last joint of the wing. Both varieties are in 
season from November to January. Prepare, 
cook, and serve as directed for wild Duck. 

SWANSDOWN. — Properly speaking swans- 
down is the fine, soft, downy feathers of the 
swan, used for various articles of ladies' dress, 
trimmings, etc. The term is commonly applied 



SWEETBREADS 



SWIMMING 



519 



to a sort of twilled fustian, made of wool with a 
small quantity of silk, and used forgentlemens' 
waistcoats. An inferior kind has cotton instead 
of silk. 

SWEETBREADS. — These are rightly 
esteemed one of the greatest delicacies of the 
meat kind. There are but two in a calf, one 
from the neck or throat, called " throat sweet- 
bread," the other from near the heart, known 
as the " heart sweet bread." The largest are 
the best, and the heart sweet-bread the most 
delicate. Their color should be clear, and a 
shade darker than the fat of the same animal. 

In whatever way sweetbreads are dressed, 
they should first be well soaked in lukewarm 
water, then thrown into boiling water to blajich 
them, as it is called, and to render them firm. 
If lifted out after they have boiled from five to 
six minutes, according to their size, and laid 
immediately into fresh water to cool, their color 
will be better preserved. 

Broiled Sweetbreads. — Parboil them as 
above, spread plenty of butter over them, and 
broil on a gridiron over hot coals, turning often. 
Fricasseed Sweetbreads. — Cut up the 
remnant of a cooked sweetbread in small pieces, 
and prepare a good sauce or gravy as for stew- 
ing ; lay the sweet breads in the pan with the 
gravy, and boil up once. Garnish with slices 
of lemon, or pieces of fried bread. 

Fried Sweetbreads. — Parboil five minutes, 
wipe them dry, and lard with narrow strips of 
salt fat pork, using a larding-needle ; put a 
very little butter or lard into a frying-pan, lay 
in the sweetbreads, when it is hot, and fry to a 
light crisp brown, turning often. 

Roast Sweetbreads. — Parboil large ones, 
and when cold lard them with salt pork as for 
frying ; roast them brown in a moderate oven, 
basting often with butter and water. For 
sauce, plain butter and mushroom catsup. 

Stewed Sweetbreads. — Parboil and lay in 
cold water as directed above ; then put them 
into a sauce pan, add a very little water, and 
stew them until quite tender ; then add for each 
sweetbread a teaspoonful of butter, and a little 
cream ; season with pepper and salt and a httle 
chopped parsley ; let them simmer in this for 
five minutes, dish them, and pour the gravy 
over them. The sweetbreads may be larded as 
for frying, if liked very rich, but they are more 
delicate without. 
SWEET BRIER. {See Eglantine.) 
SWEET HERBS. (See Herbs.) 
SWEET MARJORAM. {See Marjoram.) 
SWEET POTATO. {See Potato.) 
SWIMMING, Hints On. — Every person 
male or female, should learn to swim ; and as 
the art can be acquired much easier in early 
life, parents should encourage their children to 
learn, and every school should have a swim- 
ming bath attached. In France all soldiers 
are taught to swim as a part of their drill exer- 
cise. As Dr. Franklin's hints on swimming 
are generally conceded to be unsurpassed in 
practical usefulness, we will quote them in 
preference to any of the newer and more tech- 



nical " guides ; " for this fact is both true and 
important : success in swimming at the start 
depends much more on the state of mind of the 
beginner than on any fancied knowledge of the 
technique of the art. Dr. Franklin says : 

" The only obstacle to improvement in this 
necessary and life-preserving art is fear ; and it 
is only by overcoming this timidity, that you can 
expect to become a perfect master of swimming 
It is a very common thing for novices in the 
art of swimming to make use of corks or blad- 
ders to assist in keeping the body above water ; 
some have utterly condemned the use of these ; 
however, they may be of service in supporting 
the body while one is learning what is called 
the stroke, or that manner of drawing in and 
striking out the hands and feet that is neces- 
sary to produce progressive motion. But you 
will be no swimmer till you can place confidence 
in the power of the water to support you ; I 
would therefore advise the acquiring that con- 
fidence in the first place ; especially as I have 
known several who, by a little practice neces- 
sary for that purpose, have insensibly acquired 
the stroke, taught as if it were by Nature. 
The practice I mean is this : choosing a place 
where the water deepens gradually, walk coolly 
into it till it is up to your breast, then turn round 
your face to the shore, and throw an egg into 
the water between you and the shore ; it will 
sink to the bottom, and be easily seen there if 
the water be clean. It must lie in the water so 
deep that you cannot reach to take it up but by 
diving for it. To encourage yourself in order 
to do this, reflect that your progress will be 
from deep to shallow water, and that at any 
time you may, by bringing your legs under you, 
and standing on the bottom, raise your head 
far above the water ; then plunge under it with 
your eyes open, which must be kept open be- 
fore going under, as you cannot open the eye- 
lids for the weight of water above you, throw- 
ing yourself towards the egg, and endeavoring 
by the action of your hands and feet against 
the water, to get forward till within reach of 
it. In this attempt you will find that the water 
buoys you up against your inclination ; that it 
is not so easy to sink as you may imagine, and 
that you cannot but by active force get down 
to the egg. Thus you feel the power of water 
to support you and learn to confide in that 
power, while your endeavors to overcome it 
and reach the Qgg, teach you the manner of 
acting on the water with your feet and hands, 
which action is afterwards used in swimming, 
to support your head higher above the water, 
or to go forward through it. 
" I would the more earnestly press you to the 
trial of this method, because, though I think I 
shall satisfy you that your body is lighter than 
water, and that you might float in it a long 
time with your mouth free for breathing, if 
you would put yourself into a proper posture, 
and would be still, and forbear struggling ; 
yet, till you have obtained this experimental 
confidence in the water, I cannot depend upon 
your having the necessary presence of mind to 



520 



SWIMMING 



SYLLABUBS 



recollect the posture, and the directions I gave 
you relating to it. The surprise may put all 
out of your mind. 

"Though the legs, arms, and head of the hu- 
man body, being solid parts, are specifically 
somewhat heavier than fresh water, yet the 
trunk, particularly the upper part, from its hol- 
lowness, is so much lighter than water, as that 
the whole of the body, taken altogether, is too 
light to sink wholly under water, but some part 
will remain above, until the lungs become 
filled with water, which happens from drawing 
water to them instead of air when a person in 
the fright attempts breathing while the mouth 
and nostrils are under water. 

"The legs and arms are specifically lighter 
than salt water, and will be supported by it, 
so that a human body cannot sink in salt water, 
though the lungs were filled as above, but from 
the greater specific gravity of the head. There- 
fore, a person throwing himself on his back in 
salt water, and extending his arms, may easily 
lie so as to keep his mouth and nostrils free for 
breathing; and, by a small motion of his hand, 
may prevent turning should he perceive any 
tendency to it. 

" In fresh water, if a man throw himself on his 
back, near the surface, he cannot long continue 
in that situation but by proper action of his 
hands upon the water ; If he use no such ac- 
tion the legs and lower part of the body will 
gradually sink till he come into an upright po- 
sition in which he will continue suspended, the 
hollow of his breast keeping the head upper- 
most. 

"But if, in this erect position, the head is kept 
upright above the shoulders, as when we stand 
on the ground, the immersion will, by the 
weight of that part of the head that is out of 
the water, reach above the mouth and nostrils, 
perhaps a little above the eyes, so that a man 
cannot long remain suspended in water with 
his head in that position. 

" The body contmuing suspended as before, 
and upright, if the head be leaned quite back, 
so that the face looks upwards, all the back 
part of the head being under water, and its 
weight, consequently, in a great measure sup- 
ported by it, the face will remain above water, 
quite free for breathing, will rise an inch high- 
er every inspiration, and sink as much every 
expiration, but never so low as that the water 
may come over the mouth. 

" If, therefore, a person unacquainted with 
swimming, and falling accidentally into the 
water, could have presence of mind sufficient 
to avoid struggling and plunging, and let the 
body take this natural position, he might con- 
tinue long safe from drowning, till, perhaps, 
help should come ; for as to the clothes, their 
additional weight, when immersed, is very in- 
considerable, the water supporting it ; though, 
when he comes out of the water, lie would find 
them very heavy indeed. 

" I know by experience that it is a great com- 
fort to a swimmer who has a considerable dis- 
tance to go, to turn himself sometimes on his 



back, and to vary in other respects the means 
of procuring a progressive motion. 
" When he is seized with the cramp in the leg, 
the method of driving it away is, to give the 
parts affected a sudden, vigorous, and violent 
shock, which he may do in the air as he swims 
on his back. 

" During the great heats in summer there is 
no danger in bathing, however warm we may 
be, in rivers which have been thoroughly 
warmed by the sun. But to throw one's self 
into cold spring water, when the body has been 
heated by exercise in the sun, is an imprudence 
which may prove fatal. 

"The exercise of swimming is one of the most 
healthy and agreeable in the world. After hav- 
ing swum for an hour or two in the evening, 
one sleeps coolly the whole night, even during 
the most ardent heats of summer. Perhaps 
the pores being cleansed, the insensible perspi- 
ration increases and occasions this coolness." 

Women swim more easily than men. Their 
bony skeletons are lighter, they are better fur- 
nished with adipose tissue — the soft fatty por- 
tion of their bodies — and their heads are smaller. 
(See Drowned and Drowning.) 
SYLLABUBS. — These are best made the day 
before they are wanted, or at least early in the 
morning, if they are to be sent to table the 
same evening. They require time to settle and 
let their froth get firm. 

Birthday Syllabub. Put into a large bowl 
half a pound of sugar broken small, and pour 
on it the strained juice of two fresh lemons : 
stir these well together, and add a pint of 
port wine, a pint of sherry, and half a pint of 
brandy ; grate in a small nutmeg, place the 
bowl under the cow, and milk two quarts into 
it. In serving it put a portion of the curd into 
each glass, fill it up with whey, and pour a little 
rich cream on the top. The rind of a lemon 
may be rasped on part of the sugar when the 
flavour is liked, but it is not usually added. 

Posset Syllabub. — Mix a quart of thick 
cream with a pound of lump sugar, and a pint 
of white wine ; rub a few lumps of sugar upon 
the rind of two gr three lemons to extract the 
essence, and pour upon them the juice of three 
lemons ; add this to the cream, and whisk it one 
way for half an hour, or until thick. 

Solid Syllabub. — Put into a bowl three- 
quarters of a pint of cream and the juice of one 
large lemon ; mix these well together, and 
flavor with sweet wine, brandy, and sugar to 
taste. Put an ounce of isinglass (or gelatine) 
into a sauce-pan with half a pint of water and 
boil it slowly, with a piece of lemon-peel in it, 
until the isinglass is quite dissolved ; then pour 
it into the bowl over the other ingredients, stir- 
ring well for five minutes ; then pass it through 
a colander, and put into moulds to cool and 
stiffen. If this syllabub is to be served in 
glasses, a smaller quantity of isinglass will 
suffice. 

Whipped Syllabubs. — Weigh seven ounces 
of fine sugar, and rasp on it the rind of two 
fresh lemons, then pound or roll it to powder, 



TAPE-WORM 



TAR 



523 



segments near the tail drop off. Each fully 
matured segment is called a " proglottis" ; and 
when these pass away with the excreta, the 
patient is known to be suffering from tape- 
worm. This worm is usually solitary, is found 
in the small intestine, and rarely affects children 
under three years of age. 2. Tceiiia viedio- 
canellata is another kind of tape-worm, and 
the more common of the two. It resembles 
the preceding in every respect, except that there 
is no proboscis on the head and no hooklets. 
3. Bothriocephalus latus, or broad tape-worm ; 
it is the largest of all, and is often twenty or 
thirty feet in lengh and an inch broad. The 
head is blunt and flattened from behind for- 
wards ; there are no hooklets ; the anterior seg- 
ments are narrow at first, but widen gradually 
so as to attain their greatest widtii towards the 
centre of the body ; towards the tail end, the 
segments diminish in width, but increase in 
depth, so that the worm is much thicker in the 
posterior than in the anterior part, where it is 
flattened. The total number of joints has been 
said to be four thousand. These three varie- 
ties are the most common, and they are called 
by some cestoid worms, because they belong to 
the natural order Cestoidea. 

The mature segment or "proglottis" of these 
worms contains both male and female organs of 
reproduction ; when one mature segment has 
become impregnated with another mature seg- 
ment by contact with it, eggs are formed. These 
eggs remain in the " proglottis" until it escapes 
from the bowel, when the " proglottis" itself 
bursts from the growth of the eggs within ; 
when the ova escape in this way, they may be 
eaten by some animal, or even taken into the 
stomach by drinking water into which they have 
got. When the embryo in this way enters into 
a pig or rabbit, it breaks its shell, and, boring 
through the intestinal wall, lodges in the tis- 
sues ; here it forms a cyst, where it may attain 
a large size, and develops an animal consisting 
only of a head and neck. Thus it will be seen 
that the eggs of a tape-worm in man will not 
produce a tape-worm in another animal, but a 
body known as a cysticercus, or an animal in 
an intermediate stage ; now when a cysticercus 
is swallowed by man, the fully developed teenia 
or tape-worm will be produced. The two stages 
cannot take place in the same animal. There 
are a great many tape-worms of different kinds, 
and many animals, as the dog, cat, and rabbit, 
are liable to them as well as man. We may 
chance to swallow the ova of the tape-worm in 
the dog by eating water-cresses, or drinking 
water in which the embryo has happened to be ; 
and if this be done, we shall not suffer from 
tape-worm, but from the intermediate variety, 
and thus a cyst may form in some organ, and 
grow so as to cause some inconvenience, and 
even danger to hfe. These cysts are often 
called hydatids, and the liver is the most com- 
mon seat ; they rarely heal of themselves, but 
generally form rounded tumors which cause 
very little pain or disturbance ; they generally 
contain fluid, and attached to the inner wall of 



the cyst are those curious bodies known as 
cysticerci, or the worm in the intermediate 
stage. These cysticerci, when removed from 
a cyst alive, may be swallowed by man with 
impunity, but if given to a dog again, they will 
develop in its intestine into a mature worm. 
Tape-worm in man is not caused by swallow- 
ing the ova, but by eating meat in which the 
cysticerci are lying. Pigs and rabbits provide 
us with the Tania Solium, while oxen may give 
us the Tcenia niedio-canellaia. When the 
mature worm is developed in us, the ova which 
escape may in their turn supply these animals 
with fresh material for forming cysticerci. 
Hence it is an important thing to burn all por- 
tions of worms that are voided. The so-called 
measly pork \?, \)0x\. containing hydatids; and 
the man or animal eating this pork before it is 
cooked (cooking kills them) takes these hydatids 
into his stomach where they are sure to develop 
into tape-worms. 

Treatment. — Nothing should be done until 
the passage of joints with the excreta gives the 
infallible sign of the presence of the worm. 
The only way to dislodge tape-worms is to ren- 
der their habitation disagreeable to them ; and 
for this purpose various drugs (called anthel- 
mintics) are employed. Oil of turpentine, pe- 
troleum, the oleo-resin of the male fern, pome- 
granate bark, or Kousso, the flower of Brayera 
anlhehninlica, may be used advantageously. 
An emulsion prepared from the seeds of the 
common pumpkin has been used with good 
effect, and has the merit of causing no disagree- 
able constitutional symptoms. Santonine may 
be given in doses of three to six grains three 
times a day. The oil of worm-seed is used in 
doses of five to ten drops. Probably the oil of 
the male fern is the remedy most generally suc- 
cessful. Previous to its use the bowels 
should be cleared out by a dose of castor oil. 
No food should be taken after the noon-meal. 
The following morning a drachm of the oil 
should be taken fasting, and followed in two 
hours by a tablespoonful of castor oil. Un- 
less the head of the worm is obtained there is 
no cure, for it will go on producing new seg- 
ments indefinitely. Tape-worm may cause 
much inconvenience, but there is little danger. 

TAPIOCA.— The pith of the Jatropha 
Manihot or cassava tree, imported from Bra- 
zil and the East Indies, and exceedingly nu- 
tritious and agreeable to the palate when 
flavored by the addition of milk, spices, fruits, 
&c. It is very wholesome at all periods of 
life. It is adulterated to some extent with 
sago, potato-starch, etc., which can scarcely be 
detected. It is best to buy tapioca in small 
quantities. Keep it in covered jars or boxes, 
in a dry closet. {See Blanc-Mange, Jelly, 
Puddings, and Soup.) 

TAR. — A thick, black, treacly-looking sub- 
stance, with a strong and peculiar odor, obtain- 
ed by the destructive distillation of various spe- 
cies of pine. If water be shaken with tar 
the water smokes up, becomes brown, and has 
something of the smell of tar. This water was 



524 



TARLATAN 



TARTS 



at one time much extolled as a medicine. 
From the various substances it contains, tar is 
a stimulant of value, especially for outward ap- 
plication. In some incorrigible forms of skin 
disease, especially in the hands and feet, tar 
has done good, particularly if the disorder be of 
a scaly kind. In many of these cases it may be 
given internally as well as externally. Tar 
itself, or its vapor, has been used with great 
advantage in certain cases of lung disease, es- 
pecially in chronic bronchitis and diseases 
complicated by it. The dose is about 30 grains 
made into a pill. An ounce or two of tar- 
water may be taken at a dose. An ointment 
consisting of tar and beeswax has admirable 
healing properties. 

TARLATAN.— A kind of thin, gauzy muslin 
much used for ladies' summer dresses, etc. 
French tarlatan is best in the finer grades, and 
is one of the most delicate of woven fabrics. A 
yard wide. 

TARRAGON. — This aromatic plant, or 
rather the leaves and young tops, are frequent- 
ly used in salads, soups, pickles, etc. It has a 
hot, pungent taste, and when soaked in vinegar, 
is highly esteemed as a fish-sauce {see Vin- 
egar.) Tarragon is in season in the fall 
months. 
TARTAN. (See Plaid.) 
TARTARIC ACID. — This exists in several 
acidulous fruits, particularly the grape and the 
tamarind, but always combined with lime or 
potash. The juice of the grape is remarkable 
for containing abundance of the bitartrate of 
potash ; and during the process of making wine 
this salt is deposited in the form of a hard 
crust, and particularly on the sides and bottom 
of the wooden casks in which the wine is kept 
to ferment and purify. This substance is call- 
ed ta7'tar, and being impure, and colored by 
the wine,'it is dissolved and purified; it is then 
white, and becomes the acidulous substance 
familarly known as cream of tartar. From 
this the pure tartaric acid is prepared by sepa- 
rating the potash from it by a chemical pro- 
cess. This acid is commonly used in cookery, 
and also for the production of effervescing 
drinks ; 10 grains or so is the ordinary quan- 
tity for the latter purpose, — it should be drop- 
ped into a tumbler of water and drunk instantly- 
TARTS. — Tarts differ from pies in having 
no upper crust. The fruit must also in every 
instance be previously cooked. 

Apple Tart. — These may be made of 
dried or fresh apples. If of dried apples, 
stew them in the water in which they are soaked, 
adding more, if needful ; beat them to a pulp 
and make them quite sweet with sugar ; season 
to the taste with grated lemon peel, cinnamon 
or nutmeg. Boiled cider added while the 
apples are stewing gives a fine flavor. If 
made of fresh apples, pare, quarter, core and 
add hardly enough water to cover them ; stew 
until the fruit is broken, and the water almost 
absorbed ; beat in sugar and spices to the 
taste. Put it in paste lined plates, ornamented 
with bars of pastry, and bake in a quick oven. 



An ordinary apple pie, flavored with fresh lem- 
on, may be converted into creamed apple tart, 
by cutting out the cover while warm, leaving 
only about an inch border round the edge, and 
pouring over the apples when they have become 
cold, from half to three-quarters of a pint of 
rich boiled custard. The cover divided into 
triangular sippets, was formerly stuck round 
the inside of the tart, but ornamental leaves of 
pale puff-paste have a better effect. Well- 
drained whipped cream may be substituted for 
the custard and be piled lightly over the fruit. 
Apricot Tart. — Stew^re^w apricots till ten- 
der, either in a jar placed in an oven or in a 
stew-pan, with a little water and sugar ; let them 
stew uncovered until the juice is nearly 
absorbed ; spread in paste-lined plates and 
bake at once. 

Barberry Tart. — Put barberries over the 
fire with a little water ; cover and heat slowly, 
stew gently until cooked, then add an equal 
weight of sugar, and let them simmer until the 
syrup is quite thick. When cold spread them 
on plates lined with pastry, and place designs 
of puff paste over them. It may be in flat or 
twisted bars, forming squares or diamonds, or 
rings, crescents, or leaves. 

Blackberry Tart. — Stew ripe Lawton 
blackberries in their own juice until tender; 
add coffee sugar to the taste, and when dis- 
solved take from the fire ; when cold put them 
on paste-lined plates, ornament with bars, place 
in a quick oven ; remove when crust is baked. 
Cranberry Tart. — Wash the cranberries 
well, and simmer them in a very little water 
until they burst open and become soft ; then run 
them through a colander to remove the skins, 
and sweeten to taste ; line small pans with a 
good crust, fill up with the fruit, put a cross-bar 
of pastry over the top. Bake in a moderate oven. 
Cream Tart. — Beat three eggs well, and add 
three heaping teaspoonfuls of sifted flour; stir 
the mixture into a pint and a half of boiling 
milk ; add a saltspoonful of salt, and sweeten to 
taste ; flavor with rose-water or essence of 
lemon. Line some small tart -pans with a good 
crust and bake in a quick oven ; fill up with the 
above mixture, sift powdered sugar over the 
top, and put them back into the oven a few 
minutes till they are a little browned. 

Currant Tart. — LTse either green or ripe cur- 
rants, make as directed for Gooseberry Tart. 

Damson Tart. — Wash a pound of damsons, 
heat them slowly in a covered vessel, and let 
them stew until the skins are soft ; add a 
pound of sugar, stew a few minutes and spread 
them on paste-lined plates, ornament the top. 
Bake in a quick oven. 

Gooseberry Tart (Green).— Take the stems 
and withered flowers from a pound of full 
grown gooseberries ; put them in a saucepan ; 
cover and shake it occasionally until there is 
juice enough to prevent burning ; then stew 
until tender ; add a pound of granulated sugar, 
aid when dissolved remove from the table ; 
put it in plates lined with pastry; ornament 
with strips of puff-paste. Bake in a quick oven. 



TARTLETS 



TEA 



525 



Gooseberry Tart (Ripe). — Make as directed 
in above recipe. 

Lemon Tart. — I. Mix a tablespoonful of 
corn- starcli witli two of cold water ; stir in half 
a pint of boiling water ; pour this on two 
Dunces of creamed butter and half a pint of 
sugar ; add the juice and grated yellow rind of 
a lemon, and one egg beaten smooth and thick; 
mix well and bake in a paste-lined plate. 

n. Take: eggs, 9 ; lemons,2 ; sugar one pound ; 
butter, 3 oz; milk i pt. ; flour i|- even table- 
spoonfuls ; almonds, ^ lb. 

Beat the yolks of the eggs without the sugar 
until very light ; add the flour and butter, 
rubbed together until smooth and soft, the 
almonds, blanched and pounded, the juice and 
grated yellow rind of the lemons, the milk and 
well beaten yolks ; lastly beat in gently the 
whites whisked to a stiff froth. Bake in paste- 
lined plates. 

Orange Tart. Cream one ounce of butter ; 
stir in the grated yellow rind of two oranges 
and the juice and soft pulp of three ; add.four well 
beaten eggs, half a pint of sugar, four and a 
half tablespoonfuls of rolled and sifted cracker, 
and half a pint of milk. Bake as above. 

Raspberry Tart. — Make as directed for 
Blackberry Tart. 

Raspberry Tart with Cream. — Line a small 
pie-pan with a thin puff-paste ; put in ripe rasp- 
berries, strew fine sugar over them, cover with 
a thin crust, and bake. Cut it open, and have 
readv the following mixture, warm : Half a 
pint of cream, the yolks of two or three eggs 
well beaten and a httle sugar ; add this to the 
tart and return it to the oven for five or six 
minutes. 

Rhubarb Tart. — Line a plate with puff- 
paste and cover it to the rim with a rich com- 
pose of rhubarb ; cut the paste on the rim at 
intervals of an inch', making squares ; double 
every one with one fold into a triangle, cover 
the compote with large diamonds formed with 
strips of the paste, and bake at once. 

TARTLETS. — These may be made of any 
kind of preserves by lining small patty-pans, 
of any shape, with puff-paste, and baking them 
till half done ; then fill them with the preserve, 
and finish the baking. 

TATTING. — A kind of lace edging woven 
or knit of common sewing thread, with a pecu- 
liar stitch. It is very durable. 

TAUTOG. {See Blackfish.) 

TEA. (the meal). {See Supper.) 

TEA. — As sold in the shops, tea is the leaf 
of the tea-tree, dried and stored for use. These 
leaves are gathered at three or four different 
seasons, 6y which in some measure the different 
qualities of tea are produced, those first picked 
being the most valuable and the last coarse and 
large. The young leaves are narrow, convo- 
luted, and downy ; the middle-aged have their 
edges serrated and veined with more or less 
delicacy, while in the old leaves the serration 
and veining are more marked, and in addition, 
some peculiar hoops are developed along the 
margins, which are readily seen when the leaves 



are closely examined. All teas are classed as 
black and green, depending partly on the ao-e 
of the leaves, partly upon the locality where 
they are grown, and partly upon the method of 
drying. Thus the black tea is not only roasted 
in a shallow iron vessel, called the Kus, but it 
is also again submitted to the action of a char- 
coal fire, in sieves. Green tea, on the other 
hand, escapes the second process. As the 
names of the different teas relate to the time 
of their being gathered, or to some peculiarity 
in their manufacture, consumers should know 
something about them. 

^ Black Teas. — As soon as the leaf-bud be- 
gins to expand, it is gathered to make Pekoe. 
A few days' later growth produces what here is 
called Black-leaved Pekoe. The next picking 
is called Souchong. As the leaves grow larger 
and more mature they form Congou ; and the 
last and latest picking is called Bohea. 

Bohea is called by the Chinese Ta-cJie (large 
tea), on account of the maturity and size of the 
leaves. It contains a larger proportion of 
woody fibre than other teas, and its infusion is 
of a darker color and coarser flavor. 

CongoJi., the next higher kind, is named from 
a corruption of the Chinese Koongfoo (great 
care, or assiduity). This forms the bulk of 
the black importecl, and is most valued for its 
strength. 

Souchong, Seaon-chotig (small, scarce sort), 
is the finest of the stronger black tea, with a 
leaf that is generally entire and curly. It is 
much esteemed for its fragrance and fine flavor. 

Pekoe is a corruption of the Canton name 
(Pak-ho, white down), being the first sprouts of 
leaf-buds ; they are covered with a v/hite silky 
down. It is a delicate tea, rather deficient in 
strength, and it is principally used for flavoring 
other teas. 

Green Teas. — The foUowiog are the princi- 
pal kinds : Twankay, Hyson-Skin^ Hyson, 
Gunpowder, and Young Hyson. 

Young Hyson (when genuine) is a delicate 
young leaf, called in the original language, 
Yu-tsien (before the rains), because gathered 
in the early spring. 

Hyson, from the Chinese word, Hetchune, 
which signifies flourishing spring. This fine 
sort of tea is gathered in the early part of the 
season. There is extreme care and labor used 
in the preparation of this tea ; each leaf is 
picked separately, and nipped off above the 
foot stalk, and every separate leaf is twisted 
and rolled by the hand. It is much esteemed 
for its agreeable flavor. 

Gunpowder, as it is called, is nothing but 
Hyson rolled and rounded to give it the gran- 
ular appearance whence it derives its name. 
The Chinese call it Choo-cha (pearl tea). 

Hyson-skin is so named from the original 
Chinese term, in which connection the skin 
means the refuse or inferior portion. In pre- 
paring Hyson, all those leaves that are of a 
coarse yellow, or imperfectly twisted appear- 
ance, are separated and sold as skiji tea, at an 
inferior price. 



626 



TEA-POTS 



TEETH 



Twankay is the last picking of green tea, and 
in addition to the leaf being older it is not so 
much rolled or twisted as the dearer descrip- 
tions ; there is altogether less trouble bestowed 
on its preparation. 

The nutritive value of tea is very small, but 
as Dr. Edward Smith has proved by an elabo- 
rate series of experiments, it is a powerful res- 
piratory excitant, and causes the assimilation 
and transformation of other foods. In select- 
ing tea it must be borne in mind that all genu- 
ine teas possess approximately the same amount 
of theine, and for dietetic purposes, all, what- 
ever their price, are practically equal. The 
only real difference between the cheapest black 
tea and the Russian barovan at twelve dollars a 
pound is a difference of flavor. Tea should be 
chosen by the agreeableness of its odor, and 
as whole as possible, in order that its leaves 
may be readily examined ; and the greatest care 
should be taken that it has not been exposed 
to the air, which destroys its flavor. Buy it in 
small quantities and keep it in a tin canister 
with a closely-fitting top. 

*ro make Tea. — Allow one good teaspoonful 
of tea to each teacupful of the infusion that 
will be required. Before putting the tea in, 
scald the tea-pot well and jjour off the water ; 
then put in the tea, pour on enough boiling 
water to cover it well, and let it stand ten min- 
utes on the back part of the stove to " draw. " 
Fill up with as much boiling water as will make 
the required quantity of tea, and send hot to 
table. The water used in making tea must be 
boiling Jiard as it is poured in ; but tinder no 
circnnistances nuist the tea boil after the water 
is added. 

TEA-POTS. — With respect to tea-pots, the 
form is of less importance than the material of 
which they are made. About thirty years ago 
there was a warm and learned contest respect- 
ing the best substance for tea-pots, that is, 
what they should be made of, to " draw the tea" 
best. It is obvious that the nature of the ma- 
terial itself will have no particular action upon 
the tea, and that the question would be decided 
by determining what substance kept the water 
hot the longest. It had been supposed, from 
observation, that metal tea-pots performed this 
best; and yet the doctrine of the conducting 
power of bodies, as understood at that time, 
appeared to be in favor of earthen-ware, which, 
being a worse conductor than metal, was sup- 
posed to prevent in a greater degree the escape 
of heat. Each substance, therefore, had its 
advocates : theory appeared to decide for one, 
while experience declared for the other. In 
the mean time, a discovery made by Professor 
Leslie, of Edinburgh, threw a new light upon 
this subject. He found that, although all heated 
substances throw off invisible rays of radiant 
heat, yet that the quantity projected depended 
much more upon the smoothness or roughness 
of the surface than upon the conducting power 
of the body; and i\\?it polished metal, although 
one of the best conductors of heat, was one of 
the worst radiators, metal not polished being a 
30 



good radiator as well as conductor. Although 
earthen-ware, particularly the black unglazed 
sort, then so much in use (Wedgwood's), is a 
bad conductor, yet it is a better radiator than the 
polished metal, and, consequently, throws off 
more heat. Water, of course, cools sooner in 
an earthen-ware tea-pot, particularly if not 
glazed, than in one of polished metal. Since 
the date of this discovery, bright metal tea-pots 
have been considered to be most effectual in 
preserving the heat of the water ; and hence 
both theory and practice now agree as to the 
substance best adapted for making a strong in- 
fusion of tea. The metal tea-pot, however, 
must be kept bright; for, if not, it is worse 
than the earthen-ware, as it is the polish of the 
surface only that acts in preventing the radiant 
heat from escaping. 

The tea-urn is certainly the most elegant 
mode of supplying water for tea at table. It 
is made in the form of a vase, but in a great 
variety of patterns. In the old-fashioned ones 
there is a vertical tube, into which a cylinder 
of iron, heated red-hot, is slipped down and 
covered by a small lid, and that in turn by the 
cover of the urn. The improved urns have 
lamps below them, so that the water can be kept 
hot for any length of time. 

TEAL. — There are two varieties of this small 
fresh-water wild duck : the bhie-ivinged and the 
green-winged. The flesh of both is excellent, 
though that of the green-winged is considered 
rather the better of the two. The blue-winged 
teal is in season in September, October, and 
November ; and the green-winged from Sep- 
tember to January, though during the latter 
month it is somewhat scarce. (.5"^'^ Duck.) 

TEETH. — Temporary teeth— 20 in number 
— begin to appear at about the seventh month, 
and their appearance is generally completed at 
the age of two years. 

Attention to these teeth is of more import- 
ance than is generally supposed. The child 
should be taught to brusli them every night 
and morning, not only to prevent decay, but 
to form the habit of brushing, so that when 
the permanent teeth appear, the child will be 
trained to give them proper care. If the tem- 
porary teeth are decayed they should be filled, 
that pain may be avoided and that they may 
serve the purpose of mastication during this 
period of rapid growth. As the eight molars 
(double teeth) are retained until about the 
twelfth year, this becomes of considerable im- 
portance. Moreover, if the temporary teeth 
are lost before the permanent teeth are ready 
to take their place, irregularities of position 
may ensue. If, however, the temporary teeth 
have been neglected until they have become 
decayed and painful, the nerve should be de- 
stroyed, or, as a last resort, they should be ex- 
tracted. 

The permanent teeth — 32 in number — begin 
to appear at about the sixth year, and their ap- 
pearance is completed when the wisdom teeth 
come, between the eighteenth and twenty-fifth 
year. 



TEETH 



527 



The first to make their appearance are the 
four molars (double teeth). They come in 
back of the temporary teeth, the jaw by this 
time having enlarged sufficiently to give them 
room. As no teeth are displaced, these new 
molars are often believed to belong to the first 
set, and are therefore neglected when decayed. 
At this period, decay progresses rapidly, and it 
is of great importance that these four back 
teeth should be carefully watched and the cavi- 
ties filled before they become large and painful. 
The front teeth or incisors are the next to ap- 
pear. As they advance, the roots of the tem- 
porary teeth are absorbed, until the teeth loosen 
and fall out. The new teeth are often crowded, 
and appear large in proportion to the jaw. 
This condition will generally be corrected as 
the child grows older and the jaw expands. 
The teeth do not increase in size after they ap- 
pear, but complete tlieir growth at the ends of 
their roots. 

Irregularities. In case of marked irregular- 
ities, the advice of the dentist should be sought. 
Early attention may save much trouble and 
annoyance. This is especially true where one 
or two of the upper front teeth come in such a 
way as to close inside the lower teeth — their 
normal position being on the outside when the 
jaws are closed. The longer such a condition 
is neglected, the more difficult is it to over- 
come. During the time the temporary teeth 
are being changed for the permanent ones — a 
period of six or seven years — the gums are 
more or less inflamed and irritable, the fluids 
of the mouth of an acid nature, and decay 
rapid and destructive. The teeth should, there- 
fore, during this time, be brushed carefully, and 
be frequently examined by the dentist. 

Structure, This should be considered in or- 
der to fully understand the diseases to which 
they are liable. That portion of a tooth which 
projects from the gum is covered by the etiamel, 
while the root is surrounded by a membrane 
which connects it with the jaw. This mem- 
brane, the periosteum, holds the tooth in its 
socket, and forms a sort of cushion, which 
allows a slight movement of the tooth, and 
serves to break the shock of mastication. It is 
a vascular membrane and supplies the outer 
portion of the root with vitality. It is often the 
seat of severe inflammatory action, as will be 
shown hereafter. 

Under the enamel lies the dentine, or 
" bone," which makes up the body of the 
tooth. It is permeated by innumerable minute 
tubes, which branch from the pulp or " nerve," 
and which allow the circulation of the watery, 
nutritive part of the blood. These tubes are 
too small, however, to admit the red cor- 
puscles. 

By many observers they are believed to con- 
tain minute nerve filaments, which branch 
into them from the pulp. This view seems to 
be supported by the fact of the pain that at- 
tends the cutting out of decay, from cavities 
that are to be filled. 

The pulp, popularly called the "nerve," oc- 



cupies a chamber in the center of the body of 
the dentine, and corresponds in shape to the 




Magnified Section of Front Tooth. 

1. Enamel. 4. Periosteum. 

2. Dentine. 5. Gum. 

3. Pulp or nerve. 6. Alveola or socket. 

outline of the tooth. It is composed of a net- 
work of minute arteries, veins, and nerves. It 
is the tissue which gives nourishment to the 
greater part of the tooth, and the one from 
which the tooth first gradually grew. The 
growth of a tooth is a slow process, and is ac- 
complished by the gradual ossification, orden- 
tinification, more properly, of the circumfer- 
ence of the pulp. In the teeth of young per- 
sons the pulp is large and comparatively near 
the surface, but in old age it is small, having 
ossified and receded until sometimes only a 
thread-like filament remains. 

Decay of the teeth is due to the action of 
acids upon them. These may result from the 
decomposition of particles of food left between 
the teeth, or may find their way into the mouth 
from the stomach. The mucus of the mouth 
adhering to the teeth may become acidulated 
and cause decay. Badly-cooked and hastily- 
eaten food, causing dyspepsia and a disturb- 
ance of the whole alimentary tract, is one of 
the most active agents in the production of de- 
cay. Acids from the stomach find their way 
into the mouth in the same manner as mucus 
from the lungs, or bronchial tubes ; hence the 
rapid decay of the teeth of those who have dis- 
turbed digestion. This is particularly the case 
with women during pregnancy, when more or 
less disturbance of the stomach may be ex- 
pected. Sweets, in themselves, are harmless. 
They injure the teeth only as they disturb di- 
gestion. To understand the cause of decay is 
to suggest, in a measure, the means of its pre- 
vention. If from particles of food, they should 



528 



TEETH 



be removed. If from acid mucus, it should 
be brushed away. If from the acids of the 
stomach, neutraUzing agents should be used, 
as bicarbonate of soda (from one-fourth to a 
full teaspoonful in a pint of water), and used 
as a mouth-wash ; or the teeth may be promptly 
brushed with soap, or, if preferred, with chaltc. 

TOOTHACHE. 

By studying the structure of the teeth it will 
be easy to understand the three sources from 
which pain may arise. It may be from expo- 
sure of the dentine, exposure of the pulp, or 
from an inflammation of the periosteum. 

Exposure of the dentine is generally caused 
by decay, but it may occur by a blow breaking 
off the enamel, or by a recession of the gum 
from the neck of the tooth. The pain is gener- 
ally not very severe, though it may sometimes 
become a continual ache. It is aggravated 
by contact of foreign substances, by sudden 
changes of temperature in the mouth, and very 
often by the irritating action of articles of food, 
as acids, sweets, salt, etc. The discomfort is 
greatly increased if the saliva be acid, which is 
almost invariably the case when there is disturb- 
ance of digestion. The exposure at the necks 
of the teeth caused by a recession of the gums, 
may give rise to such an irritable condition, 
that the brush cannot be used without pain. 
If, however, its use is abandoned, the accumula- 
tion of acid mucus adds to the sensitiveness and 
the teeth become too painful to be touched or 
used. The treatment of sensitive dentinegen- 
erally requires the services of the dentist. The 
filling of cavities will almost invariably give 
prompt relief. If the cavities are large, and 
metallic fillings are used, tenderness from con- 
tact of hot or cold food or drink, may con- 
tinue for a time. This, however, will gener- 
ally soon pass away. Tenderness from a 
broken tooth may often be removed by thor- 
oughly polishing the broken surface. 

Sensitiveness at the necks of the teeth, caused 
by recession of the gums, is more difficult to 
control. If the teeth at this point show signs 
of decay, filling of course is demanded, and 
will give relief; but it often happens that there 
is no decay, the sensitiveness arising simply 
from the exposure of the dentine above the edge 
of the enamel, associated with acid saliva. To 
cut out and fill these places is not always advis- 
able, for the irritating condition of the saliva 
may pass away and leave the teeth free from 
tenderness, and, if kept clean, comparatively 
safe from decay. In these cases, considerable 
relief may be had by the use of agents that will 
neutralize the acid saliva, as the wash of bicar- 
bonate of soda, above described, or soap or 
chalk freely used for brushing the teeth. If 
these fail, the tender places should be touched 
with nitrate of silver (lunar caustic). This is 
certain in its action, but has the objection of 
discoloring the places to which it is applied. 
Insert a stick of it in a quill, and it can be ap- 
plied directly to the spot. As it " burns " what 
it touches, it should be used with great care. 



Exposure of the pulp gives much more se- 
vere pain. It is caused, of course, by decay of 
the teeth. It is generally preceded by an un- 
easy feeling similar to that caused by sensitive 
dentine. This may go on for weeks, the dis- 
comfort gradually increasing, until some un- 
usually irritating cause starts the tooth to 
aching steadily. Sometimes there is no warn- 
ing of the progress of decay, until by biting 
some hard substance a portion of the tooth 
is broken, a large cavity discovered, and the 
tooth set violently aching. The pulp being a 
highly organized and delicate tissue, and lodged 
in an unyielding chamber just large enough 
to accommodate it in a state of health, the 
slightest inflammation causes swelling and 
pressure, and the pain of this pressure further 
adds to the inflammation. This is particularly 
the case when the point of exposure is very 
slight. If the exposure is large, and the pulp, 
in consequence, less confined, the pain is likely 
to be less severe, and more readily reduced. 
In the hands of a dentist, the treatment of an 
exposed pulp consists in destroying and remov- 
ing it or in using means to protect and con- 
serve it. Which course will be best to pursue 
must depend upon each particular case. 

Soothing Remedies for Pain from exposure 
of the Pulp. If a dentist cannot be had, it may 
be alleviated by placing in the cavity of the 
tooth a roll of cotton moistened with a quarter 
of a drop of creosote, a drop of oil of cloves, of 
the tincture of hamamelis (Pond's extract), of 
laudanum, of oil of peppermint, or of laudanum 
and lead-water. If the saliva is acid, and the 
teeth feel " on edge," the wash of bicarbonate 
of soda above given, or a little chalk placed in 
the cavity, will partially quiet the pain. Some- 
times a drop of chloroform placed in the cavity 
on cotton will soothe. These remedies apply 
equally to exposure of the pulp in the perma- 
nent or temporary teeth. 

Saving " Nerves." Every effort that promises 
a chance of success should be made to save 
the pulp alive, devitalization being accepted 
only as a last resort. No matter how carefully 
a devitalized tooth may be treated, it is still 
of less value than if the pulp were alive. 
Deprived of the nutritive fluids obtained from 
the pulp, the tooth gradually degenerates, and 
becomes more liable to decay. Also, when a 
tooth is deprived of its pulp, increased demand 
is made upon the periosteum, which sometimes 
results in inflammation of that membrane. It 
is also sometimes impossible to thoroughly re- 
move the extreme end of the pulp, particularly 
from the back teeth which have more than one 
root, and are more or less inaccessible. Even 
a small portion allowed to remain may become 
decomposed and give rise to inflammation of 
the periosteum. If the exposed portion be not 
too large, and inflammation and pain not of 
long standing, a reasonable prospect exists of 
still saving the pulp alive. This will be ac- 
complished, however, only by the most careful 
treatment, and by a delicate appreciation on 
the part of the dentist of the exact condition of 



TEETH 



529 



the pulp. In this conservative treatment, ad- 
vantage is taken of that gradual ossification 
which takes place at the circumference of the 
pulp. A non-irritating material is carefully 
laid on the exposed portion, and over this cap- 
ping a temporary filling is placed, and the 
tooth allowed to remain for months, or years. 
Ossification may have then progressed to the 
extent of closing the opening, and protecting 
the pulp with a bony wall sufficiently strong to 
bear the insertion ot a permanent filling. 

The irritation at the point of exposure seems 
to stimulate the ossifying process, and some- 
times only a few months will be needed to close 
the opening into the pulp chamber. On re- 
moving the temporary filling after sufficient 
time has elapsed, if ossification has not occur- 
red, the pulp will be found sometimes partially 
alive, but generally entirely destroyed. It 
should then be removed and the root filled. 
The process of capping the pulp is compara- 
tively free from pain. The material at present 
most successfully used is the white oxide of zinc, 
moistened with sufficient creosote or carbolic 
acid to form a thick paste. After drying the 
cavity, and removing as much of the decay as 
can be done without wounding the pulp, a little 
of this paste is laid carefully over the exposed 
point. Pain is seldom felt, owing to the sooth- 
ing effect of the creosote. Over this paste, 
which does not harden, may then be placed a 
paste of oxy-chloride of zinc, mixed to the right 
consistency. This hardens in a fev/ moments, 
making a solid covering which protects the pulp 
from pressure, and serves as a temporary filling. 

" Killing Nerves." The destruction of the 
pulp or " nerve," is accomplished by an infini- 
tesimal quantity of arsenic applied directly to 
the exposed point. After a sufficient time has 
elapsed, the pulp should be thoroughly re- 
moved from its chamber in the tooth, and 
from the canal in each root. The canals and 
chamber should then be filled with some inde- 
structible material, when the cavity in the 
crown may be filled as if the pulp had not 
been disturbed. 

If the pulp be destroyed, but not removed, 
and only the cavity of decay filled, inflamma- 
tion of the covering membrane of the root {pe- 
riosteum) and pain of the severest kind may 
occur at any time. In fact a pulp treated in 
this manner, would be almost certain, sooner 
or later, to give trouble. In such cases, de- 
composition of the pulp ensues, and the gases 
find escape only through the end of the root, and 
pressing there upon the periosteum cause pain 
and swelling which seldom subside until an 
abscess is formed, and an opening made in the 
gum. 

If the removal of the pulp is neglected, there 
is also the danger of discoloration of the tooth, 
which, in the front of the mouth, may be a 
source of great annoyance. This discoloration 
is due to the decomposed tissue of the pulp 
becoming injected into the tubes which have 
been shown to exist in dentine. The destruction 
of the pulp is not necessarily a painful process. 
34 



If aching badly, palliative remedies should be 
first applied, and then in securing the arsenic 
in place, care should be taken to avoid pres- 
sure upon the pulp. 

Pain in the wrong Tooth. Sometimes the 
pain from an exposed pulp will seem to locate 
in a sound tooth. It will sometimes seem to 
come from a tooth in the opposite jaw. This 
is because the nerves that supply the upper 
and lower jaw are branches from the same 
root, so that pain caused at the extremity of 
one of them may be felt at the extremity of any 
of the others. Exposed pulps, in the wisdom 
teeth particularly, are quite likely to cause pain 
that will locate in some other tooth. The rude 
touch of an instrument, or the disturbance of 
the cavity, will generally transfer the conscious- 
ness of pain to its real source. 

"Ulcerated" Teeth. Pain from inflamma- 
tion of the periosteum is more difficult to con- 
trol. It partakes more of the character of a 
general inflammation, often spreading to the 
sockets of the adjoining teeth, and sometimes 
involving the whole side of the face. It can be 
traced almost invariably to a pulpless tooth. 
It is not unusual for sound teeth to lose their 
vitality. The shock of a blow upon a tooth 
may sometimes be sufficient to cause the death 
of its pulp. Occasionally, in low states of the 
system, there will occur spontaneous and pain- 
less death of the pulps. The first symptoms 
of ulceration are a slight feeling of uneasiness 
in the tooth, which seems to be longer than its 
fellows, and tender to the touch. The pain 
increases to a dull, heavy ache, accompanied 
by a throbbing sensation, which corresponds 
in frequency with the beating of the heart. 
The result is generally an abscess, which may 
ultimately afford relief by breaking upon the 
gum, where it forms what is called a gum-boil. 

The treatment of inflammation of the perios- 
teum depends upon the stage it has reached, 
as well as upon the cause. If from a dead 
pulp, which has not been removed, but litde 
relief can be expected until the pulp chamber 
is opened and the gases or fluid confined at the 
apex of the root allowed to escape. If the 
trouble is from a sound tooth, the chamber can 
be reached only by drilling through some part 
of the crown. If the inflammation exists about a 
tooth the root of which has been filled, its treat- 
ment must depend upon the extent to which it 
has progressed. The removal of the filling 
might give relief ; but such fillings are not easily 
removed, and relief in many cases must be had 
from other means. In the first stages of inflame 
mation efforts should be made to check it. The 
first consideration will be to avoid irritation ot 
all kind. If the tooth feels elongated and ten- 
der to the touch of the opposing teeth, a cap 
of gutta-percha should be fitted over an ad- 
joining tooth, in order to prevent the tender 
tooth "from being struck in closing the jaws. 
The same effect may be secured by a little 
block of wood kept between the teeth on the 
other side of the mouth. Sometimes this se- 
curity from irritation will be all that is required. 



530 



TEETH 



TETANUS 



At this stage cold should be persistently ap- 
plied inside the mouth to the gums over the 
aching tooth ; this can be constantly done 
with a little rubber bag containing ice. Hot 
foot-baths should be employed, in order to 
direct the volume of blood from the iiead. 
Counter-irritation of the intestinal tract by an 
active cathartic may also be employed to ad- 
vantage. In this early stage counter-irritants 
applied upon the gum over the tooth may di- 
vert the inflammation ; for instance, equal 
parts of the tincture of aconite and iodine 
painted upon the gum. If these remedies fail, 
and the irritative passes on to the congestive 
stage, marked by swelling and excessive sore- 
ness, cold applied to the gum would be un- 
bearable. All attempts at checking the inflam- 
mation should cease. There can now be little 
hope of preventing suppuration and the forma- 
tion of an abscess. A leech applied to the 
gum will relieve pain by extracting the blood 
and reducing the tension ; in some cases it 
may even prevent the impending suppuration. 
If this cannot be prevented means should be 
used to hasten it. Heat will be found most 
efficient. Hot water may be held in the mouth, 
and warm poultices applied to the gums. A 
roasted fig, split open and laid upon the gum, 
by retaining the heat softens the part and en- 
courages the suppurative process. To relieve 
the tension and pain caused by the swelling, 
warm fomentations may be applied to the face. 
In the use of these, however, if the swelling is 
very great, care should be exercised, as the 
heat may induce the abscess to break out upon 
the face. If such danger impends, cold should 
be applied upon the face, and warm poultices 
kept upon the gums. Lancing may be resorted 
to when the abscess has made such progress 
that the pus can be reached. 

Tartar. Inflammation of the periosteum and 
of the surrounding gums may be induced by 
accumulations of tartar on the necks of the 
teeth. Living and dead teeth are equally sub- 
ject to this disease. Tartar is deposited from 
the saliva, and is composed for the most part 
of carbonate and phosphate of lime. It has 
also mixed with it fatty substances, epithelial 
scales, remains of oral parasites, etc. As it is 
derived from the saliva, its accumulation is most 
rapid upon those teeth that stand opposite the 
openings of the salivary ducts — upon the outer 
surfaces of the upper first and second molars, 
and the inner surfaces of the lower front teeth. 
It accumulates most, of course, on those sur- 
faces that escape the friction of food in masti- 
cation, or that are not reached by the brush. 
Generally, it first becomes attached at the 
necks of the teeth, finding a sheltered place 
just at the margin of the gums. From this 
point it extends up under the gum, gradually 
causing strangulation of the minute vessels 
that give nourishment to the outer part of the 
root of the tooth, as well as causing mechani- 
cal irritation and chronic inflammation of the 
gums and periosteum. It sometimes extends 
up nearly to the end of the root, causing ab- 



sorption of the sockets and loosening of the 
teeth. It is not unusual for teeth otherwise 
perfect, to loosen and fall out in this way. Its 
presence is shown by the spongy, swollen con- 
dition of the gums, by their being detached 
from the teeth, and their readiness to bleed 
when punctured, or from the use of the brush. 
This inflamed condition can be remedied only 
by the removal of the tartar with instruments. 
This should be done with great thoroughness 
and care, for if only a little of the tartar be 
left, it will form a nucleus for a new deposit. 
The roots should then be polished as well as 
their position will allow. Healing and con- 
traction of the gums about the teeth may then 
be hastened by the use of astringent washes. 
If tartar again accumulates, as it will in most 
cases, it must be again removed, as only thus 
can the loosening of teeth be delayed. 

Toothpicks. At the temperature of the 
mouth, only a few hours is sufficient to induce 
a putrefactive change of particles of food left 
between the teeth. They should be removed 
with the quill or wooden toothpick, or with 
floss silk. Silk is preferable, as it can be 
passed between teeth that stand in contact, 
and effectually cleanses the surface that cannot 
be reached by the pick or the brush. If this 
be too expensive, linen threads, such as used 
by shoemakers, may be substituted. 

Toothbrushes should be used with great 
thoroughness every night and morning, and 
if practicable, after every meal. Great care 
should be taken, however, to select brushes not 
too harsh and stiff , as they may do 7mich harm 
to the gums. On the other hand, if brushes 
are too soft, the teeth will not be well cleansed. 

Powders should always be used, as by their 
help the sticky mucus is more thoroughly 
removed and the surface kept smooth and 
polished. The chalk of which they are mostly 
made, has also an affinity for the acids, thereby 
protecting the teeth. Soap is very cleansing, 
and may be always used to advantage. Most 
of the powders before the public may be con- 
sidered reliable. The chalk and orris, of 
which they are chiefly made, are so cheap that 
there is no inducement for adulteration. 

Washes for the teeth and gums may be 
used, but care should be taken to avoid those 
which are astringent. Such may be used to 
advantage in case of diseased gums, but in a 
state of health the teeth and gums need to be 
cleansed, not medicated. (5^^Tooth-powders.) 

TEETHING. {See INFANTS. 

TERRAPIN. {See SoUP and Turtle.) 

TETANUS. — An affection characterized by 
painful and rigid contraction of the voluntary 
muscles, aggravated from time to time by very 
severe spasms. The two chief forms are the 
traumatic, which occurs after wounds, and the 
idiopathic, without any manifest cause. In the 
former, the spasms are usually severe and 
acute ; in the latter they are milder and chronic. 
The following are the usual symptoms in a 
severe attack of traumatic tctaiius : After gen- 
eral uneasiness, headache, and feverishness, the 



TETANUS 



531 



patient complains of stiffness of the jaws and 
at the back of the neck ; swallowing is difficult, 
the voice is low and husky, and there is a pe- 
culiar expression of the face due to contraction 
of the muscles which move the lips and eyelids ; 
the patient next suffers from painful cramp in 
the muscles of the face and neck, and, in con- 
sequence of permanent rigidity of the muscles 
of mastication and spasms of the gullet, is una- 
ble to take any food ; to this stage, in which 
the mouth is firmly closed, has been applied the 
name of locked-jaw ; the spasms then attack 
the muscles of the abdominal walls, and violent 
pain is felt at intervals at the pit of the stom- 
ach ; the front of the abdomen is retracted, and 
the muscles during the severe paroxysms feel to 
the hand like a hard board ; the voluntary mus- 
cles of the back and limbs finally become af- 
fected and very painful cramps are felt over 
the whole body, which as the affection pro- 
gresses are divided by shorter and shorter in- 
tervals ; the bowels are generally bound and 
there is often retention of urine ; the symptoms 
increase in intensity, and at last death occurs 
either from pain and exhaustion, or in conse- 
quence of spasms of the diaphragm and other 
muscles of respiration ; the mental faculties 
generally remain unimpaired, until very shortly 
before death. The usual duration of an attack 
of severe and fatal tetanus is from three to six 
days. Cases, however, have been recorded in 
which death occurred within a few hours after 
the commencement of the symptoms. The 
symptoms of acute traumatic tetanus vary much 
in different cases ; the spasms may be restricted 
to a certain region or a certain set of muscles, 
or they may commence at the seat of the wound 
and not, as is usually the case, in the muscles 
of the jaw. The ordinary tetanic symptoms 
may be complicated by epilepsy, delirium, and 
coma. 

There is no injury to the surface of the body, 
however slight it may be, of which acute te- 
tanus might not be a result, and there is no re- 
lation between the extent and degree of the 
injury and the intensity of the tetanic symp- 
toms. It has been known to follow slight con- 
tusions and blows with a stick or cane. It 
rarely occurs after clean cuts, and is mostly 
connected with contused wounds involving 
nerves and the fibrous structures, as fasciae, 
tendons, and ligaments. With regard to local- 
ity, it has been stated that tetanus occurs more 
frequently after wounds of the hands and feet. 
The interval between the receipt of the injury 
and the commencement of the tetanic symp- 
toms, the so-called period of incubation, varies 
in different cases. In the majority, the symp- 
toms come on between the fourth and the tenth 
day ; the period in many lasts from ten to 
twenty days, but is extended over the twenty- 
second day in only ten out of every hundred 
cases. It has never been known to exceed a 
month. The symptoms sometimes come after 
an interval of only a few hours, and one in 
stance has been recorded in which a negro was 
attacked with tetanic spasms in a quarter of an 



hour after his hand had been punctured with a 
fragment of chinaware. The shorter the inter- 
val the more severe are the symptoms. Teta- 
nus, when it occurs before the tenth day after 
the injury, is usually fatal ; in cases occurring 
after the tenth day, the mortality is much re- 
duced. Tetanus occurs much more frequently 
in males than in females, and in the latter its 
symptoms are less severe. Tetanus may 
occur at any period of life, but in more than 
half the number of recorded cases the patients 
were between ten and thirty years of age. It 
has been asserted that tetanus is most fatal in 
patients under ten years of age. The accession 
of traumatic tetanus does not seem to be in- 
fluenced in any way by morbid conditions of 
the body, or by previous states of bad health. 
The healthy and the unhealthy, the strong and 
the weak, are equally affected. It has been 
stated that tetanus is met with more frequently 
at periods of the year in which there are fre- 
quent and sudden changes of temperature. 

The course and symptoms of an attack of 
idiopathic tetanus resemble very much those 
of the acute traumatic form, but are rarely so 
intense. The chief causes of the so-called 
idiopathic tetanus are exposure to cold and 
wet, and intestinal irritation. It is rarely met 
with in this country, but occurs frequently in 
the tropics. 

The symptoms of tetanus may resemble very 
much at first sight those of hydrophobia, and 
in some cases the medical attendant experiences 
considerable difficulty in establishing a perfectly 
satisfactory diagnosis. The following are the 
chief points of difference in these two danger- 
ous affections : in tetanus the muscular spasm 
is persistent, and perfect relief never occurs 
for a single instant until a short time before 
death ; in hydrophobia the spasms are always 
of brief duration, and alternate with periods of 
complete relaxation and relief ; the persistence 
of the muscular contraction in tetanus is most 
marked in the lower jaw, which in almost all 
cases remains fixed and immovable. In hydro- 
phobia there is a constant flow of saliva, and the 
patient complains of great thirst; in tetanus 
these two symptoms are usually absent ; the 
countenance in tetanus is generally expressive 
of intense suffering; in hydrophobia, not so 
much of physical suffering as of excessive rest- 
lessness and mental excitement ; in the latter 
affection the mental faculties are always much 
disturbed and the patient often falls into a state 
of violent delirium and maniacal excitement ; 
in tetanus, on the other hand, the mind usually 
remains undisturbed, until the termination of 
the attack ; in hydrophobia there is an aversion 
to fluids, the very thought of which very much 
excites the patient; in tetanus there is no men- 
tal aversion to fluids, but when an attempt is 
made to administer them, the patient endeav- 
ours to express by action his inability to open 
the jaws and to swallow. Any reliable history 
as to the bite of a dog about six weeks or two 
months previously, will at once establish the 
diagnosis in doubtful cases of hydrophobia. 



532 



TETTER 



THRUSH 



Tetanus, though a very dangerous affection, is 
not always fatal ; in acute cases, where the 
symptoms commence shortly after the receipt 
of a wound, recovery seldom occurs, but when 
the attack comes on after the tenth day from 
the receipt of the wound, and the tetanic symp- 
toms last over fourteen days, recovery is the 
rule and death a rare exception. No case of 
recovery from hydrophobia has been hitherto 
recorded. Symptoms somewhat analagous to 
those met with in severe cases of tetanus are 
produced by poisonous doses of strychnia or 
strychnine. The symptoms of poisoning com- 
mence soon after the strychnine has been 
swallowed, and set in with shortness of breath, 
rigidity of the muscles of the neck and back, 
and painful tetanic spasms of the extremities ; 
the body is usually arched backwards so as to 
rest on the head and heels. The muscles of the 
face are much convulsed, so as to produce a 
characteristic grinning expression called the 
risus sardonicus. All the voluntary muscles are 
attacked at about the same time, and there is 
no persistent contraction of the muscles of the 
jaw. In these respects, and also from the promi- 
nence, among the symptoms, of backward arch- 
ing of the body, and from the occurrence of in- 
tervals of complete intermission, the phenom- 
ena of strychnine poisoning differ from those 
of acute traumatic and idiopathic tetanus. 

Treatment. — No continued success has yet 
attended the administration of any one of the 
numerous medicmal agents that have been tried 
in cases of severe tetanus ; calomel, opium, 
chloroform, belladonna, aconite, quinine. Cala- 
bar bean, and Indian hemp, have all been ex- 
tensively used, in some cases with undoubtedly 
good results, in others with signal failure. No 
drug is yet known which has the power of ar- 
resting the course of the disease, and of con- 
trolling its severer symptoms. So long as 
tetanus is to be regarded as a disease which 
must run a certain course, the chief indications 
of treatment will be the support of the patient's 
strength and the relief of suffering and pain. 
Fluid and easily digested food, with wine or 
spirits, must be freely supplied, and when the 
patient is unable to open the mouth or to swal- 
low, should be administered by injections or 
through an elastic tube passed through the nose 
into the gullet. Pain may be relieved by the 
internal administration of opium, by sub- 
cutaneous injections of morphia, or by inhala- 
tion of chloroform. In many cases painful and 
violent muscular spasm has been much allayed 
by the application, along the spine, of bladders 
of ice. Great care must be taken to guard the 
patient from all causes of excitement and irri- 
tation, and the room in which he is confined 
should be kept darkened and at an uniform 
temperature. It is very important that there 
should be a speedy and free evacuation of the 
bowels. In cases of traumatic tetanus follow- 
ing a wound, the injured part, if painful and in- 
flamed, should be poulticed and kept as much 
as possible at rest. 

TETTER — An eruptive disease of the skin 



which often appears on the face and the side 
of the mouth, sometimes on the scalp, and oc- 
casionally about the waist. Give bicarbonate 
of potash or soda internally, and occasionally 
apply externally powdered oxide of zinc. 

THERMOMETER.— A glass tube, with a 
bulb at one end and o^aen at the other, con- 
taining mercury enough to fill it ; is hermeti- 
cally sealed when very hot. It is afterwards 
immersed in melting ice, and the point at which 
the mercury stands scratched on the glass ; it 
is next placed in boiling water and the level 
of the mercury again noted. On the Fahren- 
heit scale this distance is divided into i8o de- 
grees ; on the Centigrade scale into loodegrees ; 
and on the Reaumur scale into So degrees. The 
freezing point is called zero on the last two 
scales, but 32 on the Fahrenheit scale. In a 
room where persons are sitting, the Fahrenheit 
thermometer should register from 68 to 70 de- 
grees ; in a room like a nursery, where the oc- 
cupants are apt to be moving actively, 3 or 4 
degrees lower. Medical thermometers are 
self-registering, being supplied with a small 
index in the bore of the tube, which is pushed 
upward by the mercury in its ascent, but does 
not fall again until shaken down with some 
force. As the index is liable to get shaken 
into the bulb, and thus render the instrument 
useless, many thermometers have a spiral in 
the bore near the bulb, to arrest the index. 
The normal temperature of the body, taken by 
holding the bulb of the thermometer five min- 
utes in the armpit, with the arm closed down 
upon it, may be set down at 98^ degrees, 
though it may normally rise to 100 degrees 
during the period of digestion. 102 degrees 
indicates fever and need of attention ; 104 de- 
grees indicates serious need of attention. Af- 
ter 108 degrees, recovery is almost unknown. 
THROAT. {See SoRE Throat.) 
THRUSH. — A disease very common 
amongst infants, very much dreaded but easily 
managed. It consists in a soreness cf the 
mouth, lips, cheeks, tongue, throat (seldom ex- 
tending to the stomach), with white creamy 
patches adhering to the surface. They can be 
easily removed, and underneath, the mucous 
membrane is red, sore, and sometimes bloody. 
These patches consist of remnants of food 
(milk, etc.), either natural or decomposed, with 
some matter and very little blood, and a vege- 
table microscopic parasite, the oidiian albiians. 
They form whenever the infant's mouth is not 
kept scrupulously clean ; they will also form 
in the mouths of adult patients, who are either 
too feeble or too unconscious to attend to their 
own cleanliness, and in such cases thrush is al- 
ways a symptom of great danger because of 
great prostration. Thrush is avoided by clean- 
liness. When it is present, wash the mouth 
every half hour or every hour with a solution 
of a tablespoonful of borax in a half-pint of 
water, or with a drachm of the sulphate of 
soda in two ounces of water. Be sure 
that the white patches are well removed, al- 
though gentle rubbing may be required. 



THYME 



TOAST 



533 



THYME. — This plant will grow anywhere, 
but it prefers a dry, poor soil ; if the ground is 
rich, the plant will become too luxuriant, and 
lose its aromatic qualities. There are several 
varieties ; that preferred for culinary purposes 
is the lemon-scented ; it is also the handsomest 
in appearance. It is propagated by seeds or 
slips. Sowing should be performed from the 
middle of March to the middle of May ; slips 
should be set out in the spring. It may also be 
propagated by layers, like carnations. Al- 
though a perennial, it becomes stunted after 
two or three years, and to ensure it in perfec- 
tion the seed should be sown annually. The 
culinary use for thyme is principally for broths 
and soups ; it is also a common ingredient in 
stuffings and to savor meats. The lemon 
thyme is less pungent than the common garden 
thyme, but much more grateful ; hence it is 
used as a seasoning for veal and other meats 
where lemon-peel would be used, thus answer- 
ing the purpose of two distinct spices. Thyme 
that is intended for winter use should be cut 
when in blossom, and after being well dried in 
the shade, hung up in paper bags. It is usu- 
ally found for sale in a dried state, tied up in 
small bunches. 

TICK. A strong, closely-woven, cotton cloth, 
generally striped black and white, which is used 
for bed, bolster, and pillow-cases. It comes in 
pieces a yard wide, and should be shrunk before 
cutting. 

TIFFANY. — A species of gauze or very 
thin silk. It is of French manufacture, and is 
used in lining bonnets, hats, etc. 

TIGER-FLOWER.— The Tiger-flower, or 
Tigridia, is a very showy Mexican bulb, grow- 
ing about eighteen inches high ; its flowers are 
four inches in diameter, and of most gorgeous 
coloring and curious form. They require the 
same culture as the Gladiolus, but will not live 
out of doors in winter in cold latitudes. There 
are as yet but four or five varieties, which bloom 
from July to October. These are : T. cotichi- 
flora, orange and yellow, with black spots ; 
T. conchiflora grandiflora, lemon-color, spotted 
with crimson ; T. pavonia, scarlet, spotted and 
tipped with yellow, T. speciosa, orange, with 
deep maroon-colored spots ; T. vheelerii, a 
seedling from conchiflora. 

TILES.— Plates or pieces of baked clay or 
earthenware, used for covering the roofs of 
buildings. Tiles make a heavier roof than 
slate, and are seldom employed in this country, 
and then only for offices and houses of an in- 
ferior class. There are two kinds of tiles, 
plain tiles and pantiles. Plain tiles are of the 
same form as slates, but are bedded and pointed 
with mortar. The pitch of the roof requires to 
be 45 degrees, and the tiles require frequent 
pointing. Pantiles are curved, and are laid on 
each other dry; they do not make so warm a 
roof as plain tiles and are more liable to get 
out of order. Common tiles are not nearly so 
durable as slates, being much affected by the 
frost; but when glazed they are very durable. 
When the red color of tiles is objectionable. 



they may be covered with a coat of anti-corro- 
sive paint. 

Encaustic tiles are the finer kinds, used for 
paving and decoration. 

TIN- WARE.— What is usually called tin, 
when employed in the manufacture of house- 
hold utensils, is in fact sheets of iron coated 
over or plated with tin ; and this is true whether 
they are described as " common tin " or " block 
tin." As the use of tinning iron is to prevent 
its rusting, it is obvious that whatever wears 
off the tin lays bare the surface of the iron and 
exposes it to the action of moisture and air, 
which occasions its rusting. Care should be 
taken, therefore, that when frequent cleaning 
is necessary, the tinned ware shall be cleaned 
in such a way as not to wear away the surface 
unduly. 

To clean tin-ware, mix a little of the finest 
whiting (common whiting contains generally a 
little sand) with a very little sweet oil, and rub 
the tin with this ; then wipe it clean ; after 
that, dust some dry whiting on it, and rub it off 
with chamois-skin. To prevent rusting, tin- 
ware should be kept in a dry place. 

TINCTURE. — A tincture is a solution of 
any colored substance in sjDirits of wine ; when 
not colored the solution is called a spirit. 
Many tinctures are used in cooking for flavor- 
ing, etc., and directions for making them are 
given elsewhere. {See Essences and Ex- 
tracts.) 

TOAST. — To make ordinary dry toast, cut 
very thin slices of bread from a loaf not less 




Toaster for Chops or Bread. 

than two days baked ; place either one or two 
at a time on the toasting-fork, taking care not 
to hold them too near 
the fire ; they should 
be just warmed on 
each side, then turn- 
ed, and when brown- 
ed nicely on one side, 
turn again, care being 
taken not to let them 
burn. When they 
are thoroughly toast- 
ed, they should be 
either placed upright 
on a plate,one against 
the other, or put into 
the toast-rack; but 
they should be kept near the fire until required 
for the table. Toast should never be made long 
before it is eaten, or it becomes tough and 
leathery. Some people cut the crust off the 




Toaster for Bread or Muffins 



634 



TOE-NAILS 



TOMATO 



bread before toasting. Graham bread makes 
excellent toast. 

A very cheap apparatus by which bread or 
chops can be dressed before a clear fire is 
shown by the first of the preceding figures ; 
and the second is peculiarly convenient when 
bread or muffins are required to be toasted 
quickly and in large quantities without much 
time and attention being bestowed upon them. 

Anchovy Toast. (See Anchovy.) 

Buttered Toast. — The bread should be cut 
rather thicker than for dry toast; toast in the 
same way, and as soon as a sHce is done, but- 
ter it well, and lay in a plate near the fire. 

Cider and Toast. —Take one third brisk 
cider and two thirds water, sweeten well, and 
crumble in toasted bread or toasted crackers, 
and grate nutmeg over the top. 

Cream or Milk Toast. — I. Toast slices of 
stale bread as directed above ; butter and put 
a layer of them in the bottom of a toast-dish, 
and pour over them a liberal supply of cream 
or milk, boihng hot and thickened with a little 
flour or corn-starch ; add another layer of toast, 
and then more cream ; and so on. Cover 
closely, let it stand five minutes, and serve. 

II. Toast the bread to a delicate brown, lay 
it on a very hot plate, and pour over it cold, 
sweet cream ; serve at once. For invalids and 
children with dainty appetites, this is very nice 
and easily digested. Some light fruit jelly will 
add to the relish and still be wholesome. 

Egg Toast. — Break the eggs carefully into 
water, boiling hot, but not really boiling ; the 
water must be slightly salted, and in sufficient 
quantity to cover the eggs. Simmer gently till 
the eggs are delicately cooked, or until the 
yolks are covered with a white film; then take 
them up with a skimmer and lay each on a 
slice of buttered toast. Butter and pepper may 
be added at table. Eaten with Worcestershire 
sauce, this makes an unequalled breakfast dish. 

Water Toast. — Put slices of bread toasted 
brown, but not burnt in the slightest degree, 
into a pitcher, pour on enough boiling water to 
cover them, cover the top closely, and let it 
stand till cold ; then strain off the water and 
sweeten it to taste. This is one of the best of 
beverages for invalids. A little lemon-juice 
may be added when the patient can stand it. 

TOE-NAILS. In-Growing. — This most 
painful of the diseases of the nails is caused 
by cutting the nail, generally of the great toe, 
improperly, and then wearing a narrow, badly- 
made shoe. The nail beginning to grow too 
long, and rather wide at the corners, is often 
trimmed around the corner, which gives tem- 
porary relief. But then it begins to grow wider 
in the side where it was cut off ; and, as the 
shoe presses against the corner, the nail cuts 
more and more into the raw flesh, which be- 
comes tender and irritable. If this state con- 
tinue long, the toe becomes more painful and 
ulcerated, and fungus (proud flesh) sprouts up 
from the sorest points. Walking greatly in- 
creases the suffering, till positive rest becomes 
indispensable. 



Treatment. — Begin the effort at cure by 
simple application to the tender part of a small 
quantity of perchloride of iron. It is kept by 
chemists in a fluid form, though sometimes in 
powder. There is immediately a moderate 
sensation of pain, constriction, or burning. In 
a few minutes the tender surface is felt to be 
dried up, tanned, mummified, and it ceases to 
be painful. The patient, who before could not 
put his foot to the floor, now finds that he can 
walk upon it without pain. By permitting the 
hardened, wood-like flesh to remain for two or 
three weeks, it can easily be removed by soak- 
ing the foot in warm water. A new and healthy 
structure is found, firm and solid, below. If 
thereafter the nails be no more cut around the 
corners or sides, but always curved in across 
the front end, they will in future grow only 
straight forwards, and by wearing a shoe of 
reasonably good size and shape, all further 
trouble will be avoided. There are cases, how- 
ever, in which evulsion of the entire nail is 
necessary. This requires the aid of a surgeon. 

TOFFY OR TOFFEE. {See Taffy.) 

TOMATO. — At present there is probably 
no product of the garden which is used so 
extensively and in so many different ways as 
the tomato ; to be produced in perfection it 
must be grown in very rich ground and receive 
frequent and copious watering ; the vines must 
be pruned so as to admit the sun freely to the 
clusters of fruit. But it will grow well in 
almost any soil, with no more care than is in- 
volved in putting the seed into the ground in 
spring, and is extremely prolific. The com- 
mon kinds may be planted in any out-of-the- 
way place where no other vegetable will grow, 
but the choicer varieties should be sown in 
rows about three feet apart, and the vines sup- 
ported by uprights, so as to keep the fruit off 
the ground. The best varieties of the tomato 
are the T7'ophy, General Grant, Cluster, Oak, 
Crimson Cluster, and Tilden. Other good 
kinds are the white apple, which is excellent 
eaten raw, smooth red, apple and pear shaped, 
large and small yellow. Jig, cherry, etc. To- 
matoes begm to ripen in the South about the 
middle of April, whence they are brought to 
the Northern markets ; they become plentiful 
in June, and are in season until the first heavy 
frosts. The perfection to which the art of 
canning fruits and vegetables has been brought 
enables us to have tomatoes fresh and good 
throughout the year. {See Catsup, Pickles, 
Sauces, and Soup.) 

Baked Tomatoes. — Scald the tomatoes, 
peel them carefully, so as not to break them, 
and lay them in a deep dish ; season with salt 
and pepper, and spread a teacupful of cracker- 
crumbs over the top ; cover the dish lightly, 
and bake in a quick oven from an hour to an 
hour and a half; just before taking from the 
oven add a few bits of butter. Slip the toma- 
toes out carefully, the brown side up, or serve 
them in the baking-dish. 
Boiled Tomatoes. — Slice them and boil them 
in their own juice. They should boil gently, and 



TOM-COD 



TONGUE 



535 



no longer than will suffice to cook them well ; 
twenty minutes to a quart will be about right. 
Season with salt and pepper before serving. 

Broiled Tomatoes. — Take nice " beef- 
steak " tomatoes, cut them in half cross-wise ; 
broil them over the fire, skin side down, until 
brown ; place the gridiron in front of the 
fire to brown the other side. Cook slowly 
until well done ; season with pepper, salt, and 
butter; serve plain or on toast. 

Canned Tomatoes. — Pour boiling water 
over ripe tomatoes ; after a few moments pour 
it off; peel them carefully, removing the thick 
base of the stem; cut them in two and boil 
until cooked. Turn up an old wooden box by 
the range to hold the cans ; it should be high 
enough to bring the glass cans in range with 
the kettle ; have a silver fork in the can 
nearest the kettle ; fill it from a pitcher dipped 
out of the boiling tomato ; instantly remove the 
fork, screw the cover close. Repeat with each 
can. The fork saves the necessity of heating 
the cans. When cold, the covers will bear an- 
other turn. Make each one perfectly tight. 

Raw Tomatoes. — Scald till the skins can be 
removed, cut them in thin slices with a sharp 
knife ; lay in a salad dish, and season with pep- 
per, salt, and vinegar, and, if liked, a little 
sugar. Stand them on ice before serving. 

Scolloped Tomatoes. — Take fresh or canned 
tomatoes, i qt : butter, \ lb ; bread-crumbs, 
i lb ; brown sugar, 2 oz ; pepper, i teaspoon- 
ful ; salt, 3 teaspoonfuls ; onion (grated), i. 
Put a layer of bread in a baking dish, then a 
layer of peeled, sliced tomatoes, and cover 
with bits of butter, a little of the onion, pepper, 
salt, and sugar ; then another layer of bread, and 
so on, having the last layer of bread and leaving 
enough of the pepper, etc., to sprinkle over it. 
Bake canned tomatoes three-quarters of an 
hour, and fresh ones twice as long. 

Stewed Tomatoes. — Scald and remove the 
skins from some fully ripe tomatoes, cut them 
into small pieces, and stew in a tin or porce- 
lain sauce-pan for about half an hour ; season 
with salt and pepper, and add a little butter 
and white sugar. When stewed tomatoes are 
to be thickened, use bread-crumbs. 

Stuffed Tomatoes. — Squeeze with the 
hands some stale bread, saturated in cold 
water. Take six tomatoes, as nearly of a size 
as possible, cut off the top, and with a small 
spoon take out the inside and put it into a 
colander to let the liquid run off. Put about 
an ounce of butter into a sauce-pan, and when 
melted add a small onion, chopped fine ; stir, 
and when nearly fried, add the parts of the 
tomatoes in the colander, also chopped ; stir 
half a minute ; put in the soaked bread, stir and 
mix ; season with salt, pepper, and grated nut- 
meg ; boil up once, and take from the fire. Fill 
the tomatoes with this mixture, dust with bread- 
crumbs, put a piece of butter on each, and 
bake in a quick oven. Before serving, wet 
them with a liitle tomato-sauce, broth, or gravy. 

TOM-COD, or Frost Fish. — A small fish 
weighing usually from a half to three quarters 



of a pound, scaleless, but an excellent pan-fish, 
being very delicate and savory. Its color varies 
with the season, from a rich orange to a light 
greenish yellow, shaded to dark brown on the 
back. In season from September to ApriL 
Broil or fry as directed for Mackerel. 

TONGUE. — Beef's tongue, calf's tongue, 
lamb's and sheep's tongue, and pig's tongue, 
can all be procured of the butchers, and they 
are all prepared in the same way. Calf's tongue 
is considered best, but it is usually sold with 
the head ; beeve's tongues are what is referred 
to generally when " tongue " is spoken of. 
Lambs' tongues are very nice. In purchasing 
tongues, choose those which are thick, firm, 
and have plenty of fat on the under side. 

Boiled Tongue. — -When taken fresh from 
the pickle, tongues require no soaking, unless 
they have remained in it much beyond the usual 
time, or have been cured with a more than 
common proportion of salt ; but when they 
have been smoked and highly dried, they should 
be laid for two or three hours into cold, and as 
much longer into tepid water, before they are 
cooked ; if extremely dry, ten or twelve hours 
must be allowed to soften them, and they should 
always be brought very slowly to boil. Two 
or three carrots and a large bunch of savory 
herbs, added after the scum is cleared off, will 
improve them. They should be simmered until 
they are extremely tender, when the skin will 
peel from them easily. A highly-dried tongue 
of moderate size will usually require from three 
and a half to four hours' boiling : anunsmoked 
one about an hour less ; and for one which has 
not been salted at all a shorter time will suffice. 

Pickled Tongue. — Tongues maybe pickled 
in any of the pickles given forihe beef {See 
Beef) ; but the following is a better way. For 
each large tongue mix withlialf a pound of salt 
two ounces of saltpetre and three quarters of a 
pound of the coarsest sugar; rub the tongues 
daily, and turn them in the pickle for five 
weeks, when they will be ready for cooking or 
for being smoked. 

Smoked Tongue. — Pickle as directed, and 
hang them in the chimney or smoke-house. 
The smoked tongues bought in the grocery 
stores are generally old and tough. 

Stewed Tongue. — After the tongue has 
been soaked trimmed, and washed with extreme 
nicety, lay it in a vessel of fitting size, and 
place round it three or four pounds of the neck, 
or of any other lean cuttings of beef, with some 
bones of undressed veal, and pour insufficient 
cold water to keep it covered until it is done : 
or, instead of this, use strong unseasoned beef 
broth made with the shin, and any odd bits or 
bones of veal which may be at hand. Let the 
tongue be brought to boil very gradually, that 
it may be plump and tender. Remove the scum 
when it first rises, and when it is quite cleared 
off add a large bunch of parsley, thyme, and 
winter savory, three carrots, a small onion, and 
ane mild turnip. After three hours and a half 
of gentle simmering, probe the tongue, and if 
sufficiently done peel off the skin and serve it 



536 



TONICS 



TRICHINA 



quickly. If not wanted hot for table, lay it 
upon a very clean board or table, and fasten it 
down to it by passing a carving-fork through 
the root, and a smaller one through the tip, 
drawing the tongue straight with the latter 
before it is fixed in the board ; let it remain 
thus until it is quite cold. 

TONICS. — A class of remedies used to give 
tone and strength to the system when debili- 
tated by disease or otherwise. They are gene- 
rally stimulants as well, inasmuch as they rouse 
the vital energies ; but the excitement is not so 
rapid as in those called general stimulants, and 
the effect, also, is more permanent. No medi- 
cines require more tact in their selection, and 
in suiting them to the time when they are to be 
adopted, for it is far more easy to do harm than 
good in applying them. Thus, it is generally a 
rule that quinine will not be borne with a dry 
tongue, and yet in some cases of typhus fever, if 
the physician waits for this feature changing 
before giving quinine, he will wait until his 
patient is departed to the next world. Some 
tonics, as arsenic, which are very powerful, but 
easily misapplied, are omitted here altogether. 

(a) Disulphate of quinine, i grain ; diluted 
sulphuric acid, 3 minims ; water, or infusion of 
roses, I ounce ; tincture of orange-peel, 30 
minims. Mi.x, and give twice or thrice a day. 

{b) Tincture of cinchona (compound), i 
drachm; decoction of cinchona (yellow), i^ 
ounce. Mix, and give two or three times a day. 

{c) Nitro-muriatic acid, ten drops in a wine- 
glass of sweetened water after meals. 

{(i) Carbonate of iron, i drachm, twice a day, 
in neuralgia. 

ie) Compound tincture of bark, i drachm ; 
infusion of cascarilla, i ounce. Mix. 

TONKA BEAN. — More properly Tonga 
Bean, or Tonquin Bean. This is the seed of 
a plant which is a native of Guiana. The 
aroma of the seed is owing to a volatile oil 
which it contains. It is used to scent snuff, 
and also to perfume clothes and keep away 
moths. Its efficacy for the latter purpose is 
very doubtful. 

TOOTHACHE. {See TEETH.) 

TOOTH-POWDERS.— The basis of most 
tooth-powders is prepared chalk, powdered 
bark, myrrh, Armenian bole, and orris-root. 
Prepared charcoal and camphorated chalk are 
also much used. Salt and alum are injurious 
to the teeth and gums. We append recipes : 

I. A mixture of honey and very finely-pow- 
dered charcoal is an excellent tooth-powder. 

n. Camphorated Chalk. 7a,t^.- - Precipi- 
tated chalk, half a pound ; powdered orris- 
root, a quarter of a pound ; powdered cam- 
phor, two ounces. Powder the camphor in a 
mortar, by adding a little spirit, and sift the 
whole together. 

m. Ta-ti?.- -Precipitated chalk, eight ounces; 
powdered cutde-fish bone, one ounce ; pow- 
dered orris-root, one ounce ; white sugar, 
three ounces ; rose oil, ten grains ; carmine, 
No. 40, fifteen grains. Mix well together. 

Tinctures for the Teeth. I. 7a^^ .-Floren- 



tine orris-root, eight ounces ; bruised cloves, 
one ounce ; ambergris, one scruple. Bruise the 
root, and put all the ingredients into a glass 
bottle, with a quart of rectified spirits of wine. 
Cork close, and agitate it once a day for a fort- 
night, keeping it in a warm place. In about 
a teaspoonful a soft tooth-brush should be 
dipped, and then work it into a lather on the 
teeth and gums. It cleanses the teeth, strength- 
ens the gums, and sweetens the breath. 

II. 77z>i'i? .--Tannic acid, one ounce; pelli- 
tory root, one ounce ; orris-root, benzoic acid, 
and cinnamon bark, each one ounce ; pow- 
dered borax, one dram and a half ; soap- 
tree bark, eight ounces ; alcohol, three pints ; 
distilled water, five pints ; cochineal, three 
drams. Digest six days and then add : White 
sugar, one pound ; oil of winter-green, half an 
ounce ; essence of peppermint, eight ounces. 
The last three articles should be rubbed to- 
gether and added, then filter the whole. 

TORTOISE. — This name is now restricted 
in ordinary use to the land-tortoise, which is 
never used as an article of food, but it is occa- 
sionally applied to certain species of the turtle 
tribe, such as the painted tortoise, which is a 
fresh-water turtle. Prepare, cook, and serve as 
directed for turtle. 

TRAGACANTH. — A kind of gum obtained 
from a plant which grows in Asia Minor. It 
is allied to gum acacia. The gum exists in 
flakes, not easy to powder till well heated. 
Part of it is soluble in water, and this suspends 
the rest, so that it forms a thick tenacious 
mucilage, much denser than that formed by 
gum arable. This mucilage is useful for sus- 
pending heavy powders, that would quickly 
settle in pure water. A compound powder, 
consisting of tragacanth, gum acacia, starch, 
and sugar, mixedwith hot water, and allowed 
to cool, is useful for the same purpose. 

TRAIN-OHj. — The oil drawn from the blub- 
ber or fat of the whale, and from the fat of 
various other fishes. Common train-oil or 
Greenland oil is the produce of the whale called 
Baloena Mysticetus. The oil is of a reddish, or 
yellowish color, of a mucilaginous consistence, 
and when burned in common lamps gives out a 
strong unpleasant odor. It is seldom used for 
illuminating purposes, but is unequalled for 
softening and preserving leather, etc. 

TRAPS, FOR DRAINS. {See DRAINAGE.) 

TREACLE. {See Molasses.) 

TREACLE-BEER. {See Beer— QUICK.) 

TRICHINA SPIRALIS.— A genus of mi- 
nute worms infesting in the adult state the in- 
testinal canal, and in its larval state the muscu- 
lar tissue of man and other animals, especially 
the hog. They are introduced into the human 
stomach by eating " measly " or imperfectly 
cooked pork, and in many cases cause death 
within a fortnight. Even where there is no 
fatal result, trichina are reproduced in the 
stomach in such vast numbers that the muscles 
(in which the cysts lodge themselves) have the 
appearance of being sanded. No treatment has 
any effect on trichina spiralis ; prevention is in 



TRIFLES 



TRUFFLES 



537 



this case the only cure, and no one should eat 
pork in any form without being certain that it 
has been thoroughly cooked throughout. 

TRIFLES. — The art of whipping cream is 
little understood. Many cooks think they must 
whip the mass until it becomes like butter, and 
as sometimes this is not possible, of course they 
blame the cream. Even from rather poor cream 
a good whip may be produced, if the following 
simple directions are attended to : — put the 
cream into a good sized bowl, whisk for half a 
minute, when a little froth will rise; remove 
this on to a piece of muslin laid on a sieve, 
placed over a basin, whip again, and continue 
lightly skimming the froth from the cream as it 
rises. When you have enough, set the whip 
aside for some hours, or until the next day, if 
convenient. It will then have become solid, 
and the cream which has drained into the basin 
can be used to assist in making the custard for 
the trifle. A little sifted sugar and any flavor- 
ing can, if desired, be added to the cream before 
whipping ; but it is not essential to the opera- 
tion-. Put at the bottom of a deep custard dish 
a layer of strawberry and raspberry jam, then 
one of macaroons, and another of sponge finger 
biscuits ; pour over these sufficient brandy and 
sherry mixed to soak them, then a custard, 
made as for Souffle, and lastly, pile the whip- 
ped cream on the top as high as you can. 

Brandy Trifle. — An old-fashioned way of 
preparing this dish was to soak as much light 
sponge cake in as much good French brandy as 
it could absorb ; then to stick it full of blanched 
almonds, cut into whole length spikes, and to 
pour a rich boiled custard around it. It is more 
usual now to pour white wine over the cake, or a 
mixture of wine and brandy. With this the 
juice of half a lemon is sometimes mixed. 

Fruit Trifle. — Mix three dessert spoonfuls 
of arrowroot with a little cold milk ; boil one 
pint of milk and half a pint of cream, sweeten 
and flavor it, and dissolve half an ounce of 
gelatine in it ; pour in the arrowroot, and stir 
together well ; wet a mould with cold water ; put 
some dried fruit, or the driest preserve you have 
in the bottom of the mould, then the arrowroot 
mixture, then fruit, and so on till the mould is full. 

Gooseberry and Apple Trifle. — Stew the 
gooseberries or apples till quite soft, strain, and 
make them very sweet. Put soft custard in the 
bottom of a deep dish, then the fruit, and then a 
whip to stand very high. 

TRIPE. {See Beef.) 

TRIPOLI. — A silicious mineral, originally 
brought from Tripoli, much used in polishing 
metals, glass, marbles, etc. I ts power of rub- 
bing down most substances rapidly is very great, 
while its extreme fineness does not cause visible 
scratches. Rotten Stone is a variety of tripoli 
well known to housewives, and constantly used 
in cleaning. It is found near Albany, N. Y. 

TRITURATION. — The process of reducing 
any substance to a very fine powder by rubbing 
or grinding with a pestle. It is usually done in 
mortars of agate, or some very hard material 
or on a slab of marble or prophyry, or thick 



ground glass. In some cases it is necessary to 
add a little spirit or other liquid during its trit- 
uration, to keep the powder from flying about. 
TROUT. — There are several species of this 
favorite fish, the most common being the brook 
or speckled trout. Both the color and the 
quality of this fich depend largely upon the 
waters from whicli they are taken, tlie best 
being those taken from clear runnin g streams 




Brook Trout. 

The flesh of brook trout is rather lighter in 
color than that of the salmon, and is considered 
by many to be superior to all other American 
fish. Brook trout are in season from March 
until August, during the greater part of which 
time they are quite plentiful. Their weight is 
from half a pound to four pounds ; the sale of 
those smaller than half a pound is forbidden by 
law, and they are not often found weighing more 
than four pounds. The lake troict is a much 
larger fish. It is taken in most of the large 
fresh-water lakes of the Northern States, but 
is not often to be found in the markets. In 
season from October to March ; weight from 
four to seven pounds. The Mackinaw Trout 
(or Mackinaw Salmon, as it is sometimes called) 
is the largest species known, often exceeding 
the true salmon in size. It is taken principally 
in the Great Northern Lakes, and is seldom 
found in eastern markets, except in a salted 
state. It is in season during the winter months ; 
weight, from twelve to sixteen pounds, though 
occasionally much larger. For Sahnon Trout 
(or Sea Trout), See Salmon. 

Boiled Trout. — Trout are sometimes cooked 
in this way, and it is probably the best way to 
cook large ones. Put a couple of large ones 
in enough salted water to cover them, and boil 
them gently till done ; garnish with sliced 
lemon, and serve with drawn butter, or, if pre- 
ferred, tgg sauce, or some piquant sauce. 

Broiled Trout.— Clean, wash, and dry the 
fish ; slit down the back, and broil on a buttered 
gridiron over a brisk fire ; when done, dish, sea- 
son slightly with salt, and spread pretty freely 
with butter. Pepper is not an improvement to 
this fish. 

Fried Trout. — Clean and wash the fish and 
dry them on a towel ; roll lightly in flour, and 
fry to a delicate brown in hot butter, or butter 
and lard, or lard alone. When dished, season 
slightly with salt only. Send to table as free 
from grease as possible, and on a hot dish. 

Stewed Trout. — Cut the fish into moderate 
sized pieces, lay them in a stewpan with a little 
water, butter, and a few bits of salt pork, and 
stew gently for half an hour. 

TRUFFLES. — The fungi so called, which 
play so large and conspicuous a part in Eu- 



538 



TRUSS 



TRUSSING 



ropean cookery, are not grown in this country, 
and the few found here in a fresh state are 
brou2;ht over in the European steamers. The 
<^/7>^ truffles are devoid of flavor, and almost 
entirely useless. Those preserved in oil, or in 
their own liquor, and packed in air-tight bottles, 
are excellent ; but even these are but Httle 
known here. The external appearance of the 
truffle is even less inviting than that of rnush- 
rooms in general, being almost black, with a 
rough, ridgy, and warty surface. The flesh 
is white and firm, and the taste, which is quite 
savory, resembles that of the almond or wal- 
nut, and improves all it touches in cookery. 

TRUSS. — Trusses are mechanical contriv- 
ances for the support or for the prevention of 
the protrusion of any viscus, but most usually 
for the support of the parts concerned in ab- 
dominal rupture or hernia. If a hernial pro- 
trusion occurs in either sex, it should be ad- 
vised that mechanical treatment be adopted at 
once ; for no matter whether in infancy, youth, 
or middle age, judiciously applied trusses fre- 
quently effect a cure, without further surgical 
interference, and at all events cause but little 
trouble or annoyance. A surgeon should al- 
ways be consulted as to the form of truss needed, 
and should himself take the necessary measure- 
ments, and himself apply the apparatus in the 
first instance. It is a great mistake, and one pro- 
ductive of the worst results, to leave the advice 
regarding a truss to an instrument-maker, and 
we often see instances, especially among the 
poor, of ill-fitting, ill-shaped contrivances, which 
not only do no good at all, but in many cases 
do absolute harm, by increasing the mischief 
they are designed to alleviate. A truss should 
be firm, light, and elastic, and preserve its 
shape, and the strength of the spring should 
always be equable, so that it may retain the 
rupture without irksomeness. A truss consists 
essentially of a pad attached to a metal spring, 
having straps so arranged that it may be kept 
in the desired position in any of the various 
movements of the body. There are many dif- 
ferent forms, whether single or double, named 
after their inventors. The following hints on 
trusses are of value, as the experience of an 
authority on the matter : — 

" In the majority of cases, the circular spring 
truss is the best form. The curve of the spring 
and the relative position of the pad with it 
should be appropriate to the configuration of 
the wearer. A single piece of metal should 
form the spring and the foundation of the pad. 
As far as practicable the spring of the truss 
should pass around the bony rim of the pelvis, 
fitting closely to the figure, and should lie out 
of the region of the great muscles of the 
buttock {glutcsi). The form of the spring 
may be designed after the P'rench model or the 
German. The former resembles the coil of a 
watch-spring, and is very elastic and clinging ; 
the latter almost exactly fits the outline of the 
body in its state of repose : it is almost in- 
elastic, and very hard. The French is always 
pressing inwards, even when the wearer is at 



rest ; the German scarcely presses at all when 
the abdomen is soft, but resists with power 
when any expulsive force makes the abdomen 
swell. The best shape for the spring is one 
which forms a medium between the two. The 
pad should be of moderate dimensions. For 
the adult it should not exceed two and a half 
inches in length and two inches at the widest 
part. Its superior edge should follow the upper 
line of the spring, which falls a little from the 
shoulder or bend, where it lies in contact with 
the hip. The inner surface should be directed 
slightly upwards. The proper shape for the 
pad, and the materials of which it should be 
constructed, may be varied to accommodate 
particular cases. The wearer generally dis- 
covers after awhile which kind of pad is most 
free from annoyance ; that pad, however, is the 
best which retains perfect and unintermitting 
retention of the hernia. Every pad should 
have attached to it two studs, one near its junc- 
tion with the spring, and another at its lowest 
point. To the upper one the transverse strap, 
passing from the free end of the spring, is 
attached ; the lower stud is used with the high 
strap, which should be always worn. It is 
loosely fastened on to the spring of the truss 
near its shoulder, and should fall along the 
hollow beneath the buttock. In the erect pos- 
ture of the wearer this strap should be mode- 
rately tight ; it prevents the pad from shifting, 
and should never be discarded." The pad 
may be prevented from fretting the skin by 
covering it with fur, or by the interposition of 
some soft substance. 

Trusses for ventral, umbilical, and femoral 
hernia, are also constructed. In the case of 
crural or femoral hernia " the spring should 
fall somewhat suddenly from the point where it 
passes round the hip, and lie along tlie fold of 
the groin (Poupart's ligament). The pad 
should be rather small and convex. The cross 
strap should fasten high up on to the shoulder 
of the spring, in order to keep the pad well down 
on the thigh. The thigh strap should start from 
near the pad, and return, after encircling the 
thigh, to the pad itself." In large hernia, or 
those which have become irreducible, a bag 
truss is indispensable. Trusses are also in use 
for the support of the prolapse of the womb or 
rectum, and constructed of various forms by 
different makers. {See Hernia.) 

TRUSSING. — This is an art which can hard- 
ly be taught by words, and though we shall 
make the following directions as explicit as 
possible, we would recommend that, instead of 
relying on any written instructions, persons 
who really desire thoroughly to understand the 
subject should apply for a few practical lessons 
to some experienced and skilful cook. The 
knowledge is important enough to justify any 
amount of trouble in gaining it, for without it, 
it is impossible to serve up poultry or game 
creditably. 

Before a bird can be trussed, the skin must 
be entirely freed from any down which may be 
upon it, and from all the stubble-ends of the 



TRUSSING 



539 



feathers ; the hair also must be singed from it 
with lighted writing-paper, care being taken not 
to smoke nor blacken it in the operation. 
Directions for cleaning the insides of birds 
after they are drawn, are given in the receipts 
for cooking them. 

Chickens, turkeys, geese, ducks, wild or 
tame, and pigeons, should have the heads 
taken off close to the bodies ; but not the skin 
of the necks, which should be left sufficiently 
long to turn down upon the backs for a couple 
of inches or more, where it must be secured, 
either with a needle and coarse soft cotton, or 
by the pinions of the bird when trussed. 

For boiling, all poultry or other birds must 
have the feet drawn off at the first joint of the 
leg. The skin must then be loosened with the 
-finger entirely from the legs, which must be 
pushed back into the body, and the small ends 
tucked quite under the aoron, so as to be en- 
tirely out of sight. 

The wings of chickens, fowls, turkeys and 
pigeons, are left on entire, whether for roast- 
ing or boiling. From geese, ducks, pheasants, 
partridges, grouse, woodcocks, snipe, wild fowl 
of all kinds, and all small birds, the first two 
joints are taken off, leaving one joint on, thus : — 

The feet are left on ducks, and upon roast 
fowls, pheasants, black and moor-game, pigeons, 
woodcocks, and snipes. The thick coarse skin 
of the legs of these must be stripped, or rub- 
bed off with a hard cloth after they have 
been held in boiling water or over a clear fire 
for a few minutes. The sharp talons must be 
pulled out, and the nails clipped. The toes 
of the pigeons for roasting should be cut off. 

Geese, sucking-pigs, hares, and rabbits, have 
the feet taken off at the first joint. 

The livers and gizzards are served in the 
wings of roast turkeys and chickens only. 

The heads are still commonly left on 
pheasants, partridges, and grouse ; but the 
fashion is declining. 

Poultry and birds in general, except perhaps 
quite the larger kinds, are more easily trussed 
into plump handsome form with twine and 
needles made for the purpose than with 
skewers. The manner in which the legs and 
wings are confined is much the same for all ; 
the principal difference being in the arrange- 
ment of the former for boiling, which has al- 
ready been explained. 

There is a present mode of trussing very 
large fowls for boiling or stewing which, to our 
taste, is more novel than attractive. The 



feet are left on, and after the skin has been 
loosened from them in every part, the legs are 
thrust entirely into the body by means of a 
slight incision made in the skin just above the 
first joint on the underside; the feet then appear 
almost as if growing out of the sides of the 
breast : the effect of this is not pleasing. 

To truss a chicken, turkey, grouse, or par- 
tridge for roasting : — First draw the skin 
of the neck down over the back, and secure 
it from slipping up ; then thread a trussing 
needle of convenient size* for the occasion 
with packthread or small twine (the for- 
mer, from being the most flexible, is best) ; 
pass it through the pinion of the bird, 
then through the thick part of the thigh, 
which must be brought up close iindcr the 
wing, and in a straight line quite through the 
body, and through the leg and pinion on the 
other side ; draw them close, and bring the 
needle back, passing it through the thick part 
of the leg, and through the second joint of the 
pinion, should it be left on the bird ; tie it quite 
tight ; and then to secure the legs, pierce the 
sidebone and carry the twine over the legs, 
then pass the needle through the other side- 
bone, and tie them close down. If skewers be 
used, they should be driven through the pinions 
and the legs, and a twine passed across the back 
of the bird,and caught over the points of it, and 
then tied in the centre of the back: this is only 
needful when the trussing of the bird is not firm. 

When the head is left on a bird, it may be 
trussed in the same way, and the head brought 
round, as shown here, and kept in place by a 
skewer passed through it, and run through the 
body. When the bird is trussed entirely with 
skewers, the point of one is brought from the 
other side, through the pinions and the thighs, 
and the head is fixed upon it. The legs are then 
pressed as much as possible under the breast. 




Partridge. 

between it and the sidebones, where they are 
lettered a b. The partridge in the engraving is 
shown with the skewers just withdrawn after 
being roasted. 



Trussing Needles. 



Hares, after being filled with forcemeat and 
sewn or securely fastened up with skewers, 
are brought into proper roasting form by having 
the head fixed between the shoulders, and 
either fastened to the back by means of a long 



skewer, run through the head quite into it, or 
by passing one through the upper part of the 



* These may be had, of various sizes, at any good house-fur- 
nishing store- 



540 



TUBEROSE 



TULIP 



shoulders and the neck together, which will 
keep it equally well in place, though less thrown 
back. The fore-legs are then laid straight 
along the sides of the hare, and a skewer is 
thrust through them both and the body at the 
same time ; the sinews are just cut through 
under the hind legs, and they are brought for- 
ward as much as possible, and skewered in the 
same manner as the others. A string is then 
thrown across under the hare and over 
the points of both skewers, being crossed be- 
fore it is passed over the second, and then tied 
above the back. The ears of a hare are left 
on; those of a rabbit, which is trussed in the 
same way, are taken off. (See Radbit.) 

Joints of meat require but little arrange- 
ment, either for the spit or for boiling. A 
fillet of veal must have the flap, or part to 
which the fat adheres, drawn closely round the 
outside, and be skewered or bound firmly into 
good shape : this will apply equally to a round of 
beef. The skin or flank of loins of meat must 
be wrapped over the ends of the bones, and 
skewered on the underside. T/ie cook should 
be particularly careful to separate the joints 
when it has not been done by the butcher, and 
necks of veal and mutton also, or much trouble 
will be caused for the carver. 

Salmon, pike, pickerel, and some few other 
large fish, are occasionally trussed in the form 
of an S by passing a string through the head, 
and tying it securely, then through the centre 
of the body, and next round the tail, which 
should be turned the reverse way oi the head, 
and the whole should then be drawn closely 
together and fastened. Whitings and other 
small fish are trussed with the tails merely 
skewered into their mouths. 

TUBEROSE. — One of the most beautiful of 
the summer flowering bulbs, and unequalled in 
fragrance by any flower that grows. The bulbs 
never bloom but once, But numerous small 
offsets form around the parent root, which, if 
kept during the winter in a dry place where the 
temperature is never less than fifty d.egrees, 
will bloom in two years. Our climate, how- 
ever, is too uncertain to insure a proper ripen- 
ing of the bulbs ; and it is best to throw away 
those that have bloomed and procure fresh 
ones each spring. The price of the bulbs in 
the seed-stores is a dollar and a half a dozen ; 
they may be imported, however, for two dollars 
and fifty cents a hundred, costing, with charges, 
about three cents each. Tuberoses bloom 
best in a sandy soil, well enriched with con 
centrated manures ; guano water, prepared by 
dissolving a tablespoonful of guano in a gallon 
of warm water, will hasten their flowering and 
increase the number of buds. It maybe given 
twice a week, if the bulbs are in the open 
ground or in large boxes. In latitudes north 
of New York city, the bulbs must be started 
early in March, in order to bloom before the 
fir t frost touches them. By a succession of 
plantings (a fortnight apart) and the use of con- 
centrated manures and plenty of water, a long 
season of bloom may be secured. 



The double Tuberose is considered the most 
desirable flower, but the single possesses the 
same delicious perfume, and blooms earlier. A 
new variety, with variegated leaves striped with 
light yellow, is admired for its novelty. 

TULIP. — This bulbous plant is the most 
gorgeous of the spring flowers, and though the 
" tulip mania" which attained such ridiculous 
dimensions about the beginning of the eight- 
eenth century, has long ago died out, it is still 
one of the most highly esteemed of the floral 
tribe. It blooms at a time of the year when 
fev/ other flowers are to be seen, and it is so 
easy of culture that no garden should be with- 
out a bed of them. Tulips are divided into 
three classes : Bizards or Bizarres, having a 
yellow ground, broken with purple or red ; Rose, 
which have a white ground, broken with cherry 
color ; and Bybloemens, which are white, broken 
with purple. These classes are subdivided into 
flamed and feathered, the former being those 
which are somewhat striped, the latter those 
which are only broadly marked on the edge. 

The best soil for growing tulips is a fresh 
sandy loam, such as is obtained from upland 
pastures ; remove, the sod from sheep or cow 
pastures, and take the virgin soil. Good garden 
soil, mixed with cow manure at least two years 
old, and a jDlentiful sprinkling of sand, will 
grow them to advantage. Never put fresh 
manure near them ; it will burn up the bulbs. 
The bulbs should be planted in late October or 
November, setting them firmly in the soil, six 
inches apart and four inches deep for the tall 
varieties, and four inches apart and three inches 
deep for the "Van Thols." Sprinkle sand into 
each hole before setting the bulb in ; this will 
keep them from rotting at the base. After the 
ground freezes, cover with straw or leaves. 
When the leaves of the flowers fall, cut off the 
stems, and when the leaves are dried up, dig 
up the bulbs, separate the offsets, and lay them 
on a shelf, with the root end uppermost, to dry. 
When the fibrous roots are sufficiently withered 
to be rubbed off, the bulbs may be placed in 
drawers or boxes, and kept dry until the season 
for planting again arrives. 

Of the several varieties of Tulip the Due 
Van Thol is a. very early kind, blossoming in 
temperate climates early in March. It is a 
dwarf, the stems not being over six inches 
high; and it is excellent for indoor culture. 
There are white, red, scarlet, yellow, rose, and 
striped varieties ; they are perfectly hardy, but 
will bloom better if taken up every spring as 
directed above. The Tournesol comes into 
bloom next after the Van Thols ; it is double, 
and only in two kinds, the red and yellow, and 
the pure yellow. In mixed beds they are very 
gorgeous. 

Double Tulips.— These are growing in fa- 
vor; their flowers are very large and brilliant. 
Desirable varieties are: Amsterdam, brown 
and red curiously blended, late ; Belle Alliance, 
white, striped and feathered with violet ; Crown 
of Roses, rich rose color ; Gloria Mundi, deli- 
cate primrose, striped with crimson ; La Can- 



TUMORS 



TURKEY 



541 



deur, pure white ; Lord Wellington, blue, late ; 
Marriage de jna Fille, pure wliite striped with 
cerise, late ; Paeony Gold, yellow, beautifully 
shaded, late ; Poiipre Agreeable, white and vio- 
let, late. 

Parrot Tulips. — These are the most curious 
and unique of all. The flowers are magnifi- 
cently striped and feathered, with many colors, 
most picturesquely mingled, while the edges of 
the sepals are fringed like fretted lace work. 
The most distinct varieties are : Belle yaune, 
large yellow, feathered with red and green ; 
Constantinople, bright yellow and red ; Glori- 
euse, brilliant scarlet ; Markgraf, striped red 
and yellow ; Monstre Rouge, crimson, large. 

TUMORS. — Tumors are divided by medical 
writers into two groups ; one of innocent or 
benign growths, the other of malignant growths. 
The latter are distinguished by the following 
common characters : rapidity of growth, ten- 
dency to infiltrate and to replace the tissues of 
the affected part, tendency to recur after re- 
moval by operation, tendency to multijily locally 
and to infect other and remote parts of the 
body, and a tendency to destructive and pro- 
gressive ulceration, causing fatal exhaustion 
through pain and loss of blood. To any tumor 
presenting these so-called characters of malig- 
nancy, the term cancer was formerly applied; 
but at the present time, in consequence of the 
extensive use of the microscope in pathological 
research, there is a tendency to classify tumors 
with regard more to minute structure than to 
general symptoms. Innocent or benign tumors 
may occur in almost any part of the body, and 
they may vary in character from so simple a 
growth as a wart up to formations which may 
endanger life or require some serious surgical 
operation for their removal. 

It would be useless to attempt, in a work like 
this, any systematic classification of tumors, as 
it could not be made intelligible to the unpro- 
fessional reader. The important question, when 
one finds a tumor is forming, is as to whether 
it is of a cancerous nature or not, and this can 
only be answered by a competent physician. 
The great majority of small tumors are harm- 
less in character, and often cause inconvenience 
rather than any other distress; but in all cases 
it is well to have medical advice before any 
treatment is ventured upon. {See Cancer.) 

TUNNY-FISH.— This large fish, which is 
also called horse mackerel, is one of the mack- 
erel family and has much the form of tlie com- 
mon mackerel. The back is of a grayish-black 
color, sides bright and silvery, and belly nearly 
white. The mouth is quite black inside. Like 
all the very large fish, such as halibut and 
sturgeon, the tunny is sold cut up in pieces ; 
the middle cuts are best. The flesh is consid- 
ered good, but it is lacking in flavor. Prepare, 
cook, and serve as directed for Halibut. 

TURBOT. — It has been generally believed 
that we have none of this fish, so highly es- 
teemed in England, in American waters, though 
numerous fishermen and others have at differ- 
ent times declared that they have either caught 




Turbot. 



or seen it at various points on the New England 
coast. At any rate 
it is never found in 
our markets, and may 
be said to be practi- 
cally unknown to 
American tables. The 
flat-fish sometimes cal- 
led spotted titrbot is 
nothing more than 
what is more gener- 
ally known as New 
York plaice. 

TURKEY. — This most popular of the poul- 
try tribe is found in our markets during the 
greater part of the year, but the best season 
for it is in the fall and winter months, when the 
young ones are about fully grown. The young 
hen turkey, when large enough for the purpose, 
is considered best, being plumper and generally 
fatter than the male ; but a young male is pref- 
erable to an old hen. In buying turkeys, bear 
the following facts in mind. The legs of a 
young hen turkey are black ; the cock also has 
black legs, but he is provided with small spurs. 
An old hen has red and rough legs ; an old 
cock's legs are very rough and the spurs long. 
The fatter turkeys are the better ; they cannot 
be too fat. The breast should be broad and 
the skin white. The bird is fresh enough as 
long as the legs are not stiff. 

Wild Turkeys are in season in the months 
of November, December and January, but are 
in the best condition in January, Their flesh 
is darker, more succulent, and at the same 
time more delicate than that of the tame tur- 
key, and is unsurpassed by that of any other 
game bird. They are sent to the Eastern mar- 
kets from Pennsylvania and from further West, 
in a frozen state; they are generally sold with 
all their feathers on. Their usual weight is 
from nine to twenty pounds. Wild turkey is 
prepared and served in exactly the same man- 
ner as the tame. 

Baked Turkey. — When cleaned, stuffed, 
and trussed, put the turkey in a baking-pan, 
with a little cold water in the bottom, spread 
some butter over it, sprinkle salt all over, cover 
with a piece of buttered paper, and set in a 
quick oven ; baste often, and turn the bird 
over and around if necessary. It takes from 
an hour and a half to two hours to bake a tur- 
key. It is served with the gravy only, after 
having removed the fat, or with cranberry 
sauce, or currant jelly. 

Boiled Turkey. — An old turkey will answer 
for this, though a young hen is better. Aftei 
drawing, wash the inside exceedingly clean, 
wipe it'dry on a towel, and fill the breast with 
bread-crumb, chestnut or oyster stuffing, re. 
ceipts for which are given under Stufkings. 
In trussing it draw the legs into the body, break 
the breast-bone, and give the bird as round and 
plump an appearance as possible. Put it into 
plenty of warm water, or into as much boiling 
water as will rise an inch above it, and when it 
has boiled ten minutes, cool it down by the ad- 



542 



TURKEY 



TURKISH BATH 



dition of cold water, and then take out a por- 
tion of it, leaving only as much as will keep 
the bird entirely covered until it is ready for 




Turkey Trussed for Boiling. 

table. Clear off the scum carefully as it rises 
to the surface, and boil the bird very gcfttly 
from an hour and a half to two hours and a 
quarter, according to size. When oyster stuf- 
fing is used, a large tureen of rich oyster-sauce 
should be served with it ; but celery sauce, or 
good white sauce or chopped parsley in drawn 
butter, will answer otherwise. 

Boned Turkey. — For directions how to bone 
Turkey, see BONED Fowl. 

Ragout of Turkey. — Cut the cold turkey 
that is left over from a roast or boil into bits 
an inch long. Put into a saucepan the gravy 
left from the roast, adding a little water if the 
quantity be small ; add a tablespoonful of but- 
ter, a teaspoonful of some pungent sauce, half 
a teaspoonful of cloves, a little grated nutmeg, 
and a little salt ; when it boils up, put in the 
meat; stew very gently for ten minutes, and 
then stir in a tablespoonful of cranberry or 
currant jelly, a teaspoonful of browned flour 
wet in a little cold water, and a wineglassful of 
sherry or Madeira; boil up once, and serve in 
a covered dish. A ragout without spice, jelly, 
or wine, is generally preferred. 

Roast Turkey. — In very cold weather a 
turkey in its feathers will hang for a fortnight 
with advantage. Pluck, draw, and singe very 
carefully; wash, and then dry it thoroughly 
with clean cloths ; fill with common bread- 
crumb stuffing, or with sausage-meat, or chest- 
nuts {See Stuffing) ; truss firmly, and lay 




Turkey Trussed for Roasting. 

the bird before a clear hot fire ; roast from an 
hour and a half to two hours, basting con- 
stantly and bountifully with butter. Serve with 
its own gravy and cranberry sauce. 

A turkey should be laid at first far from the 
fire, and drawn nearer when half done, though 
never sufficiently near to scorch it. It is usual 
to fold and fasten a sheet of buttered writing 
paper over the breast to prevent its being too 
much browned ; this should be removed twenty 
minutes before the bird is done. 



Stewed Turkey. — An old turkey is more 
tender stewed than when cooked in any other 
way. Put into a large pot half a pound of 
bacon cut in slices, a quarter of a pound of 
knuckle of veal, three sprigs of parsley, two 
of thyme, six small onions, one carrot cut in 
small pieces, three cloves, salt and pepper, and 
then the turkey ; add a pint each of broth and 
white wine-, cover as closely as possible, and 
simmer gently about two hours and a half; then 
turn the turkey over, and put it back on the fire 
for another two hours and a half ; dish the 
turkey ; strain the sauce, put it back on the 
fire, and after reducing it to a glaze spread it 
over the turkey and serve. Some prefer stewed 
turkey when cold. 

TURKISH BATH.— The Turkish bath, as 
commonly given in this country, consists in 
placing the bather in an apartment heated by 
stoves or steam pipes to a temperature of iio° 
to 125°; in a short time, as soon as the pores 
of the skin begin to open and perspiration ap- 
pears, the bather passes into a slill hotter 
chamber, where there is a temperature of from 
140° to 200°, and where he remains until pro- 
fuse perspiration is induced. He then passes 
into a wash-room having a reduced tempera- 
ture, where his whole body is shampooed, then 
washed and scrubbed with soap and warm wa- 
ter, and then cooled with the spray bath ; he 
then plunges into a swimming-bath at the ordi- 
nary atmospheric temperature, which completes 
the ablutions. He is then properly dried, 
enveloped in a dry sheet, and conducted to the 
cooling-room, where, wrapped in a blanket, he 
reclines until his body is thoroughly dry and 
brought to its normal temperature. 

When we consider that the skin contains no 
less than seven million pores, designed to as- 
sist the several secretive organs in discharging 
refuse matter from the system, some idea may 
be formed of the vast importance of keeping 
it in a perfectly healthy state ; and the fact that 
the Turkish bath contributes very largely to 
this renders it a hygienic agent of the first or- 
der. There is no doubt also that in all dis- 
eases caused by obstruction or impairment of 
the functions of the secretive organs, the bath 
is a most useful remedy ; while in sub-acute 
rheumatism and other rheumatic affections, in 
colds, influenza, catarrh, etc., it is recognized 
as a specific. As to the advantages and gene- 
ral physiological effect of the Turkish bath, 
we cannot do better than quote from a work 
to which we have already referred more than 
once — Hinton's " Physiology for Practical 
Use." 

" The Turkish bath," he says, " has its chief 
use as a means of thorough cleansing. Not, 
indeed, that by it, as some of its too enthusi- 
astic advocates have implied, every kind of 
morbid agent can be washed out of the blood. 
Diseases cannot be filtered away through the 
sweat-glands. Still, by the profuse perspira- 
tion which the high temperature induces, aided 
by the drinking of a few tumblers of water, a 
great deal of highly objectionable matter may 



TURNIP 



TURPENTINE 



543 



be got rid of. Persons with weak hearts should 
be careful how they have recourse to the Turk- 
ish bath, although in some cases, under care- 
ful medical supervision, persons suffering from 
confirmed heart-disease have derived the great- 
est benefit from its use. But for all other per- 
sons an occasional recourse to it is a legitimate 
luxury, and for some a decided advantage. The 
temperature of the heated air, however, should 
not exceed 150°, except under medical advice, 
or after careful trial. If exhilaration and a 
feeling of increased lightness and proneness to 
exertion follow, benefit has been gained; if 
lassitude and exhaustion, the bath is unsuita- 
ble, or its duration or temperature should be 
diminished. 

" The free perspiration induced by the Turk- 
ish bath, judiciously taken, is in some cases 
beneficial ; but it should not be supposed that 
there is any special virtue in this means of in- 
ducing it. Active exercise is a better one for 
all persons who can take it ; and a walk or a 
game, which within the bounds of moderate 
fatigue produces a copious secretion from the 
skin, and on which no chill is allowed to super- 
vene, does fully as much to eliminate ill ma- 
terials from the blood as the most sedulous 
votary of the Turkish bath can attain. The 
latter, indeed, regarded as a means of health, 
may be looked upon most justly as a kind of 
substitute for bodily exertion when this is unat- 
tainable through lack of strength or time ; a 
substitute, that is, in this one respect, but by 
no means in all, for exercise does much more 
for us than merely carrying off fluid through 
the skin. The Turkish bath, accordingly, is most 
suitable for those who, from unavoidable causes, 
are compelled to lead sedentary lives, especially 
if they suffer from want of activity of the se- 
creting organs. To them it affords a partial 
supplement for more natural and effective 
sources of invigoration. It is useful also for 
those to whom the free use of cold water with- 
out previous warmth is too severe a shock, the 
high temperature drawing the blood freely to 
the surface of the body, and so preparing it to 
receive with advantage the cold affusion with 
which the bath concludes. For the principle 
on which cold succeeds warmth in the Turkish 
bath — and it is one which all bathers should 
bear in mind, as it determines whether the prac- 
tice is beneficial or the reverse — is this, that 
the circulation in the skin should be vigorous, 
and the temperature accordingly warm, so that 
the temporary depression from the cold may 
be followed by a vigorous reaction." 

In another part of the work he adds that 
"perhaps no means of hardening the body 
against taking cold is more valuable than the 
hot-air or Turkish bath. We have found this 
practical in numerous cases. Nor is it difli- 
cult to understand how this is effected. The 
apertures of the sweat-pores are thrown open 
by the high temperature of the bath, and while 
in this condition are suddenly, but only for the 
instant, closed by the cold water douche with 
which the process of the bath ends. A brac- 



ing effect is by this means produced in the 
skm and its pores, by which the tendency to a 
more permanent contraction is prevented." 

TURNIP. — This is one of the most easily 
cultivated of vegetables, as it will thrive in 
almost any soil, whether of the garden or field. 
Those for table use are best when grown in 
moderately rich and dry garden soil ; the seed 
should be sown in the early spring in rows 
about eighteen inches apart and half an inch 
deep. The Red Top Strap leaved and the 
White Strap leaved are the best white-fleshed 
turnips, either for early summer or winter use. 
Among the yellow-fleshed, Robertson' s Golden 
Ball and Early Yellow Finland are the finest 
grained and most delicately flavored. The Ruta- 
baga or Swedish turnip is excellent for winter 
use. Middle-sized turnips are best for the table, 
as the larger ones are apt to be spongy. The 
season for neiv turnips commences about the 
1st of June, and continues with the different 
varieties throughout the year. The tops of the 
Ruta-baga turnips, when quite young, make ex- 
cellent greens. 

Boiled Turnips. — Pare the fibrous rind en- 
tirely away from them, and either split them 
once or leave them whole ; throw them into 
boiling water, slightly salted, and keep them 
closely covered till they are tender. When 
small and young they will be done in from fif- 
teen to twenty minutes ; old and large ones will 
require from three-quarters to a full hour of 
gentle boiling. When boiled in their skins and 
pared afterwards, turnips are said to be of bet- 
ter flavor, and much less watery than when 
cooked in the usual way. 

Mashed Turnips. — Pare them; cut into thin 
slices and cover (twice their depth) with cold 
water; cover the kettle, and boil the turnips 
as quickly as possible, to prevent their chang- 
ing color. To ensure their being free from 
lumps it is better to press them through a col- 
ander or coarse hair sieve with a wooden spoon; 
though, when quite young, they may be worked 
sufficiently smooth without this. Put them into 
a saucepan and stir them constantly on a slow 
fire, that they maybe thoroughly dry ; then add 
some salt, a bit of butter, and a little cream or 
new milk, and continue to simmer and stir them 
for five minutes longer, or until they have quite 
absorbed all the liquid that has been poured to 
them. Serve them always as hot as possible. 

Stewedin Butter. — This is an excellent way 
of preparing turnips, when they are mild and 
finely grained ; but their flavor otherwise is too 
strong to be agreeable. After paring them as 
above, cut them into slices nearly half an inch 
thick, and divide these into dice. Put an ounce 
of butter for each half pound of the turnips into 
a stewing pan, and when it is melted Jay them 
in as flat as possible, and stew them very gently 
from three-quarters of an hour to an hour ; add 
a seasoning of salt and white pepper when they 
are half done. When thus prepared they may 
be dished in the centre of fried or broiled mut- 
ton chops, or served by themselves. 

TURPENTINE. — A mixture of oil and 



544 



TURTLE 



TYPHOID FEVER 



resin exuding from the pine, especially from 
the yellow pine of the Southern States. From 
this exudation oil of turpentine is distilled : the 
dry substance remaining is resin. Turpentine 
is a valuable remedy, used both internally and 
externally. Applied to the skin, it is a power- 
ful stimulant, acting like mustard. As a coun- 
ter irritant in diseases of the bowels, sprinkle 
a small quantity upon a flannel cloth, wrung 
out in hot water. It enters into soap liniment, 
and is also used on burns, scalds, and the 
like. If retained it speedily causes tape worm 
to be expelled dead. As a stimulant and 
diuretic, the dose is from half a dram to a 
dram ; for tape worms, half an ounce. Only 
take under physician's advice. 

TURTLE. — Greeii turtle is the most highly 
esteemed. The flesh is of three colors, the 
dark red being called beef, a lighter part veal, 
and the lightest of all, lamb. The fat is green- 
ish m color. Steaks are taken from the fore- 
quarter. In preparing, hang up by the hind 
iins, and cut off the head ; five or six hours 
atterwards take down, and carefully cut off 
i)Oth shells; then remove the viscera, and cut 
up as desired. Green turtles from the West 
Indies, Florida, etc., are in market from May 
to cold weather, and occasionally in winter. 
Ttie "terrapin" of the salt marshes of the 
lower, middle and upper Southern States is the 
epicure's delight in Philadelphia, Baltimore 
and Washington. It weighs from three to 
eight pounds, and is sold by " counts," a 
count meaning three inches breadth of the low- 
er shell, those under that measure sell two as 
one. Several species of turtles are sold as ter- 
rapin, but the dark-shelled "diamond-back" is 
the genuine, though some declare the others 
tc be just as good. 

The soft-shelled turtle is also very highly 
esteemed. It has a dark slate-colored shell, 
with numerous spots on it, the head, neck, feet, 
and tail are variegated with white and black. 
A small, fat, logi^er-head tiirtle makes tolerable 
soup. The ordinary snapping turtle, weigh- 
ing from two to five pounds, is very nutritious 
and savory ; the larger ones have generally a 
strong musky flavor. The fresh-water tzirtles 
found in ponds and rivers, are very good. The 
female of all turtles is preferred on account of 
the eggs she generally carries. 

Terrapin (and we presume turtles generally) 
can be kept in the cellar for weeks without 
food. Being " cold-blooded," they require no 
heat-making sustenance, and as tliey lie nearly 
torpid, they waste no muscle. It is said that 
a turtle has some odor which will keep a cellar 
free from rats or mice. 

Dried Turtle, put up in the West Indies, 
may be had at the leading groceries. Prop- 
erly handled, it makes almost as good a soup 
as the fresh turtle, and is very much more eco- 
nomical. 

Soup (Turtle). {See Soups.) 

Steaks (Turtle). — Cooked like beef-steak. 

Stewed Turtle, or Terrapin. Recipe I. 
From Baltitnore. — Drop two full-sized terra- 



pins into boiling water, with a little salt, boil 
until the upper shell will readily come off, which 
takes about an hour. Remove it very carefully, 
take out the gall without breaking it (it is im- 
bedded in one of the livers), and the sand-bag 
and the intestines if desired, though some con- 
sider them quite equal to the flesh. Pick up the 
meat in small pieces, being careful to leave in 
all the bones. Save the juice and place it on 
the fire in a saucepan; if not sufficient in itself 
for the sauce, add boiling water. Put in the 
terrapin, and when thoroughly heated add a 
quarter oi a pound of fresh butter, creamed 
with one tablespoonful of plain fiour and one 
of browned flour ; salt and pepper to taste, and 
put in half a teaspoonful of ground clove. Boil 
the whole about ten minutes, stirring to pre- 
vent scorching. Before removing from the 
pan stir in a gill of good sherry, or port wine. 
Most persons, not living near its native haunts, 
ruin terrapin by adding too many things, which 
detract from the flavor. 

Recipe II. From Philadelphia. — Boil and 
prepare the meat as above. One gall bag used 
to three or four terrapins may improve the 
flavor.* Clean the entrails and break them in 
inch pieces. To each full sized terrapin take 
one quarter pound of butter, and rub it with one 
tablespoonful of flour, the yolk of an egg, half 
boiled, and one wineglass of cream. You may 
add now the salt, pepper, cloves, mace, nutmeg, 
cayenne and mushroom catsup. But some 
prefer salt and cayenne pepper only: Just add 
as you serve one wineglassful of sherry, port, 
or claret. These articles all being in your 
saucepan or chafing dish, let them boil quietly 
for a few moments ; a slice of a lemon is some- 
times added. If you need more gravy than is 
produced by the pieces of the terrapin in cut- 
ting up, throw back the shells into the water 
and boil longer ; the water can be used as a 
stock, and is very gelatinous. 

TUTTI-FRUTTI. — Ice-cream with small 
fruits (either preserved or fresh) frozen in it. 
Sponge cake and candied chestnuts are some- 
times added. 

TWEED. — A woollen fabric of light sub- 
stance, lately much used for summer clothing. 
It is a yard wide, and should be shrunk before 
cutting. 

TWILL. — A variety of cloth in which a kind 
of diagonal ribbed appearance is produced on 
the surface. It is of wool or silk, the former 
being employed for gentlemen's clothing, and 
the latter chiefly for linings. 

TYPHOID FEVER. — A continued infec- 
tious fever, caused, according to present views, 
chiefly by defective drains, neglected privies, 
and sewer gas, lasting an uncertain period of 
from four to six weeks, and sometimes followed 
by a relapse. The exciting causes are conta- 
gion and spontaneous degenerations. Those 
nursing the sick from this disease sometimes 
catch it, but probably from the emanations of 
the excrement or clothinsf. 



* Bi\t the editor would not like to try it, although the recipe 
came from high authority. 



TYPHOID FEVER 



545 



Whenever any drainage soaks from the surface 
into a well used for drinking purposes, or when 
sewer gas escapes into the house by a leaky 
pipe, or when the traps are out of order, or 
when one drinks foul and stagnant water, into 
which any drainage from manure can enter, 
then arise the conditions which excite the dis- 
ease. 

Symptoms. — The onset of typhoid fever is 
always very gradual and insidious ; it begins 
with feeling out of sorts, aching pains in the 
limbs, headache, loss of appetite, and chilliness ; 
for many days the sufferer is able to go about 
and think that there is not much the matter. 
Sometimes there is diarrhoea, or some intesti- 
nal disturbance , then the pulse is quicker, the 
skin hot, and the tongue red and dry. The 
nights are disturbed and restless, and he does 
not care for any exertion. At the end of the 
first week, or often later, he takes to his bed, 
and it is found that he is feverish, has no appe- 
tite, is thirsty, and his bowels are generally re- 
laxed. The urine is scanty and high-colored ; 
there is still more restlessness at night ; there 
is no stupid, heavy expression as in typhus, nor 
are the eyes suffused ; on the contrary, the face 
is often pale and the cheeks have a pink flush, 
and the eyes are clear and bright. Between 
the seventh and the twelfth day the peculiar 
eruption appears on the chest, abdomen, and 
back, and it consists of a few slightly-raised, 
rose-colored spots, which disappear on pres- 
sure under the finger and fade away in two or 
three days, but in the meantime others appear, 
so that several crops are noticed, and fresh 
ones may be seen every day. If now the hand 
is pressed over the right side of the abdomen 
there may be a feeling or expression of pain, 
and one may also feel a gurgling under the fing- 
ers. About the middle of the second week de- 
lirium comes on, at first slight and only noticed 
at night, and then more constant, intense, and 
noisy. The tongue is dry, red, and glazed, and 
often cracked in various directions ; in children, 
however, it may sometimes remain moist and 
white the whole time, and in very young cases 
also you do not always see any rash at all. As 
the disease advances the patient loses flesh 
and strength ; he lies prostrate and perhaps 
unconscious of what is going on around, and if 
it end fatally, he will become quite insensible, 
have a markedly high temperature, and fumble 
at the bed clothes. If the disease progress 
favorably the amendment is very gradual, and 
for this the temperature is a pretty good guide. 
The temperature rises from the first, but not so 
suddenly as in typhus and relapsing fevers ; at 
the end of the first week it may be 1040 or 105", 
being generally highest towards evening; it 
keeps high with sHght oscillations for about 
twenty-one days, and then a fall may often be 
noticed in the morning, although it ascends 
again at night, and these daily variations are 
very marked and may cover three or four 
degrees ; at about the thirtieth day, or a little 
later, the symptoms are decidedly less severe 
in ordinary cases ; the tongue deans ; there is 
35 



less prostration and delirium, and a general im- 
provement is manifested. But then a relapse 
may ensue, and the temperature will again rise 
and the patient go through a second attack, but 
this is much shorter than the first. 

Complicatious. — Typhoid fever is a very 
dangerous disease, because there are so many 
accidents to which patients are liable. Diar- 
rhoea may be very profuse and exhaust the 
patient, but as a rule diarrhoea is not a very bad 
symptom, and should be left alone, unless very 
profuse. Bleeding from the bowels, when it 
occurs in any large quantity, is a very danger- 
ous sign ; it is due to the ulceration of the in- 
testines. Bleeding from the nose is not often 
a bad symptom. Perforation of the bowel is 
very likely to occur between the twenty-fifth 
and thirty-second day, and even later, and this 
may be brought on by an error of diet ; it is at- 
tended by collapse and is very fatal. Inflamma- 
tion of the peritoneum, either with or without 
perforation, adds greatly to the danger. Bron- 
chitis and pneumonia may supervene and in- 
crease the general mischief. Some cases are 
very mild, others very severe, and there is, per- 
haps, no fever which varies more in its forms, 
nor about which so much anxiety and uncer- 
tainty must exist with regard to a successful 
issue, nor is one safe till recovery is fully es- 
tablished. In many cases it is most difficult to 
be certain of the nature of the case in the first 
week. It is most likely to be mistaken in child- 
ren for acute tuberculosis ; or it may be looked 
upon as the so-called gastric fever or gastric 
irritation ; or it may resemble the symptoms of 
arsenical poisoning. It may be as well to say 
here that there is no such disease as gastric 
fever; it either means typhoid fever or it is a 
disturbance of the stomach and mtestines from 
poisoning or eating unripe fruit. 

Treatment. — As regards ventihtion, nursing 
cleanliness, disinfectants, etc., the rules laid 
down in the article or Typhus Fever apply to 
typhoid fever also, and need not be repeated 
here'. Yet there are some special points which 
are of importance. The diarrhoea need seldom 
be checked unless excessive, and then a starch 
injection with laudanum may be given ; if there 
is much bleeding, it may be necessary to give 
turpentine. There is no medicine which can 
cure the fever; the diet must be very light, and 
no solid food should be taken under six weeks 
or two months, because, in consequence of the 
ulceration of the bowels, the coats are very thin 
and liable to burst. Eating an orange, or a 
piece of potato, or drinking an effervescent 
draught, will cause distension of the bowel and 
may'i-uptureit, just when the patient is doing 
well otherwise ; the greatest precaution should 
be taken during the third and fourth weeks, as 
then it is most liable to occur. Milk must form 
the main article of diet, and then an egg or two 
may be beaten up in it, or a custard may be 
given, and beef-tea ; then a small piece of mut- 
ton, and so on gradually to more solid food. If 
there is much distension of the bowels, hot 
flannels, on which is sprinkled a little turpen- 



546 



TYPHUS FEVER 



tine, should be applied. For information as to 
disinfection, See Disinfectants. 

TYPHUS FEVER.— This is a highly con- 
tagious fever, attacking people of all ages, which 
occurs in an epidemic form, and generally in 
periods of famine and destitution. It has been 
known at different times under different names ; 
thus it has been called pestilential fever, brain 
fever, putrid continual fever, camp fever, jail 
fever, etc. Typhus is chiefly met with in cold 
and temperate climates ; never in the tropics. 
The chief cause is contagion, or the transmis- 
sion of the disease from one person to another ; 
the other causes so-called, such as mental de- 
pression, overwork, anxiety, insufficient food, 
overcrowding, and bad ventilation, only render 
the system more liable to the action of the 
poison. It is very rare for a person who has 
had the fever once to have it a second time. 
Habits of intemperance increase the danger of 
those attacked ; corpulent people die more 
frequently than thin ones ; black people more 
than white ; and those who are overworked and 
suffer from mental worry have the disease with 
most severity. 

Symptoms. — It is difificult to say how long 
the disease may be incubating in the system 
before it appears, but the period is certainly not 
constant, and seems to vary from a few hours to 
several days. The onset is marked by a severe 
headache, loss of appetite, and languor, and 
aching of the limbs; the invasion of the symp- 
toms is not so sudden as in relapsing fever, but 
much better mai'ked than in typhoid fever. For 
three or four clays the patient gets worse, being 
unable to go about, and feeling chilly and pros- 
trate ; he then is worse at night and restless ; 
the skin is hot, the tongue coated ; there is 
thirst and sometimes vomiting ; by the third 
day of the disease most are obligee! to take to 
their bed, while this is not the case in typhoid 
fever, which is a much more insidious disorder. 
There is a general aspect of a typhus case, 
which an experienced person will at one recog- 
nize ; the patient lies prostrate on his back 
with a dull and weary, if not stupid, expression ; 
the eyes are suffused and watery, and a dusky 
flush overspreads the face. As the disease pro- 
gresses, the eyes are half shut and the mouth 
open ; he lies moaning and unable to move 
himself or answer questions ; the lips and teeth 
are dry and covered with sordes and look black ; 
the mouth is dry, the tongue dry, brown or 
black, and marked with cracks. The tempera- 
ture rises from the first, and reaches 103° or 
104° Fahr. by the middle of the first week ; the 
highest temperature reached in the fever is 
seldom less than 105°, although it may be 
higher, but the higher the point reached the 
greater is tlie danger; the fsver may slightly 
abate, in favorable cases, about the ninth or 
tenth day ; no marked fall, however, takes place 
until the end of the second week, and generally 
on the fourteenth day, when defervescence may 
take place suddenly, and the normal tempera- 
ture (98-4°) be reached in twenty-four hours, 
but more commonly it takes two or three days 



for the descent to be accomplished. The tem- 
perature generally is highest of an evening ; 
when defervescence occurs ; the temperature 
always goes below the normal line so as to 
mark 97" or even 96°, and in a few days it 
becomes natural. This fall is a very good sign, 
and then the patient is generally out of danger 
A very high temperature (106" or 107") is a 
serious sign. Very often, in mild cases, the 
fever begins to leave on the twelfth day. The 
pulse is generally 120 in a minute, but is very 
easily compressed under the finger ; the heart- 
sounds, in very severe cases, are feeble, and the 
first sound may even be inaudible. A rash 
appears in nearly every case, and is very char- 
acteristic ; sometimes it looks as if there were 
a general mottling just beneath the skin, or 
distinct spots may appear of small size and pur- 
plish color ; they are irregularly rounded, at 
first may disappear on pressure, but soon be- 
come petechial ; oftentimes the two kinds occur 
■together, but sometimes separately. The rash 
appears on the fourth or fifth day, rarely later ; 
it comes on the back of the wrists first, in the 
armpits, and over the epigastrium ; then it more 
or less covers the trunk ; it seldom comes on 
the face and neck ; the rash has something of a 
measly look, but the other symptoms are much 
more severe than are seen in measles ; the 
rash lasts a variable time, but generally until 
the fourteenth or fifteenth day. No solid food 
can be taken, but the patient is always thirsty. 
The bowels in some cases are confined, in 
others they are open too much. There may 
often be heard rattling or wheezing noises in 
the chest, and the more so when the face is 
very dusky. The nervous symptoms are well 
marked ; restlessness, loss of sleep, and con- 
fusion of thought first come on ; then headache, 
giddiness, a buzzing in the ears, and deafness ; 
in most cases there is delirium, and the patient 
is beset with horrid fancies. In bad cases he 
lies picking the bed-clothes, twitching his hands, 
and muttering to himself or moaning ; or he 
may be quite unconscious with wide-open eyes, 
staring vacantly. Loss of the power of swallow- 
ing and insensibility are very bad signs, and 
generally precede death. The urine is passed 
involuntarily as well as the motions in most 
cases, so that great cleanliness has to be ob- 
served. 

The duration of typhus may be from three to 
twenty-one days, but about fourteen or fifteen 
days is the average time ; if a case live more 
than this time, it will generally recover. The 
termination in recovery is sometimes quite rapid, 
and the tongue will clean, the temperature fall, 
and the delirium cease in a day or two, but 
generally the improvement is more gradual and 
lasts over three or four days. Unlike typhoid 
fever, there is no relapse, so that when once the 
temperature has come down, the best hopes 
may be entertained ; nor is he liable to peri- 
tonitis or perforation of the bowel, as in typhoid 
fever. 

Treatment. — The patient must be placed in 
a large well-ventilated room, where draughts 



ULCERS 



547 



may be avoided ; he should have his bed so 
situated that the hght from a window will not 
fall upon his face, as this is annoying ; all 
curtains, carpets, and bed-hangings should be 
at once removed ; the bed should not be too soft, 
and a macintosh or india-rubber sheet should 
be placed under the patient. He should not be 
allowed to exert himself in any way, as it is 
absolutely necessary that he husband all his 
strength. The greatest cleanliness must be 
observed and all excreta removed at once, and 
carbolic acid or chloride of lime should be 
mixed with them ; soiled linen should be put 
into a tub containing some carbolic acid. Bed- 
sores are very liable to form on the back, and so 
the nurse must always be on the look-out and 
try to prevent them by smoothing the sheets, 
drying the patient, and, rubbing brandy and 
balsam of Peru over the part ; better still to have 
a water cushion or water bed. The skin maybe 
sponged down with tepid water, one part being 
sponged at a time, so as to prevent any undue 
chill of the surface from exposure ; this relieves 
the patient and partly counteracts that disagree- 
able smell which the skin gives off in typhus 
cases. None but the nurse and doctor should 
see the patient ; all noises must be stopped 
and perfect quiet enjoined ; at night there may 
be a small light in the room, but so placed as 
not to disturb the patient. Milk must be the 
chief article of diet, and is best given cold ; an 
egg or two may be beaten up in it, and three or 
four pints of milk may be given in the twenty- 
four hours ; this must be done at regular inter- 
vals of two hours, in equal quantities, special 
care being taken that it is given at night and 



in the early morning, when prostration is greatest. 
Beef-tea and broths, jellies, extract of beef, cus- 
tards, etc., may be given if the patient can take 
them and wants them. For drinks in the early 
stage, lemonade, cold tea, or soda-water may be 
given, but do not let him have too much effer- 
vescent drinks ; in bad cases the nurse will 
have plenty to do to get the milk down. Stim- 
ulants are very useful, but the quantity must 
vary with each cage and be left to the doctor's 
judgment. Brandy is the best stimulant, and 
may be given with iced milk ; too much must 
not be given at first, as it causes oppression 
and inability to take nutrient food ; but after- 
wards, in the stage of great prostration, its pro- 
per and careful administration may save the 
patient's life. 

Albumen is often present in the urine in 
^phus, but calls for no special treatment. Much 
care must be taken, however, that there is no 
retention of urine in the bladder, as that organ 
is very liable to be paralyzed. When the crisis 
has passed and the tongue cleans, some boiled 
mutton may be given ; also jellies, custards, 
light puddings, etc. The stimulants may then 
be diminished. If, however, convalescence is 
retarded by bedsores or the formation of 
abcesses, the stimulant must be continued and 
solid food given sparingly. In some cases of 
typhus the mind is childish for some time after 
recovery, but a trip to the country, good food, 
and plenty of fresh air will complete a cure. 

In order to prevent typhus spreading, the 
patient must be completely isolated. For the 
measures to adopt in disinfecting the clothes, 
room, etc., See Disinfectants. 



U 



ULCERS. — The favorite seat of ulcers on 
the surface of the body is the legs ; here the 
ulceration is generally due to local irritation 
and obstruction of the circulation (varicose 
veins). Ulcers, when present in parts of the 
body above the knees, are usually dependent 
upon some constitutional affection, such as 
typhus or scrofula, or are connected with some 
form of cancer. In these cases, of course, the 
treatment must be general and directed to the 
originating disease. The only ulcers which are 
frequent enough to require mention, here, or 
which can be safely trusted to domestic treat- 
ment, are inflammatory ulcers and chronic or 
indolent ulcers. 

The Inflammatory Ulcer is met with gener- 
ally in front of and on the lower half of the leg, 
and is usually due to slight injury, such as grazed 
or broken skin. As a rule the patient is either a 
plethoric individual, whose health has been im- 
paired by excesses in diet, or one advanced in 
years and exhausted in consequence of hard 
work and insufficient nourishment. The sore is 
small and circular and usually single ; its base 
is covered with small granulations of a brown- 



ish-red color, from which there is a profuse 
discharge of thin and acrid ichor ; the edges of 
the sore are sharply cut, and the surrounding 
skin is hot and red. There is generally severe 
burning pain in the ulcer and over the inflamed 
skin. The development of this troublesome and 
painful affection is favored and in many cases 
caused by negligence on the part of the patient 
or by inability on his part to discontinue active 
work. 

The treatment of inflammatory ulcer should 
consist of complete rest of the affected limb ; 
the patient should remain in bed with the limb 
elevated on a pillow ; the ulcer should be dress- 
ed with a light bread poultice, warm fomenta- 
tions, or a weak lead lotion. When the pain 
has subsided, and the ulcer presents the ap- 
pearance of a healthy granulating sore, water 
dressing, or a weak solution of sulphate of zinc, 
should be applied, and the limb be bandaged 
from the toes to the middle of the thigh. Local 
applications alone are quite useless ; the patient 
must remain in bed or in a recumbent position, 
until the ulcer is changed into a rapidly-closing 
and healthy sore. 



548 



UNBOLTED FLOUR 



UNDERGARMENTS 



The Chronic or Indolent Ulcer is of fre- 
quent occurrence among old and debilitated 
individuals, and in most instances affects the 
lower part of the leg. It is usually of consid- 
erable extent, and in some bad cases complete- 
ly encircles the limb. The surface is smooth 
and glassy, is much depressed below the sur- 
face, and is surrounded by hard and white edges. 
The skin surrounding the ulcer is thick and 
callous; the leg below the ulcer is hide-bound, 
as it were, and the foot is often swollen. This 
ulcer, though large and formidable in appear- 
ance, is generally free from pain and remains 
indolent except when much irritated. The hard 
edges then rapidly sink down, and a large and 
painful sloughing ulcer is formed. 

In the treatment of chronic ulcers the es- 
sential point is to establish healthy and active 
granulations, and at the same time to reduce the 
thickening and induration of the parts around. 
The patient should keep in the recumbent po- 
sition, and take a good diet with a moderate 
amount of alcoholic stimulants. The ulcer 
should be poulticed, and afterwards, when its 
surface is moist and bathed by a purulent dis- 
charge, should, together with the surrounding 
hard skin, be strapped by a surgeon and tightly 
bandaged. By this treatment an indolent ulcer, 
oval and not very large, will generally be com- 
-pletely closed in the course of a month or six 
weeks. In cases, however, where the ulcer is 
old and very large, although considerable im- 
provement may take place, and the raw surface 
jnay be much reduced, it is seldom possible to 
render the limb sound. There is always a ten- 
dency for the scar formed over a chronic ulcer 
to break down and slough whenever the patient 
begins to walk about again and take active ex- 
ercise. The popular idea that it is dangerous 
to close an old ulcer is not unfounded, as the 
healing over of a chronic ulcer in a person of 
advanced age is often followed by synftptoms 
of constitutional disorder and slight apoplectic 
strokes. In cases of this kind it is often neces- 
sary to establish a drain upon the system by 
making an issue or a seton wound. [See Se- 
TONS.) 

UNBOLTED FLOUR.— Flour from which 
the bran or coarse outer husk of the wheat 
has not been separated by bolting or sifting. 
There are several kinds of it ; some containing 
all of the bran, others containing only the in- 
ner cuticle of the grain from which seconds are 
made. {See Flour.) 

UNDERGARMENTS (WOMEN'S). 

(Chemise.) — Necessary measurements : i, the 
length, which varies from 28 in. to \\ yds., 
according to taste ; 2, the width at the top, 
which is determined by the shoulders (xvi) *; 
3, the arm size ; 4, the length of the sleeves and 
the size of the arm, where it is largest. 

The quantity needed for a chemise \\ yds. in 
length is 2 J or three yds., according to the size 
of sleeves and yoke ; and cotton or linen seven 
eighths wide is the most useful. 

* For explanation of Roman numerals, see Cutting and 
FrrriNG. 



All varieties of this garment may be arranged 
under two principal forms, the sacque and the 
yoke chemise. We will first explain the mak- 




Fig. I. 

ing of the latter. From the designated quantity 
of material first take off the half yard or three- 
quarters for the yoke and sleeves. This leaves 
2]/% yds. for the body of the chemise. Fold 
this in three parts, a, b, c {a being as large as b 
and c together), and bring the two ends, d, e, 
together in the middle, the selvages being at 
the top and bottom. Sew these selvages to- 
gether, and we have a sort of bag closed at the 
ends and open across the middle. In the fig- 
ure the seam is shown partly made at the bot- 
tom, and on the left at the top, while it is left 
open and the material turned back on the up- 
per right-hand side, to show the manner of cut- 
ting the gore. The selvages being entirely 
sewed together, put in the scissors on the un- 
der side at a point four inches from the selvage 
a, and cut, as indicated by the dotted line, to the 
upper right-hand corner of the bag. Repeat 
this from the same points to the upper left- 
hand corner, and from a corresponding point, 
four inches distant from the middle of the lower 
selvage down to the lower left-hand and right- 
hand corners. Unfold the bag, and you have 
the body of a chemise with gores sewed on on 
both sides. This gives a suitable proportion 
to the width at top and bottom. The bottom 
of the garment should then be hemmed up 
with an inch-wide hem. Thus far, the sacque 
and the yoke chemise are prepared in the same 
way, with the exception that for the sacque the 
gores are made wider, diminishing the breadth 
at the top. 

For the yoke chemise we now cut the breadths 
apart at the top, and gather them, leaving a dis- 
tance of two or three inches plain at each end, 
to receive the shoulder-piece, 7, Fig. 2. These 
shoulder-pieces are cut double, the longest part 
the long way of the material, hollowed toward 
the sleeve a little, and still more toward the 
neck, and are united to the body of the chemise 
by the yoke, which is onlya straight strip, 6; a slit 
8 is made in the front of the garment, and a but- 
ton and button-hole are required, ortwo button- 
holes, if a stud is used. There are many other 



UNDERGARMENTS 



549 



ways of making a yoke, which will readily sug- 
gest themselves to the reader ; but we have 
preferred this, as it is the simplest and the 
surest to fit well. 




Fig. 2. 

The puffed sleeves are made by taking a 
straight strip, not over four inches deep and a 
third longer than the length of the arm size. 
They must be cut out a little under the arms, 
and have gussets or gores, as shown in the fig- 
ure, and be gathered into bindings whose length 
is determined by the measure ofthe arm. 

The sacque differs from the yoke-chemise in 
the manner in which the neck is finished off, 
and it may have also a plainer sleeve. In Fig. 
3 is shown the manner of cutting the garment 
out in the neck. It will be seen that, instead 
of receiving shoulder-pieces, the chemise is left 
whole on the shoulder, and cut out to a consid- 
erable distance below for the neck. Having 
decided the depth to which it is to be cut out 




Fig. 3- 

mark the point, a, and cut from c, on the shoulder, 
the front, c b a, and then the back, which must 
not be cut out as deep as the front. Thus, having 



cut out half the neck, fold back the strips and 
pin it down upon the other half ; then cut that 
out also ; in this way the two sides are sure to 
be exactly ahke. The garment is then finished 
around the neck by a crosswise facing, and 
may receive whatever trimming is desired. A 
variety of small sleeves suited to the sacque 
can readily be designed on the same general 
plan as the puffed sleeve, one of the prettiest 
of which is cut whole and bias under the arm, 
then grows narrower toward the shoulder and 
finally crosses its two ends, they being sloped 
entirely to a point as they are set into the 
shoulder. A still simpler pattern is shown in 
Fig. 6. 

Drawers. — For making drawers, only two 
measurements are required : i, the length from 
the waist to the ankle, taken on the outside of 
the leg ; 2, the size of the waist. 

In drawing a pattern, (Fig. 4,) we begin with 
a vertical line, a b, on which is to be marked 




Fig. 4- 

the measure of the length, a c. We then draw 
three lines horizontally, the first at the top 
from the point a ; the second midway of the 
line a c ; the third at the lower end, from the 
point c. These three lines serve as points of 



550 



UNDERGARMENTS 



departure in indicating the measure of the 
waist, the breadth across the seat, and the 
size of the leg near the ankle. 

One end of half the waist-measure is then 
placed at a, and marked at the right by the 
point e. The breadth of the seat is given by 
half the length from the waist to the ankle, the 
space between a and d. If, for example, this 
length be 30 in., half of it, 15 in., will indicate 
the breadth necessary from diof. The suita- 
ble breadth at the ankle will be decided by in- 
dividual preference. It is indicated upon the 
pattern by c, g. Most persons will prefer to 
shorten this pattern below the knee, but it is 
requisite to take the measure in this manner 
in order to ensure correct proportions. 

Having marked the above measurements, 
we now draw the pattern of the front of one 
side as follows : two or three inches beyond the 
point e we draw a straight line down to the 
point h, which point is halfway between the two 
horizontal lines a e,df. From h a curved line 
is drawn \.of, and an oblique line, slightly curv- 
ed inward and becoming almost straight in its 
lower part, to^. This line is the same for the 
front and back ; but the upper part of the 
pattern differs in the back, requiring to be 
broader and longer. For this purpose we mark 
above the horizontal a e the point i, at a dis- 
tance of four inches from the line, not directly 




Fig. 5- 

above <?, but five or six inches to the right. We 
then draw a line from i to a, and another curv- 
ing outwards, from i to/". 

In Fig, 4 is shown the pattern of half of a 
pair of drawers, the front and back, which are 



cut out in one piece, as we shall proceed to ex. 

plain. 

The quantity of material required is twice 
the length of the side from waist to ankle, with 
the addition of a few inches for binding. The 
length allowed will usually admit of hem and 
tucks being made in it. In making this esti- 
mate, however, we require to piece the back of 
the drawers when it is cut longer than the front ; 
to escape this necessity, an additional quarter 
of a yard for each length should be allowed. 
We fold the material of which the garment is 
to be cut lengthwise in the middle, and place 
the pattern on it, the line a c upon the fold, and 
hold the pattern in place by a few pins. We 
then cut the material double from the lower 
edge, e^ as far up as/". Here we unfold the ma- 
terial in order to cut half after the outline a o, 
hf, and the other half, a i f, leaving an inch 
margin all around the edges. This gives us 
half the pair of drawers, and from this we cut 
the other half. 

In making up the garment, we begin by sew- 
ing on the pieces, if it has been needful to piece 
it. Then we stitch up each half on the wrong 
side from the lower edge, g to f, and finish off 
the hem and tucks across the edge c g. We 
then unite the two halves in front by a seam 
from e to //. The two halves in the back re- 
main separate, and also in the front between/" 
and It; we then finish these edges with a very 
narrow hem, and put on a belt, either measured 




Fig. 6. 

by the waist and having the top of the drawers 
gathered to match it, hr made as large as the 
breadth of the drawers, and having a drawing 



URINALS 



VACCINATION 



551 



string to hold it in place, as shown in Fig. 5, 
a a. 

Another method of making drawers consists 
in joining the two halves completely by a seam 
from i to e. In this case the garment is opened 
at the sides from a to J. These edges require to 
be faced and finished off with a little gusset 
aty, to strengthen them. The upper edge of 
the drawers is then gathered, and the belt sew- 
ed on in two parts, having buttons on the front, 
and button-holes on the back. 

In Fig. 6 we give a pattern of bathing 
drawers, which may be used either with or 
without a short outside skirt. These drawers 
differ from the preceding pattern in being made 
with a waist and being much looser than the 
others. In order to make this waist it is only 
necessary to prolong the drawers above the 
waist to a height determined by the measure 
from the waist to the shoulder. These draw- 
ers are entirely closed, that is to say, in the 
back the seam is prolonged from / to i, and 
in front from / to j. The top of the waist 
is gathered and may be finished off merely 
with a drawing-string or with a yoke and 
shoulder pieces, as shown in the pattern; a 
short sleeve is put into a very large arm-size ; 
the slit /i J is faced and receives buttons on 
the left and button-holes on the right side. 
These garments are made of woollen material 
in red or black flannel and trimmed with colored 
braid, and if there is a skirt, it reaches but just 
below the knee, and is trimmed to correspond 
with the drawers. 

Children's drawers and trowsers are made 
after this pattern, with slight modifications. 
Although we do not make them so very loose 
as bathing-drawers, they require to be very 
easy. They are put together by a seam from 
/ to /i, and left open and hemmed from / to t, 
the back of the waist from iio k is hemmed and 
closed by buttons. 

For little boys, the same pattern serves for 
trowsers, separated entirely from the waist. 
The waist is then made with a belt, having 
buttons sewed on to correspond with button- 



holes in the binding of the trowsers. The 
trowsers are made plain across the front and 
gathered a little at the sides and the back. A 
straight slit is made from the waist e, to /. 
False hems are added to the edges of this slit, 
that on the left coming to h, the edge and re- 
ceiving buttonholes, that on the right coming 
beyond the edge, thus crossing under the other 
and having the buttons sewed on it. Also 
slits are cut at each side to receive the pockets. 
When the trowsers are cut very broad, they 
are gathered on the edge and sewed into a 
binding more or less tight, just below the knee. 
It is usual to hem these with a band or gal- 
loon, or with a row of buttons from a to 0. 
UNGUENTS. (See Ointments.) 
URINALS.— These should be thoroughly 
clean and amply supplied with running water. 
Night and morning they should be well flushed 
down. It is well to have a piece of soap lying 
in the vessel, and some chloride of hme placed 
about, so as to remove any noxious odors. 
Great pains should be taken at all times to re- 
move any accumulation of fluid. The walls 
should be made of glazed tiles rather than of 
metal, wood, or slate, and the roof should com- 
municate freely with the open air. 
URINE, Suppression of. {See DiURETics.) 
USQUEBAUGH. — A name sometimes given 
to Irish and Scotch whiskey indiscriminately. 
Properly speaking, it applies to a drink formerly 
very popular in Ireland made by digesting 
spices in some compound spirit. The famous 
Meg Dodcfs Wsquebaugh is made as follows: — 
To two quarts of best brandy or whiskey put 
a pound of stoned raisins, half an ounce of 
nutmeg, a quarter of an ounce of cloves, and 
the same quantityof cardamom seed, all bruised 
in a mortar ; add the rind of a Seville orange 
rubbed off on lumps of sugar, half a teaspoon- 
ful of tincture of saffron, and half a pound of 
brown candy-sugar. Shake the infusion every 
day for a fortnight, and then filter it into bot- 
tles for future use. A^'oi a drop of water 7mtst 
be put to this cordial. 



V 



VACCINATION.— A process by which a 
peculiar specific disease, known as the cow-pox 
or vaccinia, is introduced into the system with 
the view of protecting it against an attack of 
small-pox. Its discovery (one of the most 
beneficent in the annals of medicine) is due 
to Dr. Jenner, whose attention was arrested by 
the fact that the milkers on the dairy-farms in 
Gloucestershire, to whom cow-pox had been 
communicated from the cow in the course of 
their occupation, were not liable afterwards to be 
affected by small-pox. As the virus could not 
always be obtained from the cow, Dr. Jenner 
conceived the idea that it might be equally ef- 
fectual as a preventive of small-pox if commu- 



nicated from one individual to another; and 
the observations made during the first fifteen 
years confirmed this opinion. At first the 
theory was eagerly opposed, both in and out 
of the profession, and among the more igno- 
rant some opposition is still manifested; but 
the accumulated experience of recent years 
has proved overwhelmingly that vaccination is 
a real blessing to the human race. Even if 
there were doubts about the matter, the mere 
chance of substituting so mild and harmless a 
disease as cow-pox for one so terrible as small- 
pox should induce parents to have every child 
vaccinated at the earliest possible moment. 
With regard to the proper age for vaccinal- 



552 



VACCINATION 



ing an infant, experience has shown that, al- 
though it maybe proper to defer it for the three 
or four first weeks of an infant's life, on account 
of a variety of circumstances connected with 
that period, yet, if the organization of a child 
be perfect, and if it be in good health, the 
sooner it is vaccinated afterthe first month the 
better. The diseases which interfere with vac- 
cination as a preventive of small-pox, are erup- 
tive diseases, teething, and affections of an 
inflammatory nature. Under eruptive diseases 
and teething, the specific irritations which these 
occasion prevent the fever attending cow-pox 
from being sufficient for the constitutional 
change requisite to secure the child from the 
infection of small-pox. In order to be certain 
that the constitution has been properly affected, 
some medical practitioners re-vaccinate the 
child on the fifth or sixth day after the origi- 
nal vaccination, with a little of its own lymph; 
while the original vesicles proceed regularly to 
their termination, if those from the re-vacci- 
nated be accelerated, and acquire the inflamed 
areola and scab at the same time with the first, 
they then declare that the system has been 
properly affected. 

If a child be vaccinated with pure vaccine 
lymph taken from the arm of another child, 
nothing will be seen locally during the first 
two days, but at the end of the second or on 
the third day, a small red pimple appears, 
which gradually increases in size, and on the 
fifth or six day it has become a vesicle or little 
blister of a pearly color, with well-defined 
raised edges, while the centre is depressed and 
concave. On the eighth day the vesicle has 
become perfect ; it is round and plump, and 
the edges are more defined and pellucid, while 
the centre is more concave. About this time 
a red blush or areola is seen round the vesicle, 
and this continues to spread for a zone of from 
one to three inches; the skin looks red and 
angry, and becomes hard and painful from an 
affection of the tissue of the skin. When this 
areola appears, the child generally presents 
constitutional symptoms ; sometimes they are 
very slight and pass by unnoticed ; others may 
be peevish and restless, and have some de- 
rangement of the bowels or enlargement and 
inflammation of the glands in the arm-pit. On 
or about the tenth day the areola begins to fade, 
the vesicle dries in the centre, while the lymph 
gets opaque and turbid, so that by the four- 
teenth or fifteenth day a dark-brown scab is 
formed, which dries, blackens, and falls off 
between the twentieth and twenty-fifth day ; a 
cicatrix or scar is left, which becomes permanent, 
is generally circular, and marked with minute 
pits. Such are the stages through which the 
vesicle passes, but it is important to note that 
only on the eighth day is the vesicle in perfec- 
tion, and it is then only that lymph should 
be taken. It happens occasionally that parents 
are much alarmed by skin eruptions occurring 
after vaccination, and they often lay it down 
heedlessly to the fault of the surgeon for in- 
troducing bad matter ; this is a great mistake, 



for in some children any constitutional disturb- 
ance will bring out an eczematous eruption, as 
is indeed often seen when they are teething. 
No alarm need be felt on this score, as the 
mischief is soon cured, and it depends upon 
some peculiarity in the child's constitution. At 
times a rose-colored rash may appear on the 
body, or a crop of papules or vesicles; these 
are generally very transitory, and disappear 
when the scab falls off the arm. The shape of 
the scar, and also its size, will depend upon the 
way in which the vaccination is performed ; 
some make the puncture in three or four places 
on the arm, about an inch from each other; 
others scratch or scarify the skin, and some 
make punctures very close together, so that 
when the vesicles form they coalesce or run to- 
gether and form a large irregular scab. AH 
these methods are equally efficacious, and are 
adopted according to the fancy of the operator. 
Should the child be incubating measles or scar- 
let fever, the areola may not form until these 
diseases have gone. Mere delay in the ap- 
pearance of the symptoms will not hinder the 
protective influence, so long as the red areola 
appears before the child is exposed to small- 
pox. When acceleration of the symptoms 
occurs the vaccination is generally useless and 
spurious ; if any doubt exist, the child should 
be vaccinated again after a short interval. The 
important rule to remember is this — " if there 
is any deviation from the perfect character of 
the vesicle and the regular development of the 
areola, the vaccination is not to be relied on as 
protection against small-pox." 

Re-Vaccination. — By vaccination in in- 
fancy, if thoroughly well-performed and suc- 
cessful, most people are completely insured, 
for their whole life-time, against an attack of 
small-pox ; and in the proportionately few cases 
where the protection is less complete, small- 
pox, if it be caught, will, in consequence of the 
vaccination, generally be so mild a disease as 
not to threaten death or disfigurement. If, how- 
ever, the vaccination in early life have been 
imperfectly performed, or have from any other 
cause been but partially successful, the protec- 
tion against small-pox is much less satisfactory, 
neither lasting so long, nor while it lasts being 
nearly so complete as the protection which first- 
rate vaccination gives. Hitherto, unfortunate- 
ly, there has always been a very large amount 
of imperfect vaccination; and in consequence 
the population always contains very many per- 
sons who, though nominally vaccinated and be- 
lieving themselves to be protected against 
small-pox, are really liable to infection, and 
may in some cases contract as severe forms of 
small-pox as if they had never been vaccinated. 
Partly because of the existence of this large 
number of imperfectly vaccinated persons, and 
partly also because even the best infantile vac- 
cination sometimes in process of time loses 
more or less of its effect, it is advisable that 
all persons who have been vaccinated in infancy 
should, as they approach adult life, undergo re- 
vaccination. Generally speaking, the best time 



VALERIAN 



VARICOSE VEINS 



553 



of life for re-vaccination is about the time when 
growth is completing itself, say, from fifteen to 
eighteen years of age, and persons at that 
period of life ought not to delay their re-vacci- 
nation till the time when there shall be special 
alarm of small-pox. In proportion, however, 
as there is prevalence of small-pox in any 
neighborhood, or as individuals are from per- 
sonal circumstances likely to meet chances of 
infection, the age of fifteen need not be waited 
for ; especially not by young persons whose 
marks of previous vaccination are unsatisfac- 
tory. In circumstances of special danger, every 
one past childhood, on whom re-vaccination has 
not before been successfully performed, ought 
without delay to be re-vaccinated. Re-vaccina- 
tion, once properly and successfully performed, 
does not appear ever to require repetition. 

Even when small-pox attacks a person who 
has been properly vaccinated, the febrile symp- 
toms are generally mild, and almost always 
subside on the seventh day, when the patient 
rapidly recovers. 

VALERIAN. — The root of a well known 
plant, the Valeriana officinalis. The best 
plants grow in dry soils. The root consists of 
a kind of stock or head, whence numerous 
rootlets are given off. The color is light 
brown, the odor peculiar and characteristic. 
The roots contain valerianic acid anrl an oil. 
This oil contains two substances, vale role and 
valerianin, neither of very great importance. 
Valerole, by exposure, is slowly converted into 
valerianic acid. The preparations of valerian 
are an infusion, a tincture, and an ammoniated 
tincture, in which aromatic spirit of ammonia 
replaces the ordinary spirit. 

Valerian acts as a powerful stimulant. It is 
mostly given in nervous diseases, especially in 
those of hysterical subjects, as well as in chorea 
and such like affections, as an anti-spasmodic. 
Some esteem it very highly, others rather scout 
its efficacy. The ammoniated tincture is the best 
form of the remedy. The dose is a drachm re- 
peated every two or three hours until relieved. 

Valerianic Acid, though contained in valer- 
ian, is prepared from a totally different substance. 
Fusel oil, which is a waste product in the dis- 
tillation of most forms of alcohol, though more 
abundant in some than others, tends, when kept, 
to pass by oxidation into valerianic acid. This 
may be done at once by chemical means, sul- 
phuric acid and bichromate of potass being 
employed. The acid is then neutralized by 
carbonate of soda, and valerianate of soda is 
produced. 

Valerianate of Soda is hardly ever used it- 
self in medicine, but is employed in the manu- 
facture of another salt, valerianate of zinc. 
This salt occurs in fine scales, with the odor 
of valerianic acid. It is not really soluble in 
water. Valerianate of zinc is commonly es- 
teemed a very valuable nervine tonic, though 
some prefer to give sulphate or oxide of zinc 
along with the ordinary tincture of valerian. It 
has been given in nervous affections, as chorea, 
epilepsy, and hysteria. It has also been given 



with advantage along with quinine in neuralgia. 
A valerianate of quinine is now made. The 
dose of valerianate of zinc is from three to five 
grains or more. 

VANILLA. — The fruit of a plant native to 
America. In the form of beans it is used in 
perfumery, etc., and the extract is extensively 
employed for seasoning creams, pastry, etc., 
to which it gives a delicious flavor. Although 
the plant is a native of America, all the ex- 
tracts of vanilla were formerly imported ; at the 
present time, however, " Burnett's Extract of 
Vanilla" is considered superior to any other. 
The bottle should be kept tightly corked. 

VAPOR BATH. — A bath in which the va- 
por of hot water, either medicated or not, is 
applied to the skin. Vapor baths are used 
only for medical purposes, and are very useful 
in several forms of disease where sweating is 
desirable. In the early stages of acute rheu- 
matism, in bad colds, and influenza, they often 
prove very serviceable by cutting them short or 
breaking them up. There are many contriv- 
ances for giving them, of which the most sim- 
ple is a hot brick or stone placed in a bucket 
about two-thirds full of hot water, and set be- 
neath a cane-bottomed chair. The patient 
must sit in the chair, entirely naked, but with a 
large blanket fastened around the neck envel- 
oping the body, and coming down to the floor 
on all sides. The object being to induce a 
profuse perspiration, it may be necessary to 
put into the water a second, or even a third, 
hot brick. When the patient has perspired 
very freely, rub him dry with hot towels, and get 
him to bed as soon as possible. {See Russian 
Bath and Turkish Bath.) 

VARICOSE VEINS.— This disease is an 
enlargement of the veins, which is very frequent 
in the lower limbs of persons who, like cooks 
and laundresses, have to stand many hours of 
the day. Sometimes the veins become so large 
that they burst, and though the bleeding which 
results may not endanger life, it causes great 
debility. In old people, and in cases where the 
varicose condition is of long standing, large 
ulcers may form on the lower part of the leg, 
constituting the so-called varicose Jilcers. 

Treatment. — There are two things which 
people afflicted with varicose veins should at- 
tend to. In the first place, whenever it is pos- 
sible, even for a few minutes, place the limbs 
in a horizontal position, either by lying down or 
by raising them. Secondly, support should be 
given by enveloping the entire limb in band- 
ages (preferably of flannel) put on evenly and 
smoothly in the morning before the legs have 
time to swell. This should be done by another 
person, for the shape of the leg is altered by 
bending it or stooping over. But the best plan 
of giving support is by elastic stockings, which 
can be purchased of the exact size required ; 
they can be drawn on over a well-fitting cotton 
stocking, without any trouble, give equal and 
gentle support to any part of the limb, and if 
good will last a long time. Many operations 
have been devised for the purpose of producing 



654 



VARIOLOID 



VEAL 



permanent obliteration of the distended veins. 
Of these the safest and the one most common- 
ly practised consists in the application of 
needles and twisted suture, tying the veins. 
These operations rarely effect a permanent 
cure, but they often afford relief for consider- 
able periods. 

VARIOLA. {See Small-POX.) 
VARIOLOID. — This name is given to the 
mild form which small-pox takes in persons 
who have been vaccinated, or who have already 
once had the disease. It is always less viru- 
lent than small-pox itself, and is very rarely at- 
tended by serious results. {See Vaccination.) 
VARNISH. — A great variety of varnishes 
are sold in the paint and oil stores ready mixed, 
and it is best to buy them in this way. Of 
those more commonly used, Carriage-rtibbing 
Varnish is used to fill up or produce a level 
surface over paint, on which to spread other 
and better qualities of varnish. It dries in 
about ten hours. Hard-drying Body Varnish 
is used for finishing-coats over a level surface, 
on work not requiring the greatest durability, 
and is particularly adapted for the best inside 
work. Wearing Body Varnish is very pale 
and surpasses all other varnishes in freedom of 
working, as well as in brilliancy and durability. 
Though a long time in hardening, it sets out of 
the way of being affected by dust in ten or 
twelve hours. Fnrtiiture Varnish is an infe- 
rior quality, containing more resinous substance 
than copal or mastic gums. It is, however, 
sufficiently durable and glossy for its purpose. 
Copal Varnish is the best and hardest for 
woods, but can only be made in the factory. 

Mastic Varnish .— Take four ounces of 
mastic tears and one pint of oil of turpentine. 
Put them into a stone bottle, which should be 
plunged into a saucepan of hot water and kept 
over a charcoal fire about one and a half hours, 
until dissolved. The cork should be notched 
at the side to prevent the bottle bursting. The 
time of boiling varies, of course, with the de- 
gree of heat emoloyed ; therefore the best way 
to test its fitnes's is to take a little from the 
bottle and apply it to the finger ; if it appears, 
on cooling, of the consistence of a thick syrup, 
soon becoming ropy, then drying and glueing 
the fingers together, and leaving a shining ap- 
pearance, it is sufficiently boiled. 

The greatest caution should be exercised in 
making varnishes not to have a fire with a 
flame, the pot too low, or the bottle too full ; 
and always to have a pail of water at hand, to 
put out the fire in case the vapor from the var- 
nish inflames. 

Shellac Varnish.— This may be purchased 
ready prepared, but it is best to make it when 
required. Take one pound of gum shellac, 
cover it with alcohol, and set it in a cool place ; 
shake the mixture occasionally, and in a day 
or two it will be ready for use. Shellac varnish 
is used to prevent the resinous substance in 
pine knots from striking through the paint, by 
simply coating them over before the priming is 
put on. 



A little lamp-black added to this varnish con- 
verts it into an excellent harness varnish. 

"White Varnish. — Take an ounce of gum 
mastic, two ounces of gum juniper, two drachms 
of Venice turpentine, and one pint of spirits 
of wine. Mix well, and dissolve by heat. 

VARNISHING. — When furniture or any of 
the interior woodwork of the house requires 
re-varnishing, it should first be thoroughly 
cleaned by rubbing every part with pulverized 
pumice-stone and water; then, when well 
washed and dried, the varnish should be laid 
on in a warm room. Furniture varnish, as ob- 
tained from the stores, is generally ready for 
use ; but if found too thick to spread easily 
with a brush, set the vessel containing it near 
the fire, taking care that it does not ignite. 
Put the varnish on quite plentifully and rub 
it lightly with the brush until it is nicely lev- 
elled down and there are no small air-bub- 
bles on the surface. Do not touch the var- 
nished surface with the brush after once leav- 
ing it. If more than one coat of varnish is ne- 
cessary to produce the desired polish, the sur- 
face should be rubbed with pumice-stone and 
water between each coat, to remove small pits 
or imperfections, and to form a better ground 
on which to Jlow the succeeding coat. Of 
course each coat must be dry before another 
is put on. 

VEAL. — The flesh of a calf. The best veal 
is produced by calves not less than four nor 
more than six weeks old. The veal from a calf 
less than four weeks old is unfit for food and 
is unwholesome ; after six weeks the calf re- 
quires more food than the mother can give it, 
and the change to grass, or hay, or meal mate- 
rially alters the character of the flesh, \Yhich 
becomes darker and less juicy. When the 
calves are turned out and fed wholly on grass 
the flesh becomes poor, dry, tasteless, and 
nearly as dark-colored as beef. Good veal is 
fine-grained, tender, and juicy ; the fat in such 
is firm and of a whitish color. If too white, 
the veal shows that the calf was bled before 
being slaughtered — a process which may add 
to its appearance, but which deprives the meat 
of much of its juiciness and flavor. Veal will 
not keep as long as older meat, especially in 
hot or damp weather ; when going, the fat be- 
comes soft and moist, the meat flabby and 
spotted, and somewhat porous, like sponge. 

The hind quarter is the choicest joint. It 
is usually divided by the butcher into two parts, 
which are called the loin ?ind leg oiveA. When 
the loin is too large, it is divided into two small 
joints : the thin end is called " kidney end," 
and the other "thick end." From the leg is 
cutthe "fillet" and "veal cutlets." The "knuckle 
of veal " is the part of the leg left after the 
fillet or cutlets are taken from it. Many per- 
sons prefer the breast of veal for roasting, 
stewing, pies, etc. ; it is sometimes boned so as 
to roll, or a large hole is cut into it for the re- 
ception of stuffing. The neck of veal is used 
for stewing, fricassee, pies, etc. (^See Calf's 
Sweetbreads, Head, and Tongues.) 



VEAL 



555 



The following figure represents a calf about 
six weeks old : the marks and numbers show the 
different joints with their several names : — 




Carcass of Veal 



1. Loin of Veal. 

2. Leg of Veal. 

3. Shoulder of Veal. 

4. Neck of Veal. 



5. Breast of Veal. 

6. Calf's Head. 

7. Calf's feet. 



Meanwhile prepare the gravy as follows : Take 
a pint of the liquor and skim off all the fat ; 
stir in with a tablespoonful of butter, two 
tablespoonfuls of flour ; put it into the liquor, 
stirring all the time ; add a little mace, a tea- 
cupful of cream, and a gill of white wine ; give 
it one boil, pour a little over the meat, and 
serve the rest in a gravy-tureen. 

If the meat is to be cut cold, do not brown 
it, but serve with meat jelly. 

Broth (Veal). {See Broth.) 

Cakes (Veal). {See Entrees.) 

Cutlets. — These may be broiled plain by 
simply spreading butter over them, sprinkling 
them with pepper, and laying them on the grid- 
iron over a hot fire. But the best way of pre- 
paring them is to sprinkle them with salt and 



Baked Veal. — The loin, leg, and shoulder 
are the best joints for baking. Put th6 piece 
of veal into a baking-pan ; spread butter over 
it, and sprinkle with pepper and salt ; cover the 
bottom of the pan with water about a quarter 
of an inch deep ; place a piece of buttered let- 
ter-paper over the meat, and set it in a moderate 
oven ; baste often with the water and juice in 
the pan, over the paper, which need not be re- 
moved till about ten minutes before the meat 
is taken from the oven, unless it burns, when 
it must be replaced by another. Veal must be 
baked rather overdone Serve with the gravy 
strained and the fat skimmed off. 

Balls (Veal). {See Entrees.) 

Blanquette of Veal. — Take about two 
pounds of veal from any joint, cut it into pieces 
about two inches square, and throw them into 
boiling water with a little salt; let them boil 
five minutes and then drain them. Put in a 
stewpan a tablespoonful of butter, set it on a 
good fire, and when melted mix in a tablespoon- 
ful of flour, stirring all the time ; when this 
begins to turn yellow, pour a pint of boiling 
water gradually into the pan ; add a teaspoonful of 
chopped parsley, six small white or red onions, 
two or three mushrooms, salt, pepper, and 
finally the meat ; stew gently about three hours, 
and serve. 

Boiled Veal. — Either the breast, fillet, leg, 
loin, or shoulder may be boiled. Prepare as 
for roasting, and boil steadily for three hours. 
Serve with celery or oyster sauce. 

Breast of Veal, Stuffed. — Remove all the 
bones from a breast of veal, being careful not 
to cut through the fleshy part ; wash it clean 
and wipe dry ; have ready some stuffing, roll it 
up in the meat, sew it tight, lard it, and put it 
into a saucepan with enough water to cover it ; 
cut up a head of celery, a carrot, and an onion, 
put them into the saucepan, add a little salt, 
pepper, and mace, and stew the whole about 
two hours and a half. Take out the meat, 
and, if you wish to serve it hot, rub it well with 
butter, dredge with flour, baste it with some of 
the liquor, and set it in a quick oven to brown. 




Cutlet Bat. 

pepper, dip them in beaten egg, then roll them 
in cracker-crumbs, and fry them brown on both 
sides in hot lard or dripping. If butter or 
dripping is used, add a little hot water, thicken 
with browned flour, boil up once, and send to 
table in a sauce-boat. If the cutlets be tough 
(which they should not be if the veal is young), 
beating with a bat like that shown in the cut 
will improve them. 

Fricandeau of Veal. — Take a piece of veal 
of any size from the leg, loin, or cutlet piece, 
about three quarters of an inch in thickness, 
and lard one side with strips of salt pork. Put 
in a saucepan (for two pounds of veal) one 
ounce of butter, half a middling-sized onion, as 
much carrot cut in sHces, two or three stalks of 
parsley, one of thyme, six or eight pepper corns, 
and the rind of the pork used in larding; spread 
all these on the bottom of the saucepan, lay the 
piece of veal on them, larded side up, and set 
on a good fire for about fifteen minutes ; then 
raise the meat and see if the under side is well 
browned ; if so, add a gill of broth, put in the 
oven and baste often ; if not, leave a Httle 
longer on the fire. Add a little broth once in 
a while, to keep the bottom of the pan wet, and 
to leave enough to baste the meat till it is a lit- 
tle overdone; dish the vegetables, place the 
fricandeau on the top, and serve with the gravy 
strained over all. This is an excellent dish, 
which is not at all difficult to prepare. 

Fricasseed Veal. — Cut into small, thick, 
handsome slices of equal size about two pounds 
of veal, quite free from fat, bone, and skin ; 
melt a couple of ounces^of butter in a wide 
stewpan, and just as it begins to boil lay in the 
veal and shake it over the fire until it is quite 
firm on both sides, but do not allow it to take the 
slightest color. Stir in a tablespoonful of flour, 
and when it is well mixed with the cutlets pour 
gradually to them, shaking the pan often, 
enough boiling veal gravy to almost cover 
them ; stew gently for fifteen minutes, or longer 
should they not be perfectly tender; add a 



656 



VEAL 



flavoring of mace, some salt, a quarter of a pint 
of cream, a couple of egg-yolks, and a little 
lemon-juice ; shake the saucepan above the fire 
until the sauce has just set, and then serve im- 
mediately. 

Gravy (Veal). {See Gravy.) 

HashedVeal. — Chop some cold veal very fine 
and mix ^vith it, while'chopping, half as much 
stale bread-crumbs ; put it in a saucepan and 
pour over it a gravy made as follows : Put a tea- 
cupful of boiling water into a saucepan, and 
stir into it a teaspoonful of flour wet with a tea- 
spoonful of cold water; add not quite half a 
teaspoonful of black pepper, as much salt, and 
two tablespoonfuls of butter, let it get hot but 
not boil before pouring it on the hash. After 
the gravy is added, let the hash simmer on the 
fire for ten minutes ; then serve. 

Minced Veal. — Chop some cold roast or 
boiled veal very fine, and season it well with 
salt and pepper; if there is any cold gravy, put 
it with the meat, if not, butter will answer ; 
heat it very hot, stirring often that the gravy 
may not oil. Serve it on slices of toasted bread 
and garnish with sliced lemon. 

Neck of Veal a la Creme. — Take the best 
end of a neck of veal, detach the flesh from the 
ends of the bones, cut them sufficiently short 
to give the joint a good square form, fold and 
skewer the skin over them ; wrap a buttered 
paper round the meat, lay it at a moderate dis- 
tance from a clear fire, and keep it well basted 
with butter for an hour and a quarter ; then re- 
move the paper and continue the basting with 
a pint or more of rich white sauce (6V^ Sauces) 
until the veal is sufficiently roasted, and well 
encrusted with it. Serve some white sauce 
under it in the dish, and send it very hot to 
table. 

Olives (Veal). {See Entrees.) 

Pie (Veal). — Cut some veal from the neck or 
other joint into small slices ; line a pudding- 
dish with a good paste, and put a layer of veal 
in the bottom, then one of hard-boiled eggs, 
sliced, each piece buttered and peppered before 
it is laid upon the veal ; cover these with a layer 
of sliced ham or thin strips of salt pork ; squeeze 
a few drops of lemon-juice upon the ham, add 
another layer of veal, and so on as before until 
the dish is nearly full ; pour over all a teacup- 
ful of stock or broth, cover with a stout crust, 
and bake in a moderate oven for two hours. 
If no stock or broth is at hand, make a gravy 
of the bones, fat, and refuse bits cut away from 
the meat, and a teacupful of cold water ; let 
these stew together while the pie is being ar- 
ranged in the dish, or for half an hour, and 
then pour in. 

Pot Pie (Veal). — Make a crust as follows : — 
Peel, boil, and mash a dozen potatoes, add two 
tablespoonfuls of butter, half a teacupful of 
milk or cream, and a teaspoonful of salt ; 
stiffen with flour till it will roll out easily. 

To prepare the meat, first fry half a dozen 
slices of salt pork, and then cut up the veal and 
pork and boil them in just enough water to 
cover them till the veal is nearly done. Then 



peel a dozen potatoes and slice them thin. Roll 
the crust out half an inch thick, and cut it into 
oblong pieces. Put a layer of the crust at the 
bottom of a small pot, then a layer of meat and 
potatoes, then a sprinkle of salt and pepper, 
then another layer of crust, and so on till all is 
used, making the top layer of crust ; lastly, 
pour on the liquor in which the meat was 
boiled, until it just covers the whole, and let it 
simmer from half to three quarters of an hour, 
or until the top crust is well cooked. The ex- 
cellence of this pie depends on the crust being 
very light ; therefore the meat must first be 
nearly cooked before it is put into the pie, and 
the crust must be in only long enough to cook, 
or it will be clammy and tough. When nearly 
done, the crust may be browned with a hot 
shovel (held near it) or a bake-lid with hot 
coals on it. 

Roast Veal. — I. Breast — Place the joint at 
a moderate distance from a good fire and roast 
slowly, basting often, first with salt and water, 
then with gravy, and once with melted butter 
when nearly done ; just before the butter is 
spread on, dredge lightly with flour. Skim the 
gravy, thicken with browned flour, boil up once, 
and send to table in a gravy-boat. The veal 
may be garnished with fried balls of stuffing 
{See Stuffwg) about the size of a walnut. 

In roasting veal allow at least a quarter of 
an hour to a pound. 

II. Fillet — Remove the bone carefully, roll 
the meat up and pin it into a round with skew- 
ers ; then pass a twine or band of muslin sev- 
eral times round it and tie. Fill the cavity with 
a dressing made of bread-crumbs, chopped 
thyme and parsley, a little nutmeg, salt, and 
pepper,rubbed together with some melted butter 
or beef-suet, moistened with milk or hot water, 
and bound together with a beaten egg ; stuff 
the dressing between the folds of the meat also, 
and make incisions here and there with a thin, 
sharp knife to receive it ; now and then slip in 
a strip of salt pork or bacon. Roast slowly, 
basting often, at first with salt and water, then 
with gravy, at last with flour and melted butter, 
as directed in preceding recipe. 

III. Leg or Loin. — Roast exactly as directed 
for Breast of Veal. Should the meat brown 
too fast, cover with buttered paper. Send its 
own gravy to table with it in a boat. 

IV. Neck. — The best end of the neck makes 
an excellent and economical roast. A stuffing 
may be inserted between the skin and the flesh 
by first separating them with a sharp knife, or 
the dish may be garnished with the forcemeat 
in balls. Let it be floured when first laid to 
the fire, basted constantly, and kept throughout 
at a sufficient distance to prevent scorching. 
Pour melted butter over it when it is dished, 
and serve it like other joints. 

V. Shoulder.— MzkQ horizontal incisions 
near the bone, fill them with a dressing hke 
that for Fillet, and roast as directed for Breast, 

Shoulder of Veal, Stuffed.— Before the 
joint can be stuffed it must be boned, for which 
proceed as follows : Spread a clean cloth upon 




Shoulder of Veal Boned. 



VEGETABLES 

a table, or dresser, and lay the joint flat upon 
it, skin downwards ; with a sharp knife cut off 
the flesh from the inner side nearly down to the 
blade-bone, of which 
detach the edges first, 
then work the knife 
under it, keeping it 
always close to the 
bone, and using all 
possible care not to 
pierce the outer skin ; 
when the bone is de- 
tached from the flesh 
in every part,loosen it from the socket with the 
point of the knife and remove it ; or, without 
dividing the two bones, cut round the joint 
until it is freed entirely from the meat, and 
proceed to detach the second bone. That of 
the knuckle is frequently left in, but for some 
dishes it is necessary to take it out; in doing 
this, be careful not to tear the skin. 

Fill the inside with common stuffing (^See 
Stuffing), or with sausage-meat ; roll it up, 
and when proparly tied with twine, roast or 
bake it as directed above. 

Steak (Veal). — This should be cut in thinner 
slices than beef-steak, and must be thoroughly 
cooked. Broil on a greased gridiron over a hot 
fire, and when done, spread butter over them, 
sprinkle with salt and pepper, and serve hot. 

Stewed Veal. — Cut four pounds of veal into 
strips an inch thick and three inches long ; 
peel a dozen large potatoes and cut them into 
slices an inch thick ; spread a layer of the veal 
on the bottom of a pot, and sprinkle a little salt 
and pepper over it, then put a layer of potatoes, 
then a layer of veal seasoned as before ; use up 
the veal thus, and over the last la3-er of veal 
put a layer of slices of salt pork, and over the 
whole a layer of potatoes ; pour in water till it 
rises an inch above the whole, and cover the pot 
as closely as possible; stew very gently for an 
hour and twenty minutes. 

VEGETABLES. — For an explanation of the 
relative qualities of vegetable as compared 



VELVET 



557 



with animal food, see Food and Diet. All green 
vegetables should be as fresh as possible^ and 
should not be eaten at all when really stale, as 
they often are in the markets. Put them into 
cold water with some salt in it for about ten 
minutes, to clear them from dirt and insects. 
If not quite fresh, let them remain in the water 
some time longer ; then drain them in a co- 
lander, and put them into a pot with plenty of 
boiling water, adding a spoonful of salt. Veg- 
etables should generally be boiled quickly, and 
all scum that rises should be carefully removed. 
Do not allow them to remain in the water after 
they are done, but drain them in a colander 
and dress as directed in the various receipts. 

The following list comprises the vegetables 
treated of in their proper places : 



Artichoke, 

Asparagus, 

Beets, 

Broccoli, 

Brussells Sprouts, 

Bushbean, 

Cabbage, 

Carrots, 

Cauliflower, 

Celery, 

Corn, 

Cucumber, 

Egg-plant, 

Kndive, 

Eschalots, 

Garlic, 

Gherkins, 

Kale, 

Lettuce, 

Nasturtium, 



Okra, 

Onions, 

Oyster-plant, 

Parsley, 

Parsnip, 

Potatoes, 

Purslane, 

Radishes, 

Rhubarb, 

Salsify, 

Savory, 

Sea-Kale, 

Shallots, 

Spinach, 

Sprouts, 

Squash, 

Tomato, 

Turnip, 

Water-Cress, 

Yams. 



VEILS, To Clean.— For black veils use ox- 
gall, as directed for black silk. For white veils 
wash them in a warm lather of white soap and 
water, then squeeze them, and rinse them in 
cold water with a drop of liquid blue in it 
Then starch the veil, clap it between the hands 
and pin it out on a frame to dry. 

VELVET.— A rich kind of stuff in which, 
besides the ordinary warp and weft, which are 
usually arranged as in twill-weaving, there is 
also a supplementary weft, consisting of short 
pieces of silk, cotton, or woollen thread doubled 




under the regular weft and brought to the sur- 
face in loops, which are so close together as to 



wards cut evenly, and the ends thus made con- 
stitute a covering resembling very short fur. 



conceal the regular web. The loops are after- Of velvet there are properly only two kinds, 



558 



VENISON 



that which is plain, and that with a twilled or, 
as it is called, Genoa ground or back. When 
the material is silk it is called velvet ; when 
cotton, velveteen. The latter is a kind of fus- 
tian which, under a variety of names, is largely 
used for men's clothing. In the finer qualities, 
the French or Lyons velvet surpasses all others, 
though the English looms furnish a very good 
quality. Usual width, 27 inches. 

To Raise the Crushed Pile of Velvet. — 
Hold the reverse side of the velvet over a bowl 
of boiling water, stretching it tight, and the pile 
of the velvet will be gradually raised. 

VELVETEEN. {See Velvet. ) 

VENISON.— The flesh of all the different 
varieties of deer is called venison, but there is 
only one kind which is plentiful ; and, as com- 
monly used, " venison " means the flesh of the 
common or Virginia deer. This animal is 
found in nearly all the sparsely inhabited por- 
tions of the country, especially in Northern 
New York ; but the Estern markets are sup- 
plied to a great extent from the Western States 
and Canada, the entire animal, with the skin on, 
being shipped in a frozen state. Buck venison 
is best from the i st of August to the i st of No- 
vember ; after the latter date Doe venison is 
preferred, and it continues good until the i st of 
January, after which no deer should be killed. 
It is sometimes found, however, as late as 
March, having kept for months in a frozen 
state ; but it is then very high-priced. Veni- 
son is cut and sold in joints, called respectively, 
saddle, haunch, leg, loin, fore-quarter, and 
steaks ; the latter should not be cut until de- 
sired for immediate cooking. Venison cannot 
be too fat, and if it have no fat on the back it is 
of very poor quality, and will be dry and flavor- 
less. When of good quality, it is extremely 
nutritious and wholesome. It is not so deli- 
cate when fresh as when it has been kept from 
three to eight days. To know if it is fresh 
enough, run a knife or skewer through the leg 
or shoulder, and if it does not smell rank, it is 
good. When not consumed at once, keep it in 
a cool, dark cellar, with a cloth round it. 

Baked Venison. — Any of the pieces used 
for roasting will also serve for baking. Pre- 
pare as for roasting, and lay the joint in a bak- 
ing-pan with about a quarter of an inch of wa- 
ter in it ; spread some butter over it, and bake 
in a rather quick oven, basting often; turn it 
over if necessary to brown the under side. 
Serve with currant jelly or cranberry sauce. 
Thicken the gravy in the pan with a little 
browned flour, and send to table in a boat. 
Venison must be rather underdone when baked 
or roasted. 

Cutlets (Venison). — Trim the cutlets into 
a neat shape, lard them with strips of salt pork, 
spread a little butter over each, and broil on a 
buttered gridiron over a clear fire. They may 
also be enveloped in a piece of buttered paper 
and then broiled. 

Hash of Venison. — What is left from a 
roast will answer for this. Slice the meat from 
the bones, and put the latter into a saucepan 



with the fat and other scraps ; add a teacupful 
of cold water, a small onion minced, pepper and 
salt, a few sprigs of parsley and thyme, and 
three or four whole cloves ; set on the fire and 
stew slowly for an hour. Strain the liquor and 
return in a saucepan, with whatever gravy 
was left from the roast, a tablespoonful of cur- 
rant jelly, one of tomato or mushroom catsup, a 
teaspoonful of anchovy sauce, and a little 
browned flour; boil for three minutes, lay in 
the slices of venison, and heat for ten minutes, 
but do not let it boil. Stir often, and serve hot 
in a covered dish. 

Pasty (Venison). — Cut the venison from 
the bones, and keep the latter with the scraps 
for making gravy; cut the meat into small 
squares or slices, put them Into avsaucepan with 
enough cold water or weak beef-stock to cover 
them, and stew gently until nearly, but not 
quite, done ; line the sides (not the bottom) 
of a deep pie-dish with a thick crust of puff- 
paste ; butter the bottom of the dish and lay in 
the venison neatly and compactly : add a good 
seasoning of salt and pepper, a tablespoonful 
of butter, and half a teacupful of the liquor in 
which the venison was stewed ; cover with a 
thick crust, and set the pan in a moderate oven 
for a half to three-quarters of an hour. While 
the venison is stewing and baking prepare a 
gravy with the bones, fat, and scraps (a few 
bits of mutton will improve it), by boiling them 
in a half pint of water for an hour ; strain the 
liquor, return it to the saucepan, let it come to 
aboil, and skim it ; then add a glass of port wine, 
a tablespoonful of butter, the juice of a lemon, 
and a little browned flour ; boil up once and set 
it where it will keep warm. When the pie is 
done, cut a small hole in the centre of the top 
crust, insert a funnel, and pour in as much of 
the gravy as the pie will hold. Serve the pasty 
very hot, and send the rest of the gravy to table 
with it. This is a famous dish in English 
cookery. 

Pie (Venison). — The breast and neck will 
answer for this. Cut the cold meat into small' 
pieces, season with salt, pepper, and a little 
ground cloves, and dredge well with flour ; put 
them into a buttered pie-dish as close as possi- 
ble, fill up the dish with the gravy from roast 
venison or some gravy prepared in the same 
manner, cover with a good crust of puff-paste, 
and set in a moderate oven. Bake half an hour, 
and serve hot. 

Roast Venison. — ^1- Haunch. — Remove the 
thin skin, after washing off in lukewarm water, 
and lard the joint with strips of salt pork ; it 
may be roasted without larding, but the larding 
is a great improvement, the meat being natu- 
rally dry. Place it on the spit before a brisk 
fire, and near it ; baste often, with melted butter 
at first and then with the drippings ; if it is 
larded it will require less butter. As soon as 
a kind of crust forms on the surface of the meat, 
remove it further from the fire by degrees. As- 
certain with a skewer or small knife when it is 
done ; if these pass easily to the bone through 
the thickest part, it is ready to serve. 



VENTILATION 



559 



For gravy, put a pound or so of the scraps of 
raw venison left from trimming the joint into a 
saucepan with a quart of water, a pinch of 
cloves, a blade of mace, half a nutmeg, and salt 
and cayenne to taste ; stew slowly till it is 
reduced one half, then strain, and return it to 
the saucepan with three tablespoonfuls of currant 
jelly, two tablespoonfuls of butter, and a wine- 
glassful of claret ; thicken with browned flour 
and boil up once. 

Always serve currant jelly with roast venison. 

II. Neck. — This joint is not very highly es- 
teemed, but it makes an excellent roast when 
done properly, and has the advantage that it 
requires a shorter time to cook. Roast as 
directed for Haunch, allowing about twelve 
minutes to a pound, and serve with a similar 
gravy, or with a gravy seasoned simply with 
salt and pepper, watercress, and a little lemon 
juice or vinegar, and thickened with browned 
flour. Send around currant jelly with it. 

III. Saddle. — A saddle of venison is much 
the best piece of the deer, when a very large 
joint is not required. Roast it as directed for 
Haunch and Neck, and serve with the same 
gravies. 




Roast of Venison. 

IV. Shoulder. — This may be cooked entire, 
or boned as directed for Shoulder of Veal. 
In either case, roast like Haunch and Neck, and 
serve with same gravies and currant jelly. 
Carve as shown in the lines, a b and b c. 

Steaks (Venison). — These should be about 
half an inch thick. Season them with pepper 
and salt, spread butter on both sides, and broil 
them six minutes on a clear fire, turning them 
often. They may be served plain, but are 
greatly improved by a gravy made of equal parts 
of red wine and currant jelly, thickened with a 
little flour and butter ; boil up once and turn 
hot upon the steaks. A teaspoonful of roast 
venison gravy, poured over them hot, is also an 
improvement. 

Stewed Venison. — Cut the meat in two- 
inch squares. Put a heaping tablespoonful of 
butter into a stewpan and set it over a good 
fire ; when it has melted, sprinkle in bydegrees 
a tablespoonful of flour, stirring all the time 
with a wooden spoon ; when it begins to get 
thick add two ounces of salt pork cut small, 
half a pint of warm water, half a pint of claret 
wine, salt and pepper, a pinch of allspice, 
two Shallots, and six onions chopped fine, and, 
if at hand, four or five mushrooms; lay the 
meat on the whole, and stew gently till cooked. 
Dish the meat, boil the sauce hard till it is of a 
brownish color, turn it on the meat, and serve 
hot. 



Stewed Shoulder of Venison. — Take out 

the bone as directed for Shoulder of Veal ; lay 
in the holes thus made some slices of mutton 
fat that has lain a few hours in a little port 
wine, and sprinkle pepper and powdered all- 
spice over it ; roll it up tight and tie it with a 
piece of broad tape ; set it in a stewpan that 
will just hold it, with some beef or mutton 
gravy (or some broth made by boiling the bones 
and scraps of venison with bits of mutton in 
water), half a pint of port or Madeira wine, and 
some pepper and allspice ; cover closely, and 
simmer very slowly three or four hours. When 
quite tender take off the tape, set the meat in 
a dish, strain the gravy over it, and serve with 
currant jelly. This is an extremely savory dish. 

VENTILATION. — In the article on Air we 
have already shown how, in its effect on the 
animal economy, pure air must be regarded as a 
food and a highly indispensable one, and have 
pointed out the numerous ways in which it is 
contaminated after it enters a dwelling-house ; 
but the subject is so very important, and an 
appreciation of its importance is so necessary 
to a right understanding of what is meant by 
ventilation, that we shall emphasize one or two 
additional points here. Briefly, then, the atmos- 
phere which surrounds the earth, forming a 
gaseous envelope about forty miles thick, has a 
definite and very uniform composition. Every 
hundred parts of it consist of 21 volumes of 
oxygen and 79 volumes of nitrogen ; or, if we 
estimate its composition by weight, of 23 parts 
of oxygen and 77 of nitrogen, and four parts in 
10,000 of carbonic acid. Practically, we may 
say that a fifth part of the atmosphere consists 
of oxygen, and this is the true necessary of life, 
though without being mixed with nitrogen it 
would be too stimulating and could sustain life 
but a short time. The atmosphere also con- 
tains about four parts in ten thousand of car- 
bonic acid, a gas which, unless it be highly 
diluted, is destructive to animal life. 

This carbonic acid gas is the subtle enemy 
we have constantly to deal with in our houses, 
and against which we should be constantly on 
our guard. It is given off by animals in the 
process of respiration, both when asleep and 
awake. A man produces by respiration about 
ten cubic feet in twenty-four hours ; so, if we 
suppose him to be confined in a room contain- 
ing 1,000 cubic feet of air (which a space ten 
feet square and ten feet high would affprd), he 
would, in twenty-four hours, contaminate atmos- 
phere to the extent of one part of carbonic 
acid in 100 parts of air. A certain amount of 
carbonic acid given off by the skin would have 
to be added to this. But suppose twelve per- 
sons to occupy the same chamber, and a like 
effect would be produced in two hours. Now- 
air containing one per cent, of carbonic acid is 
highly injurious, and even half that quantity 
cannot be long breathed with impunity. Res- 
piration can be continued only with difficulty in 
an atmosphere containing five per cent, of the 
gas, while thirty per cent, speedily destroys 
life. Besides carbonic acid, the air contains 



560 



VENTILATION 



another still more deadly compound, carbonic 
oxide, which is produced in our houses chiefly 
by the imperfect combustion of carbon in fuel. 
Even the most perfect system of sewage and 
drains cannot prevent the escape of more or 
less sulphuretted and carburetted hydrogen ; 
and the burning of candles, lamps, and gas- 
lights is a prolific source of contamination. 
The burning of gas is especially unwholesome, 
not only on account of its consumption of oxy- 
gen being very large, but because of the other 
deleterious gases besides carbonic acid which 
are evolved. In fact, as we have observed 
elsewhere {See Air), nearly every process of 
household life, from cooking to mere speaking 
or breathing, vitiates the air to a greater or less 
extent. 

The problem of ventilation is to remove 
vitiated air and supply fresh with the least in- 
convenience. The greatest difficulty is to ac- 
complish this without so lowering the tempera- 
ture as to induce cold, or if artificial heat alone 
be used, to prevent great variations of temper- 
ature in the same room, an undue dryness of 
the air, and too great consumption of fuel. The 
different means employed may be divided into 
two classes — forced or mechanical ventilation, 
and ventilation by spontaneous action. The 
first method is necessary whenever a larger 
number of persons are assembled in one apart- 
ment than its relative amount of cubic space 
would warrant ; and elaborate preparations are 
often necessary to accomplish it. Manifestly 
these can only be employed in churches, public 
halls, and those private houses in which ex- 
pense is no objection ; but the scope of the 
present article is limited to showing how venti- 
lation can best be effected in ordinary houses 
under ordinary conditions. The commonest 
and by no means the worst method of ventilat- 
ing a room is by opening the windows. But 
since the heated and most of the impure air 
always ascends, windows should open at the top 
and extend to near the ceiling. It is a great 
mistake, however, to suppose that opening win- 
dows on one side only suffices to ventilate an 
apartment. It often happens in the still and 
sultry atmosphere of summer that the tempera- 
ture inside a room is the same as that outside, 
and as difference of temperature is essential 
to spontaneous movement in the air, no change 
whatever will take place under these circum- 
stances in the air of a room having windows 
only on one side. To secure good ventilation 
under ordinary conditions of the air, ample 
means of escape as well as of entrance must 
be provided. If the door be kept open this 
will generally suffice. The great objection to 
open windows and doors is the draught, and 
there are numerous contrivances to avoid it. 
One of the simplest is to have a portion of the 
window filled with perforated zinc plates or 
perforated glass ; the draught produced by air 
entering through numerous small apertures is 
diffused and rendered less perceptible. But 
ventilation by this means is necessarily very 
imperfect. Another plan is to insert a revolv- 



ing tin fan in place of a pane of glass. Venti- 
lators made of plates of glass, which can be 
opened or closed after the fashion of a Venetian 
blind, are in every way superior to the preced- 
ing, as they do not interfere with the light, and 
the current of air can be directed upwards or 
downwards. 

The mechanical expedients for securing ven- 
tilation are in most houses connected with ar- 
rangements for heating. Wherever there is a 
fire there must be a stream of air passing out 
of the room through the chimney, and as this 
must be replaced by air fairly well supplied 
with oxygen, a draught through a chimney im- 
plies openings somewhere for air to enter the 
room, and thus there is some ventilation as a 
matter of necessity. Even in summer the 
chimney acts as an air-shaft and for this reason 
it should never be closed (as it generally is) 
with a fireboard. In the open fireplace, the 
magnitude of the open space above the fire 
represents the ventilating capacity of the chim- 
ney. But, unfortunately, it is from the air below 
the level ofthe mantel — the purest in the room — 
that the fireplace is supplied; only so much of 
the foul imprisoned air above as gradually cools 
and descends being swept into the chimney. 

Stoves afford the least ventilation of all our 
means of heating. They take little more air 
than just sufficient to consume the fuel, and 
that is withdrawn from the purer portion near 
the floor. Yet they may be made subservient 
to ventilation in various w-ays : first, by allow- 
ing air to pass through tubes in the body of 
the stove ; second, by admitting it between 
the stove arKl external casing ; and third, 
by simply allowing it to strike against the ex 
ternal surface of the stove. In either case the 
entering air will be partially warmed, thus 
avoiding the unpleasant cold draughts too often 
attendant on the introduction of fresh air. 

Furnaces, hot-water apparatus, etc., in which 
air itself is made the vehicle for conveying 
heat into the room, furnish the most effective 
means of ventilation. The hot air, by diffusion 
through the apartment, displaces the air already 
present, which must find escape somewhere. 
Rooms warmed in this manner require a chim- 
ney or other opening by which air may escape; 
but under the impression that apartments heated 
by air-currents require no other channel, houses 
are frequently constructed with no flues at all. 

There are several different modes of com- 
bining warming and ventilation, both by con- 
vection and radiation, very much resembling 
the open fire-place in its effect upon the air, 
and yet securing great economy of fuel. Coils 
of steam or hot-water pipes are placed under 
the windows, and these warm the walls and 
furniture of the rooms, partly by radiation and 
partly by the air warmed on the heated surfaces 
of the coils. At the same time, by regulating 
registers, or by simply opening the lower part 
of the window, the pure air is admitted directly 
upon the coils, so that it is partially warmed be- 
fore it reaches the person, and thus cold 
draughts are prevented. The vitiated air is 



VENTILATION 



561 



drawn off through registers both at the top and 
bottom of the room, opening into a heated ex- 
hausting flue, through which the constantly 
ascending current of warm air carries it off. 
Moisture should be carefully and abundantly 
supplied by a broad vessel placed on or close 
to the heated coils, providing a large surface 
for evaporation. 

When rooms are warmed chiefly by radiated 
heat, the air can be borne much cooler than in 
those warmed by hot-air furnaces, just as a 
person in the radiating sun can bear much 
cooler air than in the shade. Where direct 
radiation is not used, any plan of ventilation, in 
order to be effective, should include an opening 
near the top of the room into an independ- 
ent heated flue of the chimney ; and if provision 
is made for the entrance of plenty of fresh air 
this alone will generally suffice to keep the at- 
mosphere of the room pure and sweet. The 
upward draught in a good chimney is very 
strong; and in houses without independent 
flues, if an opening into the chimney be made 
by knocking out two or three bricks near the 
ceiling, the foul gases in the room will rush in, 
and, mingling with the ascending current, will 
escape. The only objection to these openings 
is that when from any cause the current of the 
chimney is interrupted, smoke is driven into 
the room. Some authorities (principally in 
England) claim that this is met by inserting in 
them Arnoit's Valve, and call it the simplest, 
cheapest, and most effective mechanical con- 
trivance that the art of ' ventilation has yet 
secured.* It is self-acting, and is so adjusted 
that a current of air passing into the chimney 
opens it, while the slightest current in the con- 
trary direction shuts it, and thus prevents the 
backward flow of smoke into the room. Owing 
to the unsteadiness of the currents, the valve 
is constantly vibrating or trembling, and would 
be noisy but that it is made to strike against 
soft leather. Many of the stove or furnace- 
heated rooms whose foul air is a constant 
menace to the health of those who breathe it, 
may by its aid alone be thoroughly drained of 
their gaseous pollutions. If the orifice in the 
chimney be deemed unsightly, it may be 
screened from view by placing a picture before 
it. It must be said, however, that other emi- 
nent authorities object to the Arnott valve, 
and claim that but little benefit is gained in 
comparison with the dirt and smoke that is al- 
lowed to come in in spite of the valve, and that 
the draught of the flue is seriously interfered 
with in many cases. The present editors would 
hesitate to introduce it in this climate, after try- 
ing it on several houses. It was thought best, 
however, to state both sides. 

One of the best and simplest methods of 
ventilation with which we are acquainted is 
described in Dr. Hinton's " Physiology for Prac- 
tical Use." It is equally applicable in summer 
and winter, because all downward draught is 

* Amott's Valve cannot always be obtained at local stores, 
but it is manufactured by S. B. Jfanies, No. 77 White St., N.V. 
Price $2.50 to ^5.00, according to size. Itis very easily inserted. 

36 



avoided; and as it can be applied for a few 
cents, and is not unsightly in appearance, it is 
equally suitable for the cottage and the man- 
sion. A piece of wood an inch or more in 
thickness, three inches wide, and exactly as 
long as the breadth of the window through 
which ventilation is to be established, is to be 
prepared. Raise the sash and place the slip 
of wood upon the sill of the window ; then 
draw the sash closely down upon the slip of 
wood. If the slip has been well fitted — and 
the fitting may be made more complete by 
adapting it to the grooves in the sash and its 
frame, if there are any — no draught will be ex- 
perienced in consequence of the displacement 
of the sash at this part. The effect of such 
an arrangement, however, is to cause a separa- 
tion between the bars of the upper and lower 
sashes. By this means, perpendicular currents 
of air will be projected into the room between 



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Cheap Ventilator. 

the glass in the upper and lower sashes and 
their respective bars, in an upward direction , 
and other currents will pass outward in the re- 
verse direction, in a manner by which all in- 
in convenience from draught will be avoided. 
If two windows at opposite sides of a room be 
fitted in this manner, a very satisfactory venti- 
lation will be provided ; owing to a difference in 
its equilibrium, the air will rush in on one side 
and rush out on the other side of the apart- 
ment. By painting the slips of wood the same 
color as the windows themselves, they will at- 
tract little notice. It is well too, to have their 
edges well covered with " listing" or felt, so as 
to secure tight joints. 

It is very desirable to have in the ceiling of 
the main hall, at the top of the house, a pipe of 
from 8 to 12 incJies in diameter, closable with 
a register in very cold weather, and extending 
far above the roof. It should, of course, be 
covered with a cap to shut out the rain. The 
top of the hall is the reservior for half the bad 
air in the house, which rises through the open- 
mg of the stairway from all the floors. 

Another arrangement essential to a perfect 
house, and not very expensive if built at the 



562 



VERBENA 



proper time, is a ventilating shaft, of which a 
horizontal section would be 2 square feet, or 
even more, to be heated either by running up 
beside the flue of some fire in constant use, or 
by registers or steam pipes at intervals, and es- 
pecially near the bottom. Into this all water 
closets and other reservoirs of bad air should 
open by orifices of not less than 75 square 
inches. It may be large enough to use for 
light, in which case the covering should be of 




Ventilating Shaft, Sectional View. 

glass. In the sectional diagrams S represent 
the supports of the cover, one at each corner. 
They should be high enough to allow the air to 
escape without obstruction from the edges of 
the cover. R R represents the line of the 
roof. The opening of the shaft should project 
far enough above the roof (say 18 inches) to 
prevent snow getting down. The curved form 
of the under side of the cap acts as a deflector, 
so that no matter in which direction the wind 
blows, it is deflected outwards and draws the air 
out of the shaft. If the flue has a horizontal 
area of over three or four square feet, or is not 
very thoroughly warmed, it will be desirable, in 
cold weather, to close it on the windward side. 
For this purpose wings (W W) should be 
hinged on the edges of the shaft and raised, as 
at W, or lowered as at W, by cords passing over 
the pulleys (P P) and hanging down to some 
opening in the shaft where they can be con- 
trolled. The cords can be distinguished below 
by knots. This arrangement has satisfactorily 
supplied light and ventilation to a bathroom 
and water-closet which, before its introduc- 
tion, rendered a house almost uninhabitable. 

The shaft just described and all such shafts 
should be free from all combustible material 
and connections, as, being draft holes, they 
would be especially dangerous if fire in them 
were possible. 

A gutter with a rain-spout at G is desirable 



on very large ventilators, widely opened, to pre- 
vent rain being blown down. 

It must not be forgotten that ventilation is 
even of greater importance at night than during 
the day. More time is passed in the same at- 
mosphere during sleep than in our waking 
hours, and the system is more susceptible to 
noxious influences when we are sleeping. On 
these accounts the ventilation of bedrooms 
should be carefully attended to. Unfortunately 
an absurd belief prevails that night air is dan- 
gerous, but it is certain that no air admitted 
from without is likely to prove half so peril- 
ous as that which is breathed and re-breathed 
by the occupant of a small and tightly-closed bed- 
room. {See Curtains.) 

VERBENA.— Among all the "bedding-out" 
plants which contribute so much to the gay and 
brilliant appearance of a flower garden, the Ver- 
bena is entitled to the first rank ; and as any one 
can raise them, no garden can be considered 
complete which does not contain some of the 
hundreds of varieties offered by florists. A few 
of the varieties are sweet-scented, but most of 
them depend for their attractiveness upon their 
showy, gorgeous coloring and their wonderful 
profusion of blossoms. Some splendid new 
varieties have been introduced within the past 
few years, whose wondrous stripes and eyes 
are not approached by any of the older sorts ; 
these are selected from many thousand seedlings 
and are both rich and rare. But any one can 
raise new varieties from seed, and good cul- 
ture will produce 'fine blooms. Seedlings 
will seed much more plentifully than flowers 
from cuttings, and the older the cutting the 
less seed it will give. 

The seed should first be soaked for twenty- 
four hours in warm water, and then planted in 
a light sandy loam with a good bottom heat. 
Thus treated they will germinate, and when 
the fourth leaf is formed should be potted into 
thumb pots in sandy loam. The bed in which 
they are planted for final growth and blooming 
should be exposed fully to the sun, and be 
covered two or three inches deep with common 
sand. As the plant sends out its first shoots, 
they should be pegged down with hair pins, and 
thus coaxed to grow. Verbenas should be 
watered often and copiously. The soap-suds 
from washing-day are very beneficial to them, 
and a spoonful of guano dug around each plant, 
not touching the stems, will increase their vigor 
and beauty. The green lice, or aphis, is their 
scourge in pot-culture, but these can be destroyed 
by smoking them with tobacco. Put the plants 
together, and throw some tobacco on hot coals 
in a pot-saucer, cover the whole with a wash-tub, 
and let them smoke for ten or fifteen minutes; 
the lice can then be swept up and burned. 
Place the coals as far as possible from the 
plants under the tubs, so that the heat will not 
injure them. If plants are well showered, no 
hce will appear — they cannot endure moisture. 

If cuttings are desired for winter bloom, 
they should be taken off in August, so as to 
become well rooted. It is not worth while to 



VERMICELLI 



VINEGAR 



563 



take up old plants for winter blooming, as they 
never do well. 

The varieties of verbenas are so very numer- 
ous that it would be useless to attempt to in- 
dicate which are most desirable. Great num- 
bers of new ones are produced every year, and 
the best way is to send to one of the leading 
florists for a catalogue, and select from it such 
as strike the fancy. The qualities of a first-class 
verbena, as laid down by florists, are : round- 
ness of flower, without indenture, notch, or ser- 
rature ; petals thick, flat, bright, and smooth ; 
the plant should be compact, with short strong 
joints, either distinctly of a shrubby habit, or 
a close ground creeper or climber; the foliage 
should be short, broad, bright, and enough to 
hide the stalk ; in the eyed and striped varieties 
the colors should be well defined and lasting, 
never running into each other or changing in 
the sun. 

VERMICELLI. — A preparation of wheat 
flour very similar to Macaroni, being made in 
the same way, only to the paste are added 
cheese, yolk of eggs, sugar, and saffron. It is 
of Italian origin, and the name means little 
Worms, from its form. Vermicelli should be of 
a slightly yellowish color; those which are white 
are of inferior quality. It should also be fresh, 
as it becomes musty when long kept. The 
Italian is best. {See Puddings and Soups). 

VERMIN. — For directions how to destroy 
the various kinds of vermin that infest the 
house. See Ants, Bugs, Cockroaches, 
Flies, Mice, Rats, and Roaches. 

VERONICA. — This is a well-known hardy 
herbaceous plant, which is found in most gar- 
dens. Cultivate as directed for Phlox. Ver- 
onica Verginica is the common tall-growing 
species, producing white flowers in August. V. 
speciosa and spicata are of dwarf habit ; they 
produce fine blue flowers in June. 

VERTIGO. — Vertigo, or Giddiness, is that 
peculiar sensation wherein we seem to be 
standing still and all adjacent objects running 
round us. This commonly causes loss of bal- 
ance, and the individual may fall down ; in a 
good many cases, however, he is able to recov- 
er himself without falling, especiall}'' if he can 
lay hold of something to steady himself by for 
a moment. In most cases giddiness depends 
on an insufficient or improper supply of blood 
to the brain. Thus in giddiness after severe ill- 
ness, in attempting to stand upright we see the 
result of an insufficient supply ; in other in- 
stances the blood supply is impure from con- 
taining too much alcohol or the products of 
imperfect digestion of food. In old people, 
when the vessels become hardened and un- 
yielding, giddiness is often a permanent symp- 
tom. From these facts it is evident that ver- 
tigo is rather a symptom than a malady, and a 
symptom, too, of varying significance ; for some- 
times apparently overfullness of the blood- 
vessels gives rise to a kind of giddiness. If, 
for instance, the face is flushed and the head 
hot, it may be desirable to give some purgative 
medicine, whereas if the vertigo comes during 



convalescence, it is best remedied by a glass 
of wine. The subsequent treatment depends 
upon the same principle. Where there is 
weakness, good food and exercise are the best 
remedies ; when overfullness seems to be the 
cause, saline purgatives and some diuretic may 
be given. 

VINEGAR. — This well-known condiment is 
a weak acetic acid, of different degrees of 
strength, and either brown or colorless, accord- 
ing to the source from which it is produced. 
The simplest way of obtaining it is to set up a 
second or acetous fermentation in wine or cider, 
by leaving the vessel unstopped in a warm 
place, oxygen is absorbed, carbonic acid evolved 
and the alcohol of the wine passes into acetic 
acid. The best vinegar is wine vinegar, but it 
is expensive. Cider vinegar is excellent, and 
for ordinary use superior to any other. Beer 
makes good vinegar, but it is inferior to that 
made with cider. Pyroligneous vinegar, made 
by the distillation of wood, is apt to be impure, 
and, if used, should be used only in pickles 
for preserving meats, etc. For this purpose it 
is said to be superior to any other. Vinegar 
of excellent quality and of a moderate price 
may now be obtained at the stores in every 
part of the country, so that it is no longer nec- 
essary to make it at home ; but the following 
receipt will produce it at small cost and with 
little trouble : To one gallon of water add one 
pound and a quarter of raw sugar and a quar- 
ter of a pint of yeast. At a temperature of 80" 
it will be sufficiently acid in three or four days 
to be drawn off, when an ounce of cut raisins 
and an equal weight of cream tartar should be 
added ; in a few weeks the sweet taste will have 
disappeared entirely, and the vinegar may be 
bottled. 

Flavored Vinegars are growing in favor 
as condiments ; those for which receipts are giv- 
en below are easily made and very choice. 

Cayenne Vinegar. — Put from a quarter to 
half an ounce of the best cayenne pepper into 
a bottle, and pour on it a pint of strong vinegar, 
cork it closely and shake it well every two or 
three days. It may remain any length of time 
before it is poured off, but will be ready for use 
in two weeks. 

Celery Vinegar. — Throw into a pint of boil- 
ing vinegar a few grains of cayenne, or half an 
ounce of peppercorns, a large saltspoonful of 
salt, and a pint of the white part of the roots and 
stems of some fine fresh celery, .sliced thin ; let 
it boil for two or three minutes, turn it into a 
stone jar, and secure it well from the air as 
soon as it is cold. It may be strained off and 
bottled in three or four weeks, but may remain 
as many months in the jar without injury. 

Chili or Capsicum Vinegar. — Put an ounce 
of chilies or capsicums into a pint of vinegar, 
cover closely, and let them stand a fortnight ; 
after straining, it will then be ready for use. 
If a strong flavor is liked, let them infuse for a 
fortnight longer. 

Cucumber Vinegar. — First wipe, and then, 
without paring, slice into a stone jar some young 



564 



VOLS-AU-VENT 



cucumbers,pour on them as much boiling vinegar 
as will cover them well, with a teaspoonful of salt 
and two-thirds as much peppercorns to a pint and 
a half of vinegar. It may remain on them for a 
month, or even for two, if well protected from 
the air ; it should then be strained, allowed to 
settle, and poured quite clear into small dry 
bottles, which should be tightly corked. A 
mild onion may be mixed with the cucumbers 
when its flavor is liked. 

Horseradish Vinegar. — On four ounces of 
young and freshly scraped horseradish pour a 
quart of boiling vinegar, and cover it down 
closely. It will be ready for use in three or 
four days, but may remain for weeks or months 
before the vinegar is poured off. An ounce of 
minced shallot may be substituted for one of 
the horse radish, if the flavor is liked. 

Mint Vinegar. — Slightly chop or bruise the 
young leaves of freshly gathered mint, and put 
them into bottles, filling them nearly to the 
neck ; pour in vinegar enough to cover the 
mint ; in fifty days strain it off and bottle for use. 
Onion Vinegar. — Make as directed for 
shallot vinegar. 

Raspberry Vinegar. {See Raspberry.) 
Stra-wberry Vinegar. — Take the stalks from 
the fruit, which should be quite ripe and freshly 
gathered in dry weather ; weigh it and put it 
into large glass jars or wide-necked bottles, and 
to each pound pour about a pint and a half 
of white wine vinegar ; tie a thick paper over 
them, and let the strawberries remain from 
three to four days ; then pour off the vinegar 
and empty them into a jelly-bag, or suspend 
them in a cloth, that all the liquid may drop 
from them without pressure ; replace them with 
an equal weight of fresh fruit, pour the vinegar 
upon it, and three days afterwards repeat the 
same process, diminishing a little the propor- 
tion of strawberries, of which the flavor ought 
ultimately to overpower that of the vinegar. In 
from two to four days drain off the liquid very 
closely, and after having strained it through a 
linen or flannel bag, weigh it and mix with it 
an equal quantity of highly-refined sugar rough- 
ly powdered ; when this is nearly dissolved, stir 
the syrup over a clear fire until it has boiled for 
five minutes, and skim it thoroughly ; pour it 
into a clean stone pitcher, or into large china 
jugs, throw a thick folded cloth over and let it 
remain until next day. Put it into pint or half- 
pint bottles, and cork them lightly with new 
velvet corks ; for if these be pressed in tightly 
at first the bottles will sometimes burst ; in 
four or five days they may be closely corked 
and stored in a dry and cool place. Damp de- 
stroys the color and injures the flavor of these 
fine fruit-vinegars, of which a spoonful or two 
in a glass of water affords so agreeable a sum- 
mer beverage, and one which in many cases of 
illness is so acceptable to invalids. They also 
make excellent sauces for common custard, 
batter, and various other light sweet puddings. 
Raspberries and strawberries mixed will make 
a vinegar of very pleasant flavor. Black cur- 
rants also make an agreeable one. 



Shallot Vinegar.— On from four to six 
ounces of shallots, peeled and bruised, pour a 
quart of good vinegar ; stop the jar or bottle 
close, and in a fortnight or three weeks the 
vinegar may be strained off for use. A few 
drops will give a sufficient flavor to a sauce 
or to a tureen of gravy. Garlic vitiegar may 
be made in the same way, using only half as 
much garlic as of shallot. 

Tarragon Vinegar. — Gather the tarragon 
just before it blossoms ; strip it from the larger 
stalks, and put it into small stone jars or wide- 
necked bottles, and in doing this twist some of 
the branches so as to bruise the leaves and 
wring them asunder; then pour in enough very 
pale vinegar to cover the tarragon ; let it infuse 
two months or more, then pour it off, strain it, 
put it into small dry bottles, and cork them 
well. This is an excellent sauce. 

VIOLET POWDER.— A lady's toilet is not 
considered complete without this or some other 
absorbent powder. It not only dries the skin, 
but also tends to give a smooth surface and 
conceals pimples. The following is its compo- 
sition, and any lady can, if she please, make it 
for herself : Wheat starch, six parts by weight, 
orris root powder, two. Having reduced the 
starch to an impalpable powder, mix thoroughly 
with the orris root, and then perfume with otto 
of lemon, otto of bergamot, and otto of cloves, 
using twice as much of the lemon as of either of 
the other ottos. 

VIRGINIA CREEPER.— This rapid grow- 
ing vine, is very useful in covering walls and 
fences or any unsightly spots in the garden. It is 
beautiful in the autumn time when in full foli- 
age and flower, and as it is hardy, except very 
far north, and requires very little attention, it 
should find a place in every garden. The cul- 
tivation is the same as that of the honey- 
suckle, consisting of putting the seed into the 
ground in the spring and watering rather freely 
during the hoi dry days of summer. 

VOMITING. — The causes of vomiting are 
very various — irritation of the stomach itself, 
whatever be its origin, will give rise to ejection 
of its contents ; but vomiting occurs in many 
other maladies. AVhen gall stones or small 
urinary calculi are passing there is usually sick- 
ness and vomiting : in Bright's Disease there is 
vomiting also, and in brain affections among 
children vomiting is an invariable symptom. 

To arrest vomiting, ice, swallowed in lumps 
a little larger than peas, is an excellent remedy. 
Bismuth is good, especially with small doses 
of opium. So, too, are all effervescing drinks. 
In all cases, the quantity of the remedy used 
should be small ; bulky preparations will most 
probably be rejected. 

VOLS-AU-VENT. — These are raised pies, 
made with very light and rich puff paste instead 
of that used for the raised pies, or it may be 
considered as an enlarged and highly ornament- 
ed patty. There is considerable art in making 
and baking these cases, as they are put into 
the oven without their contents, and then filled 
with them afterwards. The paste is made to 



WAFFLES 



565 



line a fluted dish or tin, and baked till it is of I 
a fine light brown ; but few cooks can under- 
stand how to make it without actual demon- 
stration. 

Roll out some of the lightest puff -paste to a half- 
inch of thickness, and with the larger of the tins 




Small Vols-au-Vent. 

cut the number of patties required ; then dip 
the edge of the small shape into hot water, and 
press it about half through them. Bake them 
in a moderately quick oven from ten to twelve 
minutes, and when they are done, with the point 
of a sharp knife, take out the small rounds of 
crust from the tops, and scoop all the crumb 
from the inside of the patties, which may then 
be filled with shrimps, oysters, lobster, chicken, 
pheasant, or any other of the ordinary varie- 
ties of patty meat, prepared with white sauce. 
Fried crumbs may be laid over them instead of 
the cover, or these last can be replaced. 

For sweet dishes, glaze the pastry and fill it 
with rich whipped cream, preserve, or boiled cus- 
tard ; if with the last of these, put it back into 
a very gentle oven until the custards are set. 



A la Cream Vol-au-Vent. — After having 
raised the cover and emptied the vol-ati-vent, 
lay it on a sheet of paper and let it become 
cold. Fill it just before it is sent to table 
with fruit, either boiled down to a rich marma- 
lade or stewed as for the next receipt, and heap 
well flavored, but not too highly sweetened, 
whipped cream over it. The edge of the crust 
may be glazed by sifting sugar over it, when it 
is drawn from the oven, and holding a salaman- 
der or red-hot shovel above it ; or it may be left 
unglazed and ornamented with bright-colored 
fruit jelly. 

Fruit Vol-au-Vent. — After the crust has 
been made and baked as above, fill it at the 
moment of serving with peaches, apricots, 
mogul, or any other richly-flavored plums which 
have been stewed tender in syrup ; lift them 
from this, and keep them hot while it is boiled 
rapidly almost to jelly ; then arrange the fruit 
in the vol-au-vent and pour the syrup over it. 




Moulds for large Vols-au-Vent. 

Skin and divide the apricots and quarter the 
peaches, unless they should be very small. 
(See treatment under Entrees.) 



W. 



"WAFERS.— Take a pound of flour, two 
tablespoonfuls of butter, and a little salt, and 
mix them with milk into a stiff dough ; work 
well, roll out thin, and cut into round cakes, 
and then roll these as thin as they can be 
handled; lay them very carefully into a floured 
baking-pan, and bake in a quick oven. 

Rice Wafers. — Melt a quarter of a pound 
of butter and mix it with a pound of rice-flour, 
a teaspoonful of salt, and a wineglassful of 
wine : beat four eggs and stir in, together with 
just enough cold milk to make the dough roll 
out easily ; it must be rolled out as thin as pos- 
sible, cut with a wineglass into cakes, and 
baked in a moderate oven on buttered flat tins. 

WAFFLES.— The circular waflle-iron, that 
bakes four waflles at once, that turns with the 
mere touch of a fork and that is used on the 
stove or range, has taken the place of the cum- 
brous utensil of former days. 

Scald one quart of milk ; add to it ten ounces 
of butter, and, when lukewarm, mix in a pound 
and a quarter of flour and one gill of home- 
made yeast ; allow six hours for rising. Just 
before baking, beat the yolks and whites, sepa- 



rately, of four eggs — the whites to a stiff froth 
— and stir them in the batter. Grease the irons 
well each time. 

Heat the iron, grease and fill it about two- 
thirds (leaving room for the batter to rise) ; 
when the waffles are brown on the lower side, 
turn the iron; when done, butter and leave 
them in the mouth of the oven until another 
layer is ready, when they should be served 
immediately. They are eaten with powdered 
sugar and cinnamon sifted together. 

Quick "Waffles. — Sift together one pound 
and four ounces of flour, and five even tea- 
spoonfuls of baking pOwder ; add a pint of milk, 
half a teaspoonful of salt, two ounces of sof- 
tened butter, and four eggs; beat until light; 
then add gradually a pint of milk, and bake as 
in the above receipt. , ,, 

Rice Waffles.-Take a teacupful and a half 
of boiled rice, set it over the fire with a pin of 
milk, and mix it smooth ; then take it Irom the 
fire ; and add a pint of cold milk and a tea- 
spoonful of salt ; beat four eggs and stir them 
in, together with enough wheat flour to make 
a thin batter. 



666 



WAIST 



Rice and Corn-meal "Waffles. — To a pint 
of cold boiled rice and half a pint each of 
flour and corn-meal add three beaten eggs, two 
tablespoonfuls of melted butter and enough 
milk to make a soft batter ; add also a teaspoon- 
ful of soda, dissolved in a little hot water, and 
a heaping teaspoonful of salt. Beat the batter 
very smooth. 

WAIST (Dress). — That the reader may 
clearly understand the method of cutting this 
pattern, we shall give the drawing in separate 
portions at first, following the order of the 
measurements (See Cutting and Fitting), 
and afterwards the whole pattern. 

To commence with the fronts : Upon a square 
of strong paper of suitable size draw the ver- 
tical line a b { Fig. i ) ; this represents the line 




Fig. I. 

on which the buttons are placed. Also draw 
the horizontal line^^, intersecting the former 
at the point b ; this represents the waist line. 

Having drawn these preliminary lines, we 
mark the different measurements in the follow- 
ing order : — * 

Length of the Front of the "Waist (HI.). — 
Place one end of the tape measure in the angle 
b, and carry the tape up straight and mark the 
length at a point we will indicate by c. 

Breadth of the Chest (IV.).— Place the 
measure against the line of the front a b at 3. 
point about two-thirds up from the horizontal 
line representing the waist, and carry it to the 
left, marking the half length at the point d (and 
it is to be understood that in speaking of the 
chest measure we refer to the half). 

Length Under the Arm (V.). — Placing the 
measure under the waist at the point z, directly 
under the point d, carry it up straight to ascer- 
tain if the breadth of chest was marked at the 
proper height ; its true place should be a seam's 
distance, a scant half-inch, that is, above the 
top of this line. Then we remove the under- 
arm measure to the left to a distance indicated 
by the fourth of the chest-measure, and mark 
the point e. 

First Height of Shoulder (Vll.).--We 
take the half of this measure, place one end in 
the angle b, and carry it up obliquely to the left 

• For explanation of Roman numerals, See Cutting and 
Fitting. 



in such a manner that from its extremity, y^ one- 
sixth of the neck-measure (XV.), carried in a 
straight line to the right, will touch the line a 
c. The pointy is, however, to be marked half 
an inch further to the left, to make the dress 
easy in the neck. 

Second Height of Shoulder (VIII.).— 
Take half of this measure, place it on the waist 
line at the pointy, above the under-arm meas- 
ure, and carry it straight to the shoulder, mark- 
ing the point e. 

Length of Shoulder (XIV.). — This measure 
is placed obliquely between the points /"and //, 
that is, the first and second heights of shoul- 
der; it serves also to verify the proper distance 
at which should be marked the second height 
of shoulder. Between these points the out- 




rig. 2. 

lines of the waist are drawn thus (Fig. 2) : A 
curved line between the points f g indicates 
the neck; an oblique line between the jjointsy 
^, the length of the shoulder; an oblique line 
from e to d, thence curving to c, gives the arm- 
size ; a straight line from c to the waist, gives 
the line under the arm. 

The pattern being thus outlined, we verify 
the arm size by applying half the measure (IX.), 
and the neck by a third of the measure (XV.). 

In cutting out the paper pattern we go exact- 
ly by the lines drawn, leaving no margins ; but 
in cutting the material for the dress we leave 
on the shoulder two inches margin ; in front, 
under the arms, and at the waist, an inch : 
while the neck and arm-size we cut exactly by 
the pattern. See Fig. 2. 

In cutting, lay the pattern the straight way of 
the cloth, unless specially directed otherwise. 
The lining is to be folded double, the selvages 
coming in front, and the two fronts thus cut 
out at once. After laying the pattern upon the 
lining, trace the outline with chalk or a pencil 
accurately, then, in cutting, make the allowances 
enumerated above. After a little practice, a 
person will dispense with the paper pattern and 
draw from the measurements directly upon the 
lining. After cutting out the two fronts, they 
should be creased in the lines of the pattern 
that the half lying beneath may have the out- 
lines marked, and they should be at once drawn 
with pencil or indicated with a basting thread. 



WAIST 



567 



The waist here described is round, but a 
pointed waist requires only that the material 
necessary to form the point be folded under^ and 
afterwards cut to whatever length is desired. 

In Fig. 2 are represented two little plaits, 
a and b, at the top of the waist, which are 
made in the hning, but not in the outside of 
the waist, for the purpose of giving it a neater 
and more clinging fit at a point where, without 
this precaution, awkward creases are apt to be 
found. The horizontal fold a will take up per- 
haps a third of an inch. This must be made 
first. The vertical plait is smaller (as repre- 
sented in Fig, 2, these plaits appear much 
larger in proportion than they really are). The 
stouter the person the larger these plaits require 
to be, as will be readily seen by experiment, 
but no one can dispense with them entirely. 

The lining being now entirely ready, we ap- 
ply the outside by a basting thread, following 
the outlines of the pattern, and then cut to 
match the size of the lining. 

The Darts.— (Fig 3.) * To make the darts 
where they should be, we take a third of the 
chest-measure, apply one end to the angle 
where the front and waist line meet (exclusive 



e i:i. 




Fig- 3- 



of margins), and mark the point (the dot to 
the left of a) as the base of the first dart. The 
height of the dart falls two inches below the 
arm-size. Now take up the plait, as shown in 
the figure, straight down from the point b on 
the side towards the back, and obliquely to a, 
on the front. Measure again a third of the 
chest-measure from this dart to the outer side 
of the second, and take up the second dart. 
These darts should be nearly of the same 
length ; the one nearer the arm may be a little 
longer ; if the figure to be fitted is very short, 
they must both be somewhat shorter than we 
have here represented them. (See Fig. 7.) 

After the darts are taken up, we verify the 
size of the waist by comparing with the waist 

* The straight lines in this figure are all that we are concerned 
with at present. The dotted lines represent the outlines of a 
basque, which is explained elsewhere. 



measure (VI.), of which it should be one fourth ; 
that is to say, the two fronts and the two 
halves of the back evenly divide the waist 
measure, giving a fourth to each. If, on meas- 
urement, the fronts prove too narrow around 
the waist, we diminish the size of the darts, 
still observing the same proportions. 

In round waists, the darts are made straight, 
as we have shown, but in pointed waists they 
are carried down into the point. 

We now come to the preparation of the back, 
concerning which a preliminary caution should 
be given. Whether we draw the pattern upon 
the lining folded double, or cut by a paper pat- 
tern laid upon it, care must be taken to have 
the fold, and not the selvages, come in the mid- 
dle, so that we shall cut the back out in one 
piece, and not in two. 

In designing the pattern of the back, the 
first step is to draw a vertical line representing 
the middle, and a horizontal line representing 
the waist, as was done in designing the fronts. 

Length of the Back (XII.). — This measure 
is to be marked from a point, c, an inch above 




Fig. 4. 

the waist line, and we will represent its upper 
extremity by the point d. 

Breadth of Back (XIII.). — Place one end of 
the measure about the middle of the back, c d, 
and mark the point e. (This measure should 
be, of course, half the entire breadth.) 

Size of Waist (VI.). — Take one fourth the 
waist-measure, apply one end at the point c, 
and carry it obliquely to the horizontal line, 
making its extremity/^ 

Length under the Arm (V.). — Place one end 
of the measure at the point /J and carry it 
straight up to ascertain if the measure of the 
breadth of the back has been placed at the 
proper height. It should be a half inch above 
the point /. Then, keeping the lower end of 
the measure in its place,/", move the other end 
to the left obliquely as far as the point _^, which 
should be distant from / a space equal to one- 
fourth the breadth of the half back. 

First Height of Shoulder (VII.).— Take 
half the measure, place one end at the point c, 
and carry it up a little obliquely to a point, h^ 



668 



WAIST 



which is fixed by taking one-sixth of the neck 
measure, placing it against the vertical line a b, 
a little above the point d^ and directing it 
towards the left. The point h, however, will be 
removed a scant half-inch farther to the left, 
as was done in the corresponding measure of 
the front. 

Second Height of Shoulder (VIII.).— Take 
half the measure, place one end at a point, k, 
on the horizontal line, carry it straight up to /, 
verifying the position of this point, and conse- 
quently of k, by applying the measure for the 
length of shoulder (XIV.) between h and /. 

These measures being indicated, we draw 
flie outlines from point to point, and we have 
thus the pattern as represented. Fig. 5. 

A pattern may be reduced in size by taking 
each of these measures shorter, the relative 
lengths being unchanged, and the line of the 
middle remaining in the proper place. 

In cutting out the lining for the back, we 
leave an inch margin at the waist and under the 
arms ; the shoulder, as well as the neck and arm 
size, are to be cut on the pattern exactly. The 




Wai/st 



Fig- 5- 

line of the middle of the back is to be laid on 
the fold of the material. It is necessary also 
to take UD a little plait on the edge of the arm 




size, as shown in Fig. 5, to avoid the extra 
fullness which otherwise will be observable. 
We then baste the lining upon the material and 
cut the pattern out to match. 
Forms. — The outside and lining being basted 



together, we draw a line, a b { Fig. 6 ), from 
the middle of the arm size to the waist, curved, 
as shown in the figure ; to match the sides 
exactly, after drawing this line for one side, 
we double the waist together down the back, 
and baste with small stitches one-half the 
back down upon the other, following the line 
of the form already drawn. Then cutting 
the thread between the sides, the stitches will 
remain on the other half, enough to guide in 
drawing the second form. We then fold over 
a little seam, as small as possible, on these 
lines, and stitch it. If desired, the forms can 
be cut out separately from the outside merely, 
and stitched down, and in making a pointed 
waist this method must be employed. 

The fronts and back being thus prepared, 
they are put together in the following way : 
under the arms the seams are made as the pat- 
tern indicates ; on the shoulders, the seam 




Kig. 7. 

should fall further back. (See Fig 7.) To 
this end, we carry the front over as far as the 
wide margin that was left will allow, and of 
course reduce correspondingly the back. 
This gives breadth and elegance to the waist. 

The shoulders and under-arm seams being 
basted together, the waist may be tried on and 
any needful alterations made. But where the 
cutter has even a little experience, it becomes 
almost needless to try on, as, the measures be- 
ing accurately taken, and the seams made on 
the exact lines of the pattern, it is almost im- 
possible to fail. 

We have now to mark the places for the but- 
tons and button-holes. We fold back on the 
inside the extra inch left on the right front and 
cut the button-holes through the doubled outside 
and hning, sometimes cutting away one thick- 
ness of the lining if the material is heavy. The 
buttons are to be put on the left front, just at 
the middle line of the waist, and the inch mar- 
gin will cross under the button-holes, so that 
the white clothing underneath may not be seen 
through them. 

Where hooks and eyes are used instead of 
buttons, the inch margin on the left side is to 
be folded back, then the eyes sewed on at reg- 
ular intervals and a strip of the same material 
as the waist stitched on behind them. The 



WAIST 



569 



hooks are put on to a strip of strong linen, 
which is secured along the inside of the right 
edge, the extra inch having been folded back 
and the holes so far set in that when the dress 
is fastened they will be concealed from sight. 

The waist, being firmly sewed together,should 
be faced, or have a piping cord sewed around 
the neck, arms, and waist, and, if desired, places 
are stitched under the arms, in the darts, and in 
front for whalebones, which should be secured 
at top and bottom. 

Waists with revers (Fig. 8) are cut by leav- 
ing a sufficient quantity of material, a, to fold 
back when the waist is fastened. This is more 



Fig. 8. 

or less, according to the size desired for the 
revers. They may fold back a little distance 
or all the way from the bottom of the waist, 
which then requires a vest or chemisette under- 
neath ; also they may be continued around the 
neck, as indicated by the dotted line in the fig- 
ure, like a man's coat collar. The revers should 
be lined, and usually with silk, either black or 
some color suitable to the color of the dress. 
The revers may be cut on one side only and be 
folded across and button down on the other 
side, usually narrowing to the waist. In this 
case a corresponding row of buttons is usually 
added on the other side. 

Low-necked waists may be cut from the di- 
rections given in this section by making the 
following variations : the length of the middle 
of the waist is decreased, and instead of being 
taken from the base of the neck, is measured 
from whatever point is desired as the height of 
the waist in front ; there is no need of taking 
the first height of the shoulder, nor the meas- 
ure of the neck, nor the length of the shoulder ; 
and there must be more or less curve from the 
shoulder to the middle of the front. In all 
other respects the pattern is the same. 

The sleeve of a plain waist is usually the 
PLAIN COAT SLEEVE, Fig. 9. To draw this 
pattern, we begin with a horizontal line, a b, near 
the top of the paper. On this line we indicate 
half the measure of arm-size, c d. Then place 
the measure of the length of the arm between 
the points </and e, the latter being somewhat 
to the right and requiring the line to be slightly 
curved in its lower third. Draw this line, and 



for the outside draw a line commencing two 

inches above the horizontal line abzt the point 
/, which shall be straight as far as the pointy, 
which indicates the middle of the inner line, d ej 
then curving to correspond with the inner line, 
and being prolonged about an inch beyond it 
to the point h. An oblique line from h to e 
indicates the bottom of the sleeve measured by 
the size of the wrist (XL). For the top there 




Fig. 9- 

are two outlines, as shown in the figure, the 
upper side of the sleeve being longer than the 
under. Frequently the under side of the 
sleeve is also cut narrower from the top of the 
sleeve as far down as the elbow, as shown by 
the line i in the figure. The sleeves, being 
stitched up and finished by a hem or a facing 
at the wrist, are stitched into the dress, bring- 
ing the inner seam of the sleeve at that point 
of the arm-size where the measure of the 
breadth of the chest was placed when the 
waist was cut. 

For the gathered or bishop's sleeve, see the 
Blouse Waist below. 

"Waist (Basque and Basquine). — In pre- 
paring the pattern of a basque waist, we fold 
under a length sufficient for the basque and 
then design a plain waist according to the 
directions given above. This being done, we 
lay the paper open and design the basque 
as follows (See Fig. 5, above ). We prolong 
the line under the arm obliquely to the left, 
allowing an inch of width for every three 
inches of length. Also prolong the line of the 
front to the le'ngth desired for the basque. The 
lining and outside being basted together, the 
dart will be taken up as for the plain waist, but 
they will be carried below the waist line, nar- 
rowing to a point, the first dart being prolonged 
2>^ or 3 in. below the waist, and the second an 
inch less. Also the buttons should go a little 
below the waist. 

The back is represented by Figs.io-ii, which, 
it must be remembered, are the guides for pre- 
paring the paper patterns, and the piecing re- 



570 



WAIST 



quired 'n Fig. 1 1 exists only in the paper. The 
forms, however, must be cut separate, as will 
readily be seen. 

The back is designed as for a plain waist, 
the line a b, Fig. lo, coresponding to the Wn^fc, 
Fig. 5, the paper having been folded under as 
in preparing the front. The waist being out- 
lined, we unfold the paper, and draw an oblique 
line from a, Fig. lo, to correspond with the 



( lengths in its different parts ; it may be cut very 
full in the back and laid in plaits larger or 
smaller ; the seams below the waist may be 
left open and faced and turned over in revers. 

The dasqui?ie is an outside garment made on 
the same pattern as the basque, only prolonging 
the part below the waist to the desired length, 
observing the same proportions. There is also 
a loosely fitting basquine, of which we repre- 




Fig. lo 

front in length but a little more sioped. We then 
draw the line for the form which is prolonged a 
scant inch below the waist line a b, and then 
carried on to the bottom of the basque with a 
slope of an inch width to every three inches of 
length. Thus we give suitable fullness to the 
basque in the back; thus, however, in the pat- 
tern, we cut away the middle of the back below 
the waist, and thus require the piecing shown 
in Fig. II, which being made we finish out the 
back as represented. 
The basque waist,whQn 
cut in the material, is 
then in five pieces, two 
fronts, two forms, and 
the middle of the back, 
and is put together,first 
the forms being basted 
to the back, and then 
the fronts being added, 
beginning all the seams 
fit the arm hole, and if 
seams do not come out 
even, pare off as need- 
ed at the neck and the 
lower edge. It must, 
however, be noticed 
that a little plait is 
taken up around the 
waist on each side, be- 
ginning at the seams 
which unite the forms 
to the back, and carried to the second dart ; 
this prevents wrinkles about the waist. 

The shape of the basque may be varied in 
countless ways. It may be cut of unequal 




Fig. 




sent the front in Fig. 12, the back being still 
made exactly after the pattern represented by 
Figs. 10-12. This front has no darts, but is 
hollowed out a little in the side line a ; and both 
front and back are made from half an inch to 
an inch shorter waisted than the dress-waist. 

The sleeve of the basquine is often the plain 
coat-sleeve (Fig. 9, above); but a more open 
sleeve is at times in fashion, the flowing or 
pagoda sleeve, as it has been called. This 
is made by a very simple variation on the 
coat-sleeve pattern as follows : the sleeve has 
no seam in the back, but the outer edge of the 
pattern comes on the fold of the material, (fre- 
quently \\\t. bias fold); at the top the flowing 
sleeve is exactly the same as the coat-sleeve, 
but from g down it falls straight. This of 
course gives a wide opening to the sleeve which 
is wider in proportion to the length to which the 
outside is prolonged. Also the inside seam 
may be made more oblique, thus widening at 
both sides. 

The loosely fitting basquine is a favorite out- 
side garment for children, who are measured 
for it precisely in the same way as grown per- 
sons are. 

"WAIST (Blouse). — These waists are gath- 
ered or plaited in front or back, or both, and 
for this reason require to be cut larger. They 
are also known a,s French waists, and are par- 



WAIST 



571 



ticularly suitable for children and persons of 
slender figure. 

In designing the fronts we draw first the pat- 
tern of the plain waist. We then take the 
second height of shoulder (viii.)*and remove it, 
on the front, to a position about 5 in. further to 
the left than in the plain waist, and make it top 




Fij. 13- 

and bottom, (Fig. 13.) This increases the 
shoulder-length and makes room for gathers or 
plaits (Fig. 14.) The back is designed after 



Still another waist is made with a yoke (Fig. 
16-17.) This is designed from the pattern of a 




Fig. 14. 
the pattern of the plain waist, only removing the 
line under the arm further to the left at and 
above the waist, retaining it in its place where 
it meets the arm-size. (Fig. 15.) The back, of 
course, requires no forms. 

The lining of this waist follows exactly the 
pattern of the plain waist, the plaits or gathers 
being made only on the outside. 

A second variety of plaited waist is made by 
laying plaits in the material, three large ones 
or five smaller, for front and for back, and then 
cutting it out by the pattern of the plain waist, 
having of course, neither forms nor darts, but 
narrowing it suitably at the waist, according to 
the waist-measure (vi.) taken loosely, by slant- 
ing inwards the seams.under the arms. 

• For explanation of Roman numerals, see Cutting and Fitting. 



1 


'< 


w 


^'^ 



Fig. 15 



plain waist as follows : We draw the shoulder 
and neck and arm size, and the line of the front, 




Fig. 16. 

the extra width of paper or material being at 
the left ; we then draw the horizontal line a b 




across the pattern, crossing the arm-size at 
about the middle, we cut away what is above 
this line for the yoke ; the outline of the rest 
of the arm-size and the under-arm seam re- 
moved as far as desired to the left completes the 
lower part of the waist. We should allow twice 
or thrice the width suitable for a plain waist in 
making these gathered waists. 



572 



WAIST 



WARMING 



The yoke and its lining being put together, 
the lower parts are gathered and sewed in be- 




tween them, and a row of trimming frequently 
conceals the edge of the yoke. All these waists 
are made with a belt, and, especially for children, 
it is suitable to attach the waist to the skirt by 
buttons and button-holes. 

Wrappers are made by a modification of this 
pattern, and also infants' dresses : that is to 
say, the yoke is cut by the plain waist pattern, 
and then the material is gathered on and falls 
to the required length, the waist and skirt being 
one. A drawing-string may be put in to indicate 
the waist, or the garment may be left entirely 
loose, or else confined by a ribbon or a belt. 
The sleeve suited to these waists is the 
gathered sleeve (Figs. 18-19.) 
It is cut from a piece of the 
material folded double, the 
straight way of the cloth in 
all materials that are to be 
washed, although in woollens 
or silk it may be taken bias. 
The upper edge a d\s drawn 
as is that of the plain coat- 
sleeve (Fig. 9, above) ; but 
taking in the whole width of 
the sleeve, which should be 
about twice that of the plain 
sleeve. We determine the 
length by the measure of 
the arm, then cut off corner 
</ from the bottom of the 
inner side and hollow out 
that inner side a little. 

These sleeves are gathered 
or plaited at top and botto m 
to bring them to the size of 
the arm and of the wrist, 
leaving at top and bottom a little space plain, 
about an inch, perhaps. They are then set 
on to a cuff of whatever depth is preferred. 

These sleeves may be varied by putting on 
a binding longer than the wrist measure, and 
made to go over the hand ; or by making them 
with puffs or tucks lengthwise ; or by gathering 




Fig. 19. 



thera at the top only, and cutting them away to 
fit closely at the wrist like the plain coat sleeve. 

WAKEFULNESS. (6"^^ Sleeplessness.) 

WALNUTS. — These excellent nuts, when 
ripe and with the husk off, are round, black, and 
very rough ; the kernel is large, peculiarly sweet 
and agreeable in flavor, and wholesome. They 
are found fresh in the market during the fall, 
but keep many months and improve with age. 
The immature fruit, in the tender green out- 
side shell, before the internal shell becomes 
hard, makes a good pickle. 

WARDIAN CASE.— A close glass case, 
placed upon a trough or pot containing earth 
and accurately fitted to it, intended for the 
growth of plants in the windows of apartments. 
These cases are now made of every size and 
style, from the little bell glass for growing the 
dwarf ferns, to the large structures filling the 
entire end of a roomi. Some of the larger cas- 
es, in fact, are simply hot-houses on a small 
scale, being heated, drained, and ventilated on 
precisely the same principles as the latter. Al- 
most any kind of flowers can be raised in them 
in a perfection unapproached by the ordinary 
methods ; and the finer species of ferns can 
be grown satisfactorily in no other way. As the 
management of Wardian cases depends upon 
the kind of flowers grown in them, it would only 
mislead if we attempted to lay down any general 
rules. The conditions mentioned under each 
flower as conducive to its vigor apply to this as 
well as to ordinary methods of flower-culture. 

WARMING. — The warming of houses by 
artificial means is a subject so complicated with 
that of ventilation that the two must always be 
studied in connection. The combustion of fuel 
in a closed or practically closed place, not only 
generates heat, but has a very important 
effect upon the quality of the air breathed. A 
room so cold that the body is constantly 
parting with its heat is of course highly injuri- 
ous to health ; but, on the other hand, the room 
may be warmed under such conditions as will 
render its atmosphere even destructive to life. 
The reason of this is that the process of com- 
bustion not only generates certain noxious 
gases which must be drawn off as rapidly as 
they are produced, but consumes the oxygen 
of the air in large quantities ; and as we have 
explained in the articles on Air and Ventila- 
tion, oxygen in a certain definite proportion is 
necessary not only to the preservation of health, 
but to the support of life itself. The effect 
therefore of any special device for heating up- 
on the air itself is a most important point to 
be considered not only in reference to warming 
but also to ventilation. 

Instead of discussing here in general terms 
the theory of heat, we shall consider its practi- 
cal applications to the various modes of warm- 
ing and the apparatus employed therefor. 
These are : ist, open fires; 2nd, grates ; 3rd, 
open stoves ; 4th closed stoves ; 5th, hot-air fur- 
naces ; 6th, hot-water pipes ; and 7th, gas stoves. 

Open or vrood fires. — Warming by an 
open fire, whether by wood or coal, is near- 



WARMING 



573 



est to the mode of Nature. The sun heats the 
earth by direct radiation, and the air next the 
earth is heated by convection ; in the same 
way an open fire warms the person, the walls, 
the floors, the furniture, by radiation, and these, 
together with the fire, warm the air by con- 
vection. Thus in a room with an open fire 
we are warjned by direct radiation from the fire 
itself, and it is important to note that under these 
conditions the feeling of warmth is produced 
with a much lower temperature of the air in 
the room than is necessary where radiant heat 
is not used. The principal objections to the 
open fire are the large consumption of fuel 
in proportion to the effect produced, and the 
difficulty of warming a room effectually and 
equally. Count Rumford estimated that in the 
ordinary fire-place fourteen-fifteenths of all the 
heat generated ascends the chimney and is lost. 
In this estimate sufficient allowance was not 
made for direct radiation, but it is probable 
that even in the best constructed modern fire- 




Fire Place with Hot Air Flues. 

place, from a third to one half of all the heat 
is thus wasted. The open fire-place is greatly 
improved in economy of heating power by so 
constructing it that it may supply a current of 



partially warmed fresh air to the room. This 
is done in various ways : as by setting up u 
soap-stone fire-place within the ordinary one, 
leaving a vacant space between them, into which 
fresh cold air is admitted from without, and after 
being warmed is thrown into the room through 
an opening or register above. This is an ex- 
cellent plan for introducing the needed supply 
of fresh air without subjecting the occupants 
of the room to unpleasant draughts, but if a 
flue is made of some gas tight material, and 
carried through a chimney duly enlarged to re- 
ceive it, the lower extremity communicating 
with the external air, (and not with your neigh- 
bor's parlor) and the upper with the room, the 
result will prove to be nearly as effective. (See 
cut.) In reference to the unequal heating at 
different distances from the fire, it is to be ob- 
served that heat is radiated in straight lines 
and as it gets farther from its source it is dis- 
tributed over a much larger space and decreases 
rapidly in intensity of heating power ; near the 
fire the heat mi.y be intense, while the angles 
of the room mav be but little affected. There is 
a semicircular line round the fire-place in which 
persons must sit in order to be comfortable, 
Avithin which line they are too hot, and beyond 
which they are too cold. Of course the body 
receives the excess of heat only upon one side 
at once. More serious causes of objection to 
the open fire are the cold draughts produced 
by the air rushing in through the crevices of 
the doors and windows, and playing upon the 
backs of those who may be sitting around the 
fire ; or forming a cold bath several inches in 
depth on the floor, in which their feet are con- 
stantly immersed. None of these circumstan- 
ces, however, prevent the open fire from being 
the healthiest and best mode of warming a 
house Avhere fuel is cheap or expense is not 
an obstacle. 

In carrying up the flue of a chimney designed 
for open fires, all sharp angles are to be avoid- 
ed ; but it is on the other hand undesirable to 
have a perfectly straight tube, which allows the 
rain to fall directly upon the fire, and permits 
the wind to pass downwards without obstruction. 

Franklin Stove. — This is a heating appara- 
tus, invented by Dr. Franklin, which offers 
one of the best methods of managing an open 
fire. It is made of cast iron, is set up within 
the room, and the hot air and smoke from the 
fuel, instead of escaping from the fire directly 
up the chimney, are made to traverse a small 
and circuitous smoke-flue which gives out its 
heat like a stove-pipe. At the same time air 
from out of doors is introduced through air- 
passages which surround and intersect the 
smoke-flue, and, after being warmed, is dis- 
charged into the room through proper open- 
ings. This apparatus warms not only by radia- 
tion from the burning fuel like an open fire, 
but also by radiation from the hot iron ; more- 
over, the air of the room is heated by contact 
with the metallic plates, and there is still an- 
other source of warmth in the heated air intro- 
duced as above described. The Franklin stove 



574 



WARMING 



is not a stove in the ordinary sense of the 
word, and was called by Franklin himself the 
Pennsylvania fi7'e-placc. 

Grates. — The grate, being simply an open 
fire in which coal is burned instead of wood, 
has all the advantages and disadvantages that 
we have mentioned as pertaining to this method 
of warming. Coal, however, contains more 
combustible matter in the same space than 
wood, and produces a more intense heat, and 
consequently a much smaller fire-place answers 
for it, and a very narrow throat in the chimney 
serves to carry off the smoke. The coal-grate 
is a more economical apparatus for warming 
than the wood fire-place, chiefly because the 
current of air which enters the flue is much 
smaller. In the wood fire-place a copious 
stream of warm air passes up the chimney, 
which takes no part in combustion but carries 
off much heat, the place of the escaping warm 
air being supplied by cold air from without. 
For information as to the selection, construc- 
tion, and management of grates, see Grate. 

Arnott's Smokeless Grate — is a new in- 
vention which claims to possess the following 
advantages: ist. There is entire absence of 
smoke ; 2nd. From the carbon being all united 
with the oxygen, a great saving of fuel is effec- 
ted ; 3rd. It will burn twelve hours by merely 
applying the poker; and 4th. It is never ob- 
scured, like the ordinary grate, by throwing on 
fresh coals. The bottom of the grate is a 
movable piston which may be made to fall a 
considerable distance below the lower bar. In 
using, a large charge of coals is introduced, 
which rests upon the piston and fills the grate. 
The coal is lighted at the top, so that the heat 
passes downward and consumes the smoke as 
it is formed below. As the coal wastes away 
at the top, the piston may be raised by the 
poker used as a bar, and thus fresh coal is 
supplied to the ^x^froin beneath. When the 
first charge is consumed and the piston is 
raised to the bottom of the grate, a broad flat 
shovel is pushed in upon the piston to support 
the burning coals temporarily ; the piston is 
then let down to the bottom of the box and a 
new charge of coal shot in. This arrangement 
is valuable for abating the smoke nuisance 
when bituminous coal is used ; but it is difficult 
to make anthracite burn in it. 

Open Stoves. — These are intended to radi- 
ate heat without any loss either by contact with 
the walls or by draught up the chimney. They 
consist of an iron chamber, having bars below 
and in front for admitting the air necessary for 
combustion; the smoke and gases are allowed 
to escape by means of a small flue issuing from 
the back and passing horizontally into the 
chimney. This flue is the only point of contact 
with any part but the floor, and as the heat 
does not descend to any appreciable extent, it 
is the sole conductor, and is, therefore, made 
so small as to prevent the escape of more heat 
than is of necessity carried off in the smoke. 
A stove is now constructed on this principle, 
in which the flue is made to ascend and then 



descend by the back of the stove, until it passes 
out either below the floor or a very little above 
it, and in the transit allows a still greater 
amount of the heat carried into the flue to 
escape into the apartment. This stove may 
be made if preferred with earthern or soap 
stone sides dividing it from the lateral chambers, 
and is excellently adapted for churches, public 
halls, large shops, etc. Even for ordinary 
sitting-rooms it is better adapted than any of 
the closed stoves. It presents a moderately 
cheerful fire, especially if wood be burned in it. 
It is exceedingly economical, and it may be 
made as ornamental as any other kind of warm- 
ing apparatus. 

Closed Stoves. — Closed stoves are intended 
to afford heat by warming the air in contact 
with them but without any direct radiation of 
heat from the fuel itself. In all of them wood, 
coal, or coke is used in an iron or earthern 
chamber with a closed door, and the results of 
their combustion are led into the chimney after 
being so obstructed in the flue as to allow time 
for most of the heat to be imparted to the 
surrounding air. Great numbers of these stoves 
have been invented, with all sorts of forms, all 
however being modifications of the same prin- 
ciple. Dr. Arnott attempted to improve upon 
it by inserting a chamber of fire-brick within 
the outer iron case, and carrying off the heated 
gases by means of a flue in the ordinary way. 
At the same time he attempted to modify 
the introduction of air by means of the expans- 
ion and contraction of a metal bar which opens 
and shuts an air-valve (thus rendering the stove 
self-regulating) ; but in practice his stove has 
not answered the expectations which were 
formed of it. It is much more difficult than 
the ordinary stove to light and keep in, and is 
constantly requiring attention. 

The most important points to be arrived at 
in the construction and management of stoves 
?iX^, first, ready contrivances for regulating the 
draught ; second, accurate fittings in the join- 
ings, doors, dampers, and valves, to prevent 
the leakage of foul gases into the room ; third, 
enclosure of the fire-box with slow conductors, 
as fire-brick or soap-stone ; fojirth, a high tem- 
perature produced by the rapid and perfect 
combustion of fuel ; ?ind fifth, to bring all the 
heated products of the combustion in contact 
with the largest possible absorbing and radiat- 
ing metallic surface, so that the iron in contact 
with the air may not be overheated, but give out 
its warmth at a low temperature. The cooler the 
surface of the stove, or the nearer it is to the 
temperature of the room, the more agreeable 
and salubrious will be its influence ; ajid, there- 
fore, large stoves, moderately heated, are most 
desirable. When the stove is very hot, the air 
of the room is parched and rendered unfit for 
breathing. 

Elbow foints in a stove-pipe make the 
same length of pipe much more efficacious in 
warming a room than it would be if straight. 
The cause of this is that the heated air, in 
making abrupt turns, strikes against the sides 



WARMING 



575 



of the pipe with sufficient force to break up its 
previous arrangement and so mingle it that the 
hotter air from the interior of the current is 
brought more into contact with the sides of 
the pipe, and thus more heat is thrown off. It 
also checks the rapidity of the current. As 
radiation is much slower at low temperatures 
than at high ones, the pipe, as it recedes from 
the stove, becomes rapidly less and less useful 
as a means of diffusing heat into the apartment. 
On this account little is gained by greatly 
lengthening the pipe. 

Hot Air Apparatus. — Warming by hot air 
has lately come into very general use, especially 
in cities. In this case, the heater is not located 
in the rooms to be warmed ; the hot air being 
conveyed to them through flues. The most 
common apparatus for this purpose is a hot air 
furnace, located in the cellar or basement, 
the air being introduced into a chamber that 
surmounts the heater and after being heated 
to the required temperature by contact with 
the hot iron escaping upwards through tin tubes 
which distribute it and entering the rooms 
through registers. This method of warming 
has undoubtedly commended itself to public 
attention mainly by its economy of space and 
by its superior cleanliness, the heating appara- 
tus being excluded from the occupied apart- 
ments ; the fuel is also consumed more com- 
pletely and with greater economy in a single 
furnace than in several stoves or grates. It 
has the advantage of being capable of supplying 
a great variation of temperature. In mild weather 
the iire may be barely kept alight and the 
change in the temperature of the inflowing air 
may be very slight. In severe cold weather 
on the other hand the fire may be driven so 
that the iron can be heated to a very high tem- 
perature the influence on the air being corres- 
pondingly great. 

A serious disadvantage lies in the fact that 
when the air is introduced into the room at a 
very high temperature, it streams at once to 
the ceiling, without imparting its heat to sur- 
rounding objects, and only descends when 
displaced by the fresh accessions of still hotter 
air. The result of this is that the air of the 
room is arranged in longitudinal layers the 
temperatures of which decrease from above 
downwards, so that the feet, which ought to 
be warmest, are in the coldest layer, while the 
head, which should be cool, is in an atmosphere 
several degrees warmer. Anything more un- 
healthy than this could scarcely be devised. It 
may be partially obviated by setting the register 
as low down as possible in the wall, and cover- 
ing it with a hood which will shoot the hot air 
out horizontally. A register should never be 
set in the floor, as it not only collects dirt, but 
shoots the hot air directly towards the ceiling. 

But the greatest objection to hot air furnaces 
and indeed all air-heating devices is, the exces- 
sive dryness of heat which they generate. 
Being used only in winter, they receive outside 
air at a low temperature holding little moisture ; 
and, by heating it, greatly increase its demand 



for moisture. This it sucks up like a sponge 
from the walls and furniture of the house. If 
it be taken into the human lungs, it draws much 
of its required moisture from the body, often 
causing dryness of lips and throat, and affect- 
ing the lungs themselves most injuriously. Pro- 
fessor Brewer, of the Yale Scientific School, 
who has experimented extensively on this subject 
states that, while forty per cent of moisture is 
needed in air to make it healthful, the greater 
number of furnaces do not, by any contriv- 
ances, supply one half of this. He says that 
most furnace-heated air is dryer than is ever 
breathed in the hottest deserts of Sahara. 
How, then, may the furnace be used most bene- 
ficially and economically? The bad effect of 
the furnace — its dry irritating heat — is the 
result almost invariably of highly concentrated 
heat. The desire for economy has tended to 
the introduction of a comparatively small fire- 
box into the air-chamber, and consequently this 
fire-box must be kept at a very high tempera- 
ture, if it is to be depended on to warm the 
house in severe weather. Now, as we have 
already explained, health and comfort are 
secured by heat of a low temperature given 
out from a large surface. It is better to heat 
air by fifty feet of surface at one hundred and 
twenty degrees than by twenty-five feet of sur- 
face at two hundred and forty degrees. This 
desirable end may be attained by greatly en- 
larging the fire-chamber, and still further by 
suspending in the air-chamber a quantity of 
sheet iron so as to divide the space between 
the heater and outer wall into a number of 
separate columns. These sheets of metal 
absorb the radiant heat and then part by con- 
vection with the heat thus obtained to the in- 
flowing current of air. It will be observed that 
both sides of the metal sheets above described 
become air heaters. Double the surface of the 
fire drum may be advantageously used in this 
way and then four times flie quantity of heat- 
ing surface is added. Great advantages may 
be gained by suspending near the top of the 
fire chamber and directly over the fire a large 
mass of non-conducting material such as fire- 
brick, which becomes highly heated and radi- 
ates back on to the fire forming one of the best 
of gas consumers. This also retains its heat 
and gives it out gently after the coal is con- 
sumed. The heat from this mass also assists 
greatly in the rapid kindling of the fire when 
fresh coal is put on. 

The advantage of any such improvement as 
that above described is that greater heating 
surface is secured at a lower temperature, and 
a pleasanter, healthier heat is produced ; and a 
smaller quantity of fuel will be consumed in 
the production of the desired effect. To pro- 
vide the needed moisture for the heated air it 
is desirable that the evaporation should be 
from a large surface at a low temperature rather 
than from a small surface at a high tempera- 
ture. This may be obtained by placing a 
broad, shallow iron tank, such as is used in 
kitchen sinks, near the top of the hot air cham- 



576 



WARMING 



ber. From this no steam will rise, but there 
will go up a constant, almost imperceptible 
vapor, which will diffuse itself insensibly 
through the house, and render the air soft and 
pleasant. Gentle as the evaporation is from 
this broad surface, it will be found to consume, 
in a medium sized furnace, six gallons of water 
daily. By the use of these simple contrivances 
the most objectionable qualities of furnace-heat 
may be almost entirely removed. It follows too, 
other things being even, that the furnaces with 
the greatest radiating surface connected with 
the fire-box and making a passage for the 
smoke etc., are the best. The trouble is to 
get them without obstructing the draft. 

Hot-Water Pipes. — These are now exten- 
sively employed in heating public buildings and 
the halls, corridors, etc., of large houses; but 
they are scarcely suited to smaller establish- 
ments, partly on account of the prime cost, 
which is considerable, and partly from the 
trouble and expense attending their use. The 
principle on which they act is the tendency hot 
water has to rise and displace that which is of 
a lower temperature. Carrying out this well 
known law, the designer of any hot water ap- 
paratus constructs a boiler of the proper shape 
and size, and connects with it two pipes vary- 
ing from lyi inches to 4 inches in diameter, 
taking care that one (the flow-pipe) is attached 
to the highest point of the boiler and the- 
other (the return-pipe) to the lowest. These 
pipes are then carried wherever heat is 
desired, or to air-heating chambers in the cellar, 
always keeping the flow above the return-pipe, 
and connecting them together at the extreme 
end of their course. Here an air-pipe should 
be introduced, which need not be more than 
half an inch in diameter, and which is simply 
to allow air bubbles to pass out so that water 
may always completely fill the pipe. The boiler 
is supplied by connecting a cistern or reservoir 
somewhat above the level of the highest pipe 
with any part of the return-pipe by means of a 
half inch pipe. This connection should be made 
at a distance from the boiler, or there will be 
a waste of heat, which in a badly-constructed 
apparatus is very considerable. 

It is necessary that, as far as possible, the 
pipes should be isolated from the walls, to pre- 
vent loss of heat by conduction ; but there 
must, of course, be supports and attachments 
for them to some slight extent, and these 
should be non-conductors. 

More detailed hints regarding various kinds 
of furnaces and hot-water apparatus can better 
be obtained from those who put them up. The 
general principles laid down in this article 
will enable the reader to judge the facts present- 
ed by dealers. 

Gas Stoves. — These have lately been in- 
troduced as a means of warming, and great 
claims are made for them on the score of econ- 
omy. A great variety of forms are offered, but 
all of them are essentially the same in principle, 
the gas being simply burnt in an iron chamber, 
and the results being either suffered to escape 



I into the room, or else carried off in the ordinary 
way by a flue. To the former mode there are 
great objections, inasmuch as the products of 
combustion are injurious if respired. They 
may be carried off by a small tube arranged for 
the purpose, if care is taken to protect it in 
passing near combustible material from danger 
by fire. Under ordinary conditions, however, 
the gas stove, as a means of heating a room, 
is both dangerous and unhealthy ; and its 
economy is doubtful, as gas costs at least 
ten times as much as coal to produce the 
same amount of heat, and the positions are 
therefore rare in which the additional con- 
venience in the use ot gas will overcome this 
great difference in cost. (See Air and Venti- 
lation.) 

Heat Governor. — (The editor inserts this arti- 
cle on his own responsibility. He has tried the 
invention on two furnaces — a large one and a 
small portable one— in his own house, with en- 
tire satisfaction as regards the large one, and 
only such difficulties with the small one, on 
which the governor has just been placed, as he 
thinks experience will surmount. He has 
brought it to Mr. Leeds' attention, but not long 
enough before the book goes to press to enable 
Mr. Leeds to endorse it from a personal trial.) 
Probably everybody using a furnace in our vari- 
able climate has been more than once tempted 
to turn it out of doors on account of its keeping 
the house too hot in warm weather and not 
warm enough in cool weather. This trouble is 
especially great when a change of weather 
occurs at night, when it is impracticable to reg- 
ulate the fire. 

To obviate these difficulties, many self-regu- 
lating apparatuses have been devised. The 
editor knows of four. One of them closes the 
smoke-pipe when it gets hot, thus driving back 
smoke and gas into the house, and, perhaps, 
lessening the heat at the very time it is needed 
on a cold day. Another opens a hole on the 
side of the smoke-pipe, being a sort of auto- 
matic " Boston damper ;" this it may do at the 
very time great heat is needed. The third is 
open to the same objection, as it closes the draft 
at the ash-pan whenever the hot-air chamber 
is very warm. The fourth is Tittgley's Attio- 
inaiic Heat Governor, which has the merits of 
all the others without any of their faults. We 
append a description. (See Figures on next 
two pages.) 

The cylinder A, in the hot-air chamber over 
the fire-pot, and the cylinder B, in the cold-air 
flue , communicate by an air-pipe, D, with an 
air-chamber M, the bottom of which is an india- 
rubber diaphragm (C). Now these two cylin- 
ders A and B, the pipes D, and the portion of 
the chamber over the diaphragm C are virtu- 
ally one close reservoir filled with air. When 
this air expands, its only way of getting room 
is by pushing down the diaphragm C. When 
it contracts, the outer air will push up the 
diaphragm; i is a rod connecting this dia- 
phragm with the lever I. J is a rod connecting 
the lever with the damper F, which opens and 



WARMING 



577 



shuts the draft-pipe H, through which passes 
all the draft that causes the fire to burn, enter- 
ing- the ash-pit back of the draft door. Now 
when fire is kindled in the furnace, and heat 
raised to excess in the hot-air chamber, it 
will expand the air in cylinder A, forcing it 
through pipe D, enlarging the bulk of air in 
chamber M, depressing the diaphragm C, and 
causing the rod i to tip the lever I, throwing up 
the end N, causing the rod J to close the draft 
damper F. 

The cold-air cylinder B operates to cool the 
air passing through D, so that on a cool day the 
heat in the cylinder A will not close the damper 
as readily as on a warm day, and vice versa. 

So much for regulation of the 
supply of air to the fire. In addi- 
tion to this there is the equivalent 
of the so-called " Boston clamper " 
in the smoke-pipe. The " Boston 
damper" is an old-fashioned ar- 
rangement regulated by hand for 
opening a hole in the smoke-pipe, 
thus causing it to draw through 
the outer air instead of through 
the fire-pot, and so lessening com- 
bustion — a vast improvement on 
the old plan of lessening combus- 
tion by shutting off the smoke-pipe 
with a choke damper and so re- 
taining smoke and gases. Now, 
Tingley's governor has an addi- 
tional pipe, W, going right into' the 
smoke-pipe. When the damper 
F is closed, so as to lessen com- 
bustion, the damper R in this ad- 
ditional pipe is opened, which is 
an additional agency in lessening 
combustion, and when F is opened 
R is shut. 

K is a weight sliding on the 
lever N, making it harder to close 
the drafts if it is slid toward N, 
and easier if slid in the opposite 
direction. 

The proprietors claim for this 
invention that : 

1. The smoke-pipe is left open, 
unobstructed by dampers, giving 

free passage at all times to all smoke and pois- 
onous gases. 

2. The aimosphere is itself the agent to 
open and close the draft valve to the fire, 
Thus when the fire becomes low the air- 
vessel (A) in the hot-air chamber, cools and 
causes the draft-valve (F) to open, and the 
fire then kindles, and the heat increases in 
the hot-air chamber, causing the valve to 
close as before. So, too, the temperature of 
the atmosphere outside of the building acts 
upon the air-vessel (B) in the cold-air box, 
making the draft-valve less sensitive to the 
heat in cold weather, and more sensitive in 
warm weather. 

3. The amou7it of heat produced luill be in 
exact proportion to the detnafid for hot air in 
the rooms above. Thus, if the registers are 



partially closed, the hot air is kept back in the 
hot-air chamber, it acts upon the hot-air ves- 
sel (A), causing the draft-valve (F) to close, 
thus checking the fire and reducing the amount 
of heat obtained. The fire in the furnace is 
regulated without going into the cellar. An 
even temperature is always obtained in the 
rooms warmed, irrespective of the state of the 
external atmosphere, and it is impossible to 
get an intense heat in the hot-air chamber 
when the registers are all closed. 

4. The co7istimption of fuel will always be 
governed by the amou7it of heat required. If 
the weather is warm, the self-acting "gover- 
nor " closes the draft, checks the combustion, 




Fig. I. — Sectional View of Governor. 

and saves the fuel. Without the "governor'' 
it is very difficult and practically impossible to 
regulate the draft so as to prevent a great waste 
of fuel, anfl an overheating of the house when 
the weather is mild. 

5. Though the "governor" is self-acting 
and regulated by the temperature of the 
atmosphere, the draft valve can be closed or 
opened by the weight (K). By moving the 
weight to the right or left, as the case may be, 
more or less heat will be obtained. 

6. By the use of the self-acting "governor" 
there will always be a strong atmospheric 
pressure inwards into the fire-pot. Thus, 
the smoke-pipe being always open, the escape 
of smoke and gases into the hot-air chamber 
is impossible, however loose the joints of the 
fire-pot may be, and however defective may be 



578 



WARMING-PAN 



WASHING 



the castings. The combustion is regulated 
upon the air-tight principle, the lower door of 
the furnace being air-tight, and just air enough 
being admitted through the draft-pipe (H) tor 
the purposes of combustion, while perforations 
in the upper door admit sufficient oxygen to 
consume the gases and carry them off through 
the smoke-pipe. 

7. The amount of heat being always regu- 
lated by the atmosphere or by the weight 
(K), the heat can never exceed the point 



focating fumes, A superior warming-pan is 
filled with boiling water, which is equally effec- 
tive and perfectly sate from all these accidents. 
Better than either is the Hot-Water Bag, 
which See. 

WARTS. — The most common warts are those 
on the hands and tingers, or sometimes on the 
face, and more rarely on other parts of the body; 
they chiefly affect young persons. A somewhat 
scarce variety occurs upon the scalp occasion- 
ally, and almost invariably in women after adult 
age, though it has been met with 
in males ; from its location and 
form, it gives great pain and in- 
convenience in brushing the hair. 
A third variety is occasionally met 
with beneath or at the side of the 
linger or toe-nails ; these originate 
beneath the skin and protrude be- 
yond the free margin ot the nail, 
and are generally very painful and 
troublesome. 

Treatment. — The best method 
of destroying the common warts, 
such as occur on the hands and 
scalp, is to apply the glacial acetic 
acid, which may be either dropped 
upon them or painted thickly over 
them with a brush, care being 
taken to apply a little oil or gly- 
cerine to the skin surrounding the 
wart so as to avoid blistering it. 
Lunar caustic, tincture of the per- 
chloride of iron, a drop ot pure 
nitric acid, or the acid nitrate of 
mercury, are all good and fre- 
quently efficient remedies. The 
scalp warts may generally be re- 
moved by tying a piece of silk or 
thin silver wire tightly around 
their bases, and allowing them to 
drop off. In the case of rapidly- 
growing warts, and of those which 
are evidently degenerating in their 
appearance, excision of the wart 
and of the integument from which 
it grows is the best treatment. 
-V WASHING. — A wash-board 
land wringer are indispensable. A 
" pounding-barrel " is necessary 

Fig. 2. — Section of Furnace, with Governor attached, showing the atmospheric only where the clotheS are Verv 
pressure inwards to the Fire-pot when the Heat Governor is applied. • K^fll^^. cQJlpfl Tf jc n stroncr Cask 

.Hot-Air Vessel. F .. .Draft Valve. three feet high, with a diameter 




A... 

B Cold-Air vessel. 

C. . . .Diaphragm. 



Joints of the Fire-box 
.Draft Pipe. 



fixed Upon, no superfluous heat can be gener- 
ated, no fuel can be wasted, and no danger of 
fire froin att overheated ficr^iace is possible. 

These claims all appear reasonable. The 
editor's experience does not contradict any of 
them ; though it is possible that longer ex- 
perience may. 

WARMING-PAN. — The common warming- 
pan for beds is filled with live coals, and in- 
dependently of the danger of scorching the 
sheets, or even setting fire to the bed, it re- 
quires care not to leave some smoke and sut- 



of about twenty-six inches at 
the bottom and eighteen inches 
at the top. With this should go the 
" pounder " or mallet of hard wood, ten inches 
long and six and a half inches in diameter, 
with a stout ash or hickory handle. Assort 
the clothes the night before washing, taking 
out the colored clothes and flannels, neither 
of which are to be boiled ; put the collars 
by themselves, also the handkerchiefs and 
the stockings, napkins, and tablecloths. Put 
all the cotton and linen cloths in warm suds 
and leave them to soak over night. In the 
morning begin the washing in a tub one-third 



WASHING 



WATCH 



579 



full of hot suds ; as the water requires changing, 
pour it off and add clean hot suds. Wash the 
finest articles first, rubbing the most delicate 
with the hands only ; as they are washed, wrung 
and shaken out, put them in an old pillow case 
to be boiled. Rub the other clothes on the 
board, paying special attention to the hems 
and seams, and if, after wringing, there are still 
any streaks, rub a little soap on them. Pour 
a pailful or two of clear cold suds in the boiler 
(of soft soap, a large spoonful is enough for a 
small boiler), lay in the clothes and cover them 
with cold water ; keep them pressed down with 
a stick ; they must not be crowded nor must 
the boiler be so full as to boil over. Instead 
of boiling, some prefer soaping the clothes after 
wasliing, then pouring boiling water over them 
and allowing them to stand until cool. When 
they have boiled from two to ten minutes (as 
they are more or less soiled) slightly wring 
them, or take them out to drain into a coarse 
basket placed on sticks across a tub ; then rinse 
them in clean, cold water, looking carefully for 
streaks, none of which should be allowed to 
remain ; then wring the clothes, open and throw 
them into another clean, cold water in which 
the "blue-bag" has been squeezed two or three 
times, and the blueing equally diffused; rinse 
at once, wrii^g very dry, shake out, and hang 
them in the open air. Should the weather be 
rainy, leave them in the rinsing water, luithoiit 
the blueing, until a fair day. Do not put them 
out in severe frost and wind. A still frosty 
night whitens, and does not injure them. 

Blankets. {See Woollen Goods, below.) 

Blueing. — The "ultramarine wash-blue" 
which comes in little balls, is greatly prized. 
Use it in a bag of strong cotton five inches deep 
and three wide. Tie a string very tight around 
the neck of the bag. Always use ball blue for 
fine goods. Bottle blue is just as good, though, 
for sheets, ordinary underclothes, etc. 

Chemicals of any strength, used to remove 
stains, have some effect in weakening the tex- 
ture. 

Counterpane. {See Counterpane.) 

Doubtful Colors. — Dissolve a pint of salt in 
two quarts of boiling water, put the dress in it 
while hot and let it lie several hours, then wring 
it dry and wash as usual in clean warm suds, 
of hard soap ; rinse in two clean waters, wring 
dry, starch and hang in the shade, so arranged 
that it will dry quickly. In case of rain, leave it 
in second rinsing water with half a pint of salt 
to a gallon. It should not be sprinkled until the 
day it is ironed. 

Flannel. {See Woollen Goods below, and 
article on Flannel.) 

Ironing. — For shirts, use a board eight inches 
wide and eighteen long. It should have enough 
thicknesses of flannel on one side neatly 
tacked on the edge, to give it a soft surface, and 
over both sides a thickness of cot*:on sewed on 
firm and smooth. After ironing the entire '&\\\xi, 
pass a cloth wrung from clean cold water over 
the bosom, and use the "polishing iron," ex- 
pending as much force as possible to produce a 



beautiful surface. In ironing sheets, pillow- 
cases, towels,tabIecloths and napkins, fold them 
twice lengthwise, then twice across. Iron every- 
thing until perfectly dry, to give it a gloss, and 
to prevent its becoming rough while airing. 

For pressing small articles not sent to the 
wash, there is a small gas iron, which can be 
used as well over a lamp-burner, useful for sum- 
mer or boarding houses. The flame burns inside. 

Lace. — Fine lace should not be ironed, but 
when damp, pressed by the hand and shaped 
by the nails into the smoothness required, over 
the knee on a towel. Coffee is used to give laces 
the prized creamy tint. {See Lace.) 

Quilt. {See article on Counterpane.) 

Soap. {See Soap.) A cold water soap has 
of late years been found very useful for ladies' 
use, when hot water is not handy. Ribbons, 
laces, ruffles and any slightly soiled article can 
be washed with it. 

Starching. — Mix three tablespoonfuls of 
dry starch to a cream with cold water, and 
stir it fast into a quart of boihng water; boil 
five minutes ; when the hand can be borne in 
it, dip the collars, shirt bosoms and cuffs, rub- 
bing the starch thoroughly in ; fold the collars, 
if separate, in a clean towel; fold a shirt 
lengthwise, bringing the two sides of the 
bosom together, with the wristbands placed 
between ; this keeps the starch from the rest 
of the shirt; then roll it very tight; sprinkling 
a little water on the flaps. Petticoats require 
much thinner starch. Sprinkle and fold all the 
linen and cotton clothes at night, to be ironed 
the next day; pack them closely in the basket, 
cover with a damp cloth next them and a dry 
one outside. Clothes sprinkled with hot water 
may be ironed in from one to two hours after 
the sprinkling. {See Starch.) 

Woollen Goods. — For blankets, make suds 
of very hot water and brown laundry soap. First 
put blankets in and stir with a pole until the 
water is cool enough to put the hands in. Wash 
thoroughly with the hands. Then rinse in hot 
water, wring well, shake thoroughly, and hang 
to dry in a sunshiny, warm, open air or a laun- 
dry. When not quite dry, iron. Heavy fine 
blankets, it is really cheaper to send to a pro- 
fessional cleaner, especially as, with careful use, 
blankets need not be cleaned more than once 
in two years. Never rub soap on woollen goods 
of any sort. Sudden chills shrink and harden 
the materials. A little blueing may be added. 
Shawls, knit and worsted materials, may be 
washed in the same way. Do not stretch too 
much by wringing or pulling. 

{See Cleaning, Soap, Stains, Starch.) 

WATCH, (Care of). — Wind your watch 
as nearly as possible at the same hour every 
day. Be careful that the key is in good condi- 
tion, as there is much danger of injuring the 
machinery when the key is worn or cracked ; 
there are more main-springs and chains broken 
through a jerk in winding than from any other 
cause. As all metals contract by cold and ex- 
pand by heat, it is desirable to keep the 
watch as nearly as possible at one temperature. 



580 



WATER 



Never lay it on marble. Keep the watch as 
nearly as possible in one position — that is if 
it hangs by day, let it hang by night, against 
something soft. The hands of a chro- 
nometer or duplex watch should never be set 
backwards — in other watches this is of no con- 
sequence. The glass should never be opened 
in watches that set and regulate at the back. 
You cannot move the regulator too slightly or 
too gently. Be careful to keep the watch- 
pocket free from dust. 

WATER. — The innumerable uses to which 
water is put in the household, and the profound 
influence which it has upon health and comfort, 
render it of such importance that, as we have 
said in the article on Houses, the condition of 
the water supply and the character of the water 
itself should be the first thing to engage the 
attention in selecting or locating a home. 
Water is the most important of all foods, 
whether liquid or solid, and is taken into the 
body to the amount of several pints daily. It 
constitutes almost 87 per cent, of the entire 
bulk of the body. The quality of the water of 
which so large a quantity is required is a matter 
of the first importance to every household. 

Absolutely pure water consists only of oxy- 
gen and hydrogen, but such an article does not 
exist in nature. The nearest approach to pure 
water is the distilled water produced by chem- 
ists, but even this is not absolutely pure, and 
it begins to absorb gases the moment it is 
exposed to the air. The best natural waters 
contain salts of lime, ammonia, magnesia, 
carbonic acid, and other substances; and 
many contain in solution organic and inorgan- 
ic matter enough to render their use highly 
objectionable. Water containing organic mat- 
ter dissolved from animal and vegetable sub- 
stances, or poisonous gases absorbed from the 
air, is a very dangerous drink, and should be 
avoided. Water contaminated with miasma 
causes fever and ague, and it is probable that 
this disease is caused more frequently by 
drinking such water than by breathing the air 
of malarious districts. Water contaminated by 
effluvia from cesspools, privies, and barnyards 
is a fruitful source of typhoid fever. Many of 
the pleasanter drinking waters are very dan- 
gerous from the contamination of cesspool mat- 
ter. The organic impurities are often resolved 
and converted into pleasant tasting saline mat- 
ters, the disease germs being still active. 

Melted ice and snow are perhaps the purest 
forms of water that can be obtained naturally ; 
rain-water is never really pure, as it contains 
gases which it absorbs in passing through the 
air. The water of our lakes contains various 
inorganic and organic impurities from the rivers 
which flow into them or the springs which sup- 
ply them. Spring or well water, although it 
may look transparent, always contains saline 
matters, and chiefly the lime salts ; hence such 
water, although very agreeable to drink and 
quite wholesome, is known as hard water, and 
soap curdles in it and does not produce good 
lather. Pure water is very insipid to the taste. 



and it is to the gases and saline impurities of 
ordinary spring water that its refreshing proper- 
ties are mostly due. The danger from impure 
water arises, as we have already said, from the 
decaying organic matters and those derived from 
cesspools, etc., with which it may be contam- 
inated. River water contains less saline mat- 
ter than spring water, but it is more likely to 
contain organic impurities. Near large towns 
it may contain a good deal of sewage, or refuse 
from manufactories ; it contains also fishspawn, 
leaves, and silt or mud, according to the rapidity 
of the current. Before, therefore, it can be 
used for drinking purposes, it must be filtered 
through beds of sand, gravel, etc., so as to 
remove impurities. Any running stream has 
a self-purifying power, because, it continually 
exposes fresh portions of the water to the air, 
and so the organic matters get oxidized ; on 
this account it is very important that in streams 
supplying large towns there should be a rapid 
current, absence of sewage from the towns 
above, and proper filtration. River and rain 
water are commonly known as soft waters, be- 
cause they contain little or no lime ; hence they 
are more useful for washing and other domestic 
purposes. 

In selecting water, when selection is possi- 
ble, it is desirable that it should be clear and 
bright, without smell or disagreeable taste, 
cool and soft, and of smooth and soft flavor, 
but the latter quality will necessarily vary with 
the soil or rock from which the water is ob- 
tained. As a rule, there is an unpleasant smell 
and not unfrequently an unpleasant taste from 
water contaminated with animal matter, either 
when first drawn from the well or after having 
been set aside for a time, and such water 
should never be drunk. It is, moreover, not 
infrequently turbid, or leaves a deposit more or 
less slight after having been left at rest; but 
sometimes water sufficiently impure to produce 
disease may have none of these characteristics. 
Turbid water, if from a brook, may be harm- 
less, since the turbidity may be due only to the 
soil or sand with which it is mixed, and which 
may entirely subside ; but all turbid water 
should be regarded with suspicion, either in 
reference to healthfulness or hardness. Turbid 
water from wells almost always implies con- 
tamination. Unfiltered water may also contain 
animalcules or the lower forms of vegetable 
life, and particularly if it have been derived 
from a watershed or allowed to remain without 
much motion in uncovered tanks. Such ad- 
ditions are extremely rare in deep well-water, 
and very frequent in pools. It is desirable of 
course that all such impurities should be ex- 
tracted by filtration or rendered harmless by 
boiling ; and it may be laid down as a general 
rule that while no kind of water is injured by 
filtration, nearly all may possess suljstances 
which might advantageously be removed by 
that process. Wherever there is reasonable 
ground to believe that the water is impure 
from animal matter, and where the water has 
a disagreeable smell or taste, it is desirable 



WATER 



581 



that it should be boiled, and if possible filtered, 
before being used as drinking water. 

Cooling Water without Ice. — Put it into 
an earthen jar or pitcher, which surround with 
two or three folds of cotton or Hnen cloth, to 
be kept constantly wet. The evaporation from 
the cloth, especially if the jar be placed in a 
draught of air, will carry off the heat from the 
inside, and reduce the water to a very low tem- 
perature. 

Distilled Water. — In many cases of sick- 
ness, distilled water is an important aid to re- 
covery. It can only be made by the use of 
apparatus which is very troublesome and in- 
convenient. Druggists usually keep it for pre- 
paring medicines. Water which is almost as 
good for all ordinary purposes can be easily 
prepared by boiling common water briskly for 
a few minutes, and when it is cool, straining it 
through a pan of charcoal, and keeping it in a 
well-corked bottle in a cool, dark place. 

Filters. — There are two objects to be at- 
tained in filtering water, viz., to remove any 
gases upon which a disagreeable smell may 
depend, and to arrest any particles of matter 
that may be suspended in the water; in other 
words, to deodorize and clarify the water. Fil- 
ters of sand were formerly in common use, and 
such may aerate or clarify water and remove 
all organisms. Sand is not, however, a deodor- 
izer, since it does not absorb gases, and there- 
fore charcoal is greatly to be preferred. Char- 
coal, indeed, is the most valuable of all agents 
for the purpose of filtering. The foulest ditch 
water made to pass through it comes out sweet, 
clear, and bright. Animal charcoal, derived 
from burnt bones, is to be preferred to wood 
charcoal, since it will absorb a very much 
larger volume of gas and destroy animal matter. 
There are many forms of 
filters, nearly any of which 
are good, and some of 
which should find a place 
in every household. They 
naturally divide into those 
used where water runs from 
faucets in the house, and 
where it does not. 

Of the later and simpler 
class, one which can be 
made in every household, 
and which has been repeat- 
edly used by the writer, is 
represented in Fig. i. Pro- 
cure a wooden box (a) 
three feet high and a foot 
square, open on one side, 
with a shelf (m); on this 
shelf place a common stone 
jar (<:), and let a flower-pot 
(d) rest in the mouth of the 
jar. If you cannot get a 
jar or tank with a faucet 
fitted, in a hole neatl3^made 
in the bottom of the jar, in- 
sert the cork (e) from beneath, and place a 
sponge {^) in the hole at the bottom of the flow- 




er-pot. Put a large sponge (f) over the open- 
ing in the jar, and a piece of thin muslin (^) 
over this sponge ; then put into the jar, first a 
layer of three or four quarts of clean white, or 
river sand (/i), then the same quantity of pulver- 
ized charcoal (/), and above that a quart of 
small pebble stones (J). The pitcher (d) stands 
below the shelf (;//). In order to have pure 
water, the filter should be kept constantly at 
work. During the greater part of the year it 
should be placed near the hydrant, or pump, 
so that the waste water may flow off. 

The flower-pot (d) whose sponge prevents 
coarse materials passing into the jar, should be 
cleaned once or twice a week ; but the jar 
requires no attention whatever, more than once 
or twice a year. Care must be taken to have 
the hole into which the cork (e) is fitted, close 
to the bottom of the jar, so that when the fil- 
ter is not at work, no water will remain to be- 
come impure. 

The whole cost of this filter need not exceed 
two dollars. 

Another is shown in Fig. 2. The water is 
forced through the charcoal from beneath, and 




Fig. I. 
Home-made Filter. 



Fig. 2. Tank Filter. 

the filtration is thus rendered more complete. 
In both the foregoing, the charcoal should 
be frequently renewed. 

A very simple filter has recently been de- 
vised for use on faucets (Fig. 3). It contains 
a little cup (a) filled 
with coarse charcoal 
and sand, and provi- 
ded with a network 
of wire gauze — this 
is reversible. Above 
that is placed a com- 
mon sponge pressed 
firmly into its place 
so that it entirely fills 
the space. This is 
encased in a little 
perforated cap {d), and is placed over the 
charcoal vessel. The water which passes 
through this is, therefore, obliged to pass 
through the sponge, and then through the 
charcoal. Although it acts as a perfect filter, 
it does not seriously interrupt the flow. The 




Fig. 3. The Triple Filter. 



582 



WATER 



advantage of this filter is, that when it becomes 
clogged and the flow of the water is impeded 
by the impurities separated, it is merely neces- 
sary to open it and take out the sponge, wash 
it and return it to its place, and reverse (a) 
when tlie first pint of water passing through 
cleanses it. 




Fig. 4. Hose and Basin Cock Filters. 



Fig. 4, is a house filter without the sand and 
charcoal cups, containing the sponge only. 

Porous stone is sometimes used for filtering ; 
the difficulty with it often is that it soon clogs, 
and cannot easily be cleaned. 

Filters are constructed on the same princi- 
ple for use in manufacturing establishments. 
Figure 5 represents one suitable for a large 
factory or hotel. 

As there are really two filters, either one 




Fig. 5. Constant Stream Filter. 

may be cleansed without interfering with the 
flow of water through the other, as indicated 
by the arrangement of the cocks. 

Tests for Impurities. — The presence of 
organic matter in water may generally be de- 
tected by putting two or three diops of Condy's 
fluid, or permanganate of potash, into half a 
gallon of the water; if pure, there will be a 
pink tinge ; if impure, it will soon become col- 
orless, or a faintly brown precipitate is pro- 
duced. A still more simple test is given in the 
Journal of the PVartklin Institute. A half- 
pint of the water should be placed in a perfect- 
ly clean colorless glass bottle ; a few grains of 
the best white sugar should be added to it, 
and the bottle exposed to daylight in the win- 
dow of a warm room. If the water becomes 



turbid, sewage contamination may be suspect- 
ed. 

For the discovery of Sulphate or Ca7-bonate 
of Lime or Magnesia, add a few drops of a 
solution of nitrate of barytes, when the fluid 
will become turbid, which turbidity again will 
be removed by the addition of a drop or two of 
pure nitric acid. 

For the Clilorides, add a solution of 
nitrate of silver to the previously tested 
solution, which gives a precipitate. 

The Sulphates or Carbonates are also 
indicated by the turbid appearance on 
the addition of a solution of acetate of 
lead. 

Sulphate of Lime is also detected by 
what is called the soap test, which is 
applied by' means of a solution of soap 
in alcohol ; when the sulphate exists in 
an undue degree, causing the water to 
be hard, it throws clown a curdy precip- 
itate, which is in proportion to the quan- 
tity of lime. 
Magnesia is indicated when a milkiness is 
the consequence of adding a solution of phos- 
phate of soda to water which has previously 
been treated with carbonate of ammonia. 

Free Carbon ie Acid is detected by a milki- 
ness being produced by the addition of an 
equal proportion of lime-water, or by adding a 
small quantity of the acetate of lead. 

The tests for the more rare salts, &c., are 
too delicate for ordinary use, and they are 
of little interest to the house- 
holder for ordinary domestic 
purposes. 

The hardnessof water is caus- 
ed by the presence of lime, 
or magnesia salts. When hard- 
ness is due to the presence of 
carbonates of those substances 
held in solution by carbonic acid, 
it is " temporary," and simply 
boiling the water for a short 
time will remove it. The lime 
and magnesia carbonates set- 
tling to the bottom of the vessel 
in flocks. It is " permanent " 
when sulphate of lime is present, 
which is not removed by boiling 
in this manner. The use of hard water for 
washing purposes is to be avoided, if possible, 
as lime or magnesia forms insoluble com- 
pounds with soap, thereby rendering much 
of it useless. 

WATER-BACK. — An iron chamber at the 
back of the range through which the cold water 
enters by one pipe, and out of which it passes 
by another into the boiler. Coal and ashes some- 
time accumulate between it and the grate, and 
prevent it from becoming properly heated. If 
hot water cannot be readily had, this should be 
looked to. If the fire becomes extinguished 
early on a very cold night, and the draft is left 
open, the current of cold air which passes up 
the chimney will strike directly upon the "water 
back" and perhaps freeze the water which 



WATER-CLOSETS 



WATER-MELON 



583 



stands in it. Of course this might be avoided, 
if the faucet through which the water from the 
boiler passes were turned so as to permit a 
trickhng stream to flow out, as that would be 
sufficient to keep the water moving the entire 
length of pipe. 

The water-backs in houses where the ranges 
have had no fires lighted, and where the water 
has been allowed to collect, will cause a great 
deal of trouble to owners by flooding the pre- 
mises if they are not cared for. A good rule 
to adopt in all houses is for the servant to test 
the faucet through which the hot water passes, 
the first thing in the morning", if the fire is suf- 
fered to go out over night. If it is found that 
it will not flow, while it will come through the 
cold water pipe, there is good reason for be- 
lieving that the frost has sealed it up. No 
fire should be made, but the plumber sent 
for, who will disconnect the water pipes and 
remove the water-back, after which there may 
be fires until the water-back is replaced, but no 
hot water. The ice is then thawed out by steam, 
the water-back tested in order to discover 
whether any flaws have been made by the ac- 
tion of the frost, after which it is replaced or a 
new one substituted. All troubles of this kind 
may be entirely escaped if a low fire is main- 
tained all night. It is unusual for a water-back 
to freeze up in one night, even if the fire is 
dropped early in the evening, the brick-work 
retaining some warmth for twenty-ipur hours, 
except during excessively cold weather. If 
the 'water is kept running through the boiler all 
the hot water will be wasted, but the sacrifice 
of a little convenience in this regard will save 
many hours of delay and the litter and expense 
of the plumber's work. 

Plumbers say that there is very little com- 
plaint of bursting boilers, and that most of the 
so-called explosions are really the results only 
of burst water-backs. By carelessness, after a 
water-back has frozen, much inconvenience may 
be caused in a kitchen. If a fire is made in a 
range which has a frozen water-back, the almost 
inevitable result will be an explosion, for the 
heat converts the water in the water-back into 
steam, which is held in the chamber by the ice 
which stops the pipes. There is a loud report, 
followed by a rush of steam, a sudden quench- 
ing of the fire, and then a flood of water. If 
the faucet connecting with the boiler is tested 
before the fire is made, and there is found to 
be no pressure, fire should not be lighted until 
the plumber has blown out the pipe. It may 
be that the back will burst, as it frequently is 
known to do, while the freezing is going on. 
The water-backs will stand great pressure, but 
in a majority of cases where they are exposed 
to the frost the sudden contraction of the cast- 
iron chamber and the simultaneous expansion 
of the contents of the water-back result in a 
split. 

WATER BATH. {See Bain-Marie.) 

WATER-CLOSETS.— Though unquestion- 
ably a great convenience, water-closets, as now 
usually placed in houses, are an invention of 



which no one has any special reason to be 
proud. With a show of cleanliness they com- 
bine essential nastiness and a good deal of real 
danger. In cities, perhaps, their use cannot at 
present be dispensed with ; in the country, with 
imjDerfect drainage and water-supply, they are 
simply a nuisance. Earth should always be 
used instead of water in country-places ; it is 
preferable in every way. {See Earth-closet). 
To keep water-closets reasonably safe, the first 
thing is ventilation of the sewers and especial- 
ly of the soil-pipe in the house ; if not they 
ventilate themselves into the house by means 
of the water-closets. Disinfectants may be 
used (such as carbolic acid, either in powder 
or solution) but are not of so much value as is 
the free ventilation of drains and soil-pipes. 
This is the only condition of safety. 

Fixed wash-basins in bed rooms, however, 
kill ten to the water-closet's one. The water 
trap is a very indifferent barrier to sewer-gas, 
and the overflow of the basin is a perfect gate- 
way for contagion — especially in bed-rooms 
having no fire-place and with closed windows. 
{See Drainage.) 

WATER-CRESS. This is the most com- 
mon and the best of the family of cresses; It 
has a warm pleasant taste, which renders it a 
favorite salad ; and the neatness of its form 
makes it useful for decorating meats and other 
dishes. It grows on the banks of running 
streams, preferring clean water to muddy. It 
should be carefully distinguished from the 
water-parsnip which is poisonous, and which is 
frequently found growing with it. Water 
cress is found in abundance in the markets 
from March until May, and again from Sep- 
tember until November. {See Salads.) 

WATER-CURE. {See Hydropathy.) 

WATER-MELON. — This favorite summer 
fruit is cultivated throughout the country, 
though it arrives at a perfection in the Southern 
States which is perhaps hardly equalled further 
north. Among the best varieties are the Spanish, 
'7noii)itain sweet, orange, Carolina, citron, etc. 
The Spanish variety is one of the choicest,being 
very sweet and rich, and of good size. The 
skin is dark green in color, the rind is moder- 
ately thick, and the flesh red, and solid. The 
orange water-melon is smaller, of a round 
shape, and very sweet ; in eating, the rind 
should be cut through and taken off without 
breaking the inner pulp. The Carolina water- 
melon is a good variety, much cultivated at the 
South, and is the first to make its appearence 
in the market ; it ripens in July and is shipped 
north in large numbers. The citron water- 
melon ripens later, and is quite small and 
round, with a very thick skin or rind; it is 
generally used for preserves. The comnlon 
test in selecting water-melons is to press them 
between the hands and knees ; when ripe they 
make a sort of cracking noise. A simpler test 
is to thump them, or rap them "with the knuck- 
les ; they will then, if ripe, give back a sort of 
muffled hollow sound. It requires practice, 
however, to judge them properly. One rule 



584 



WATER-PROOF 



WEIGELA 



should always be observed in regard to water- 
melons, and that is never to eat one which has 
been plucked for more than four or five days. 
Water-melons are in season from about the 
middle of July to the middle of September. 

"WATER-PROOF. — The cloth commonly 
called " water-proof" and sold in the stores as 
such is not really water-proof though it will 
keep out the dampness for a much longer time 
than ordinary cloth. The only fabric yet pro- 
duced which is wholly impervious to water is 
Macintosh^ a cloth covered with India-rubber 
in solution. A very good quality of this may 
be made as follows : Dissolve one pint by weight 
of India-rubber, and one of paraffin or stearin, 
in two of benzole ; dilute as much as necessary, 
and either saturate the fabric with it or lay it on 
with a brush. A good water-proof for common 
use can be made of unbleached muslin ; hang 
it up in a dry place, and, with a brush, give it 
two coats of boiled linseed oil. The oil may 
be bought ready boiled. Canvas may be pre- 
pared in the same way. Or^ get some weak 
size, such as is used by paper-makers ; heat it, 
and stir in a small lump of alum and a small 
quantity of soap-lather. Then with a brush 
apply it to the cloth as directed above for the 
oil. Water-proof clothing is not healthy, because 
it excludes air from the body and confines the 
perspiration which is constantly thrown off 
from the skin and which is essential to health. 
When worn at all, it should only be in cases of 
necessity, and should be taken off as soon as 
the need for it is past. 

WAX. — This useful substance is obtained 
from the comb of the honey-bee, and in its 
original state is known as bees-wax, which has 
a considerably quantity of honey still united 
with it, and is of a dirty yellowish color. Before 
wax is employed for the ordinary purposes, it is 
purified and bleached, by first soaking it in 
cold water, and then boiling it in hot water, 
after which the wax is allowed to collect at the 
top by cooling, when it is still to be bleached. 
The bleaching process consists in cutting the 
wax into very thin ribands and exposing it to 
the actioA of light and air. Chlorine bleaches 
wax very readily, but it renders it extremely 
brittle, and unfit for use in candles. When 
thoroughly bleached, the wax is cut into the 
thin round cakes in which form ivhiie wax is 
sold. White wax is sometimes adulterated with 
white-lead to increase its weight ; this may be 
detected by melting the wax in water, when the 
lead will fall to the bottom of the vessel. Adul- 
teration by mixing tallow or suet with it may be 
detected by its greasiness, and by its wanting 
that transparency which pure white wax pos- 
sesses ; also by its disagreeable odor when 
melted. Spermaceti is also employed for the 
adulteration of wax; this mixture is less trans- 
parent than pure wax, and it melts more easily ; 
the surface of the cake has also a mottled ap- 
pearence. Wax is also adulterated with resin, 
which renders it brittle ; the presence of resin 
may be suspected when the fracture appears 
smooth and shining instead of granular, and it 



may be detected by putting small pieces into 
cold alcohol, which will dissolve the resin and 
leave the wax untouched. In buying wax, 
break each cake, for the centre is often impure, 
the outside only being good. Paraffine is the 
most common adulterant, and is difficult to de- 
tect, except by chemists. Wax is an ingredi- 
ent of many plasters, ointments, and cerates. 
[See Candles.) 

WEAK-FISH.— This is an excellent fish 
when fresh, but it is not firm-fleshed, and after 
being kept a few days its flesh becomes soft 
and spongy and loses its flavor. In color, the 
weak-fish is of a bluish gray, with speckled 
back and sides, belly white, fins yellow, and 
the under jaw quite red. It is in season from 
May to October, but is best in September and 
October, when it is also very abundant. It 
weighs from half a pound to eight pounds, but 
the average weight is about one pound. Boil- 
ing is the best way of cooking it. Prepare, cook 
and serve as directed for Bass. 

WEBBING. — A strong hempen fabric, from 
one to three inches wide, used for holding up 
the seats of stuffed chairs, sofas, etc. 

WEDGWOOD MORTAR.— Many of the 
receipts in this book require for their proper 
preparation the use of a pestle and mortar. 
Those made for druo;o;ists of marble or ironstone 




Pestle and Mortar- 
are expensive, but an excellent article which 
will answer all household purposes is made of 
the wedgwood earthenware, and.may be procur- 
ed at any house-furnishing store. In selecting 
see that both mortar and pestle are perfectly 
smooth and free from all bubbles and other 
imperfections. 

WEIGELA.— The Weigelas, though intro- 
duced within a comparatively recent period, 
have already become favorite garden shrubs ; 
and deservedly so, for their brightly colored 
flowers, intermixed with the glossy green fol- 
iage, produce a fine effect either in a flower-bed 
or on the lawn. Their culture is very simple, 
for they will thrive in any good garden soil. 
Plant either in autumn or spring, and in setting 
it out, dig a hole three feet in diameter, unless 
the shrub is very small, when two feet will do. 
No further care will be required, though if a 
good compost of manure be dug in around the 
roots every spring, the trouble will be repaid 
in a greater profusion of bloom. 

Of the several varieties, Weigela alba has 
white flowers, which change to a pale rose tint ; 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



585 



Weigela nivea produces pure white flowers, 
very beautiful for large bouquets or vases ; 
Weis^ela rosea bears apple-blossom colored 
flowers, blending pink and white in a lovely 
intermingling. 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



CONVERTIBLE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

Sufficiently near correctness for all practical 
purposes. (For convenience in consultation, 
the following table is also given on the inside 
of the front cover). 

Wheat flour, i pound is one quart. 

Indian meal, i pound 2 ounces are i quart. 

Butter, when soft, i pound is i pint. 

Loaf sugar, broken, i pound is i quart. 

White sugar, powdered, i pound 12 oz.are i 
quart. 

Best brown sugar, i pound 2 ounces are i 
quart. 

Ten eggs are i pound. 

Sixty drops are i teaspoonful. 

Four teaspoonfuls are i tablespoonful. 

Two dessert spoonfuls are i tablespoonful. 

A tablespoonful is y, ounce. 

Eight tablespoonfuls are i gill. 

Thirty-two tablespoonfuls are i pint. 

A common-sized sherry glass holds yi a gill. 

A common-sized claret-glass holds i gill. 

A teacup holds from a gill to half a pint. 

A common-sized tumbler holds ^ a pint. 

When *' wineglass" is used in this book 
without specification, it means sherry glass. 

It must be borne in mind, however, that the 
foregoing are only approximations, and that in 
those receipts which evidently call for a deli- 
cate adjustment of proportions, they will not 
answer. The truth is, that every kitchen 
should be supplied with a good scale, as one 
of the most important items in its furniture ; 
and it should be kept, moreover, in constant 
use. The neglect of this, and the habit of 
resting satisfied with " about the right propor- 
tion," when exactness is of the utmost im- 
portance, is one of the most serious vices of 
American cookery. 

II. 

LIQUID MEASURE.* 

Used in measuring all kinds of liquids. 

Ale, beer, porter, and milk, were formerly 
sold by what was called Beer Measjire, of which 
the gallon contained 282 cubic inches. 



4 gills (gi.; 


are 


I pint, 


pt. 


2 pints, 




I quart, 


qt. 


4 quarts, 




I gallon. 


gal 



A hogshead (hhd.), when regarded as a 
measure, is 63 gallons equal 252 quarts, 504 
pints, or 2016 gills ; but the term is often ap- 
plied to large casks of varying capacity. 

A barrel (bbl.), in some States is 31 i^ gal- 
Ions, and in others 28 to 32 gallons. 



The tables from here on are principally condensed from Green- 
leaf 'a Practical Arithmetic, Robert S. Davis & Co., Boston. 



Apothecaries reckon one pint (O) equal 
to 16 fluid ounces (f. § ) ; i fluid ounce equal 
to 8 fluid drams (f. 3 ). 

The standard liquid gallon of the United 
States contains 231 cubic inches, and the Im- 
perial gallon of Great Britain, 277.274 cubic 
inches. 

in. 

DRY MEASURE. 

Used in measuring such dry articles as grain, 
fruit, roots, coal, etc. 

2 pints (pt.) are i quart, qt. 

8 quarts, i peck, pk, 

4 pecks, I bushel, bu. 

The chaldron, a measure of 36 bushels, 
formerly employed with some kinds of coal, is 
now seldom used. 

The standard bushel of the l/tiited States 
contains 2150.42 cubic inches; and the Im- 
perial bushel of Great Britain, 2218.192 cubic 
inches. 

IV. 

TROY WEIGHT. 

Used for weighing gold, silver, jewels, and 
drugs in prescriptions. 

24 grains (gr.) are r pennyweight, dwt. 
20 pennyweights, i ounce, oz. 

12 ounces, i pound, lb. 

A pound Troy contains 240 pennyweights, 
or 5760 grains. 

Apothecaries, in mixing medicines, use 
the poujid, otince ( § ), and grain, of this 
weight; but divide the ounce into 8 drach7ns 
( 3 ), each equal to three scruples (3), each 
scruple being equal to 10 grains. 

A carat, for gold-weight, is 4 grains ; for 
diamond-weight, is 3.2 grains. 
V. 

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

Used for nearly all articles estimated by 
weight, except gold, silver, jewels, and drugs 
in prescriptions. 



16 drams (dr.) 
16 ounces, 
25 pounds, 

4 quarters, or loo lb., 
20 hundred-weight, 



are i ounce, oz. 

I pound, lb, 

I quarter, qr. 

I hundred-weight, cwt. 
I ton, T. 



Formerly, 112 pounds, or 4 quarters of 28 
pounds each, were reckoned a hundred-weight, 
and 2240 pounds a ton, now called the long ton. 
This is now seldom employed in this country, 
except at the mines for coal, or at the United 
States Custom-houses for goods imported 
from Great Britain, in which country such 
weights continue to be used. 

A pound Avoirdupois is equivalent to 7000 
grains Troy, so that 144 pounds Avoirdupois 
are equal to 175 pounds Troy. 

VI. 
LINEAR MEASURE. 



12 inches (in.) are i foot, ft. 


3 feet. 


I yard, yd. 


SJ^ yards, 


I rod, rd. 


40 rods. 


I furlong, fur. 


8 furlongs. 


1 common mile, m. 



586 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



■ A mile is 320 rods = 1760 yards = 5280 
feet = 63360 inches. 

In measuring cloth and other woven fabrics, 
the linear yard is divided into halves, quarters, 
eighths, and sixteenths. Formerly a sixteenth 
of a yard, or 2% inches, was called a 7tail. 

An engineer's chain, or ineas2iring tape, is 
usually 100 feet in length, with each foot 
divided into tenths. Surveyors, however, 
make frequent use of Gtinter''s chain, which is 
4 rods, or 66 feet, in length, and divided into 
100 links of 7.92 inches each. Links are 
usually expressed as hundredths of a chain. 

Six feet equal l fathom, in measuring 
depths at sea ; and 3 common miles equal i 
league on the land. 

A geographic or nautical mile is -^^ of the 
length of a degree of latitude. 

The United States coast survey employ 
6086.34 feet, or 1.15 -|_ common miles, as the 
average length of a nautical mile, and 69.16 
common miles as the length of a degree of 
longitude on the equator. 



SURFACE MEASURE. 

144 square inches (sq. in.) are i square foot. sq. ft. 

9 square feet, i square yard, sq. yd. 

3034 square yards, i square rod or perch, P. 

j6o square rods or perches, i acre, A. 

640 acres, i square mile, M. 

An acre is 4840 square yards = 43560 
square feet = 6272640 square inches. 

In surveying by Gunter's chain, i square 
chain is 16 square rods, and 10 square chains 
are i acre. 

In measurement of government lands, 640 
acres, or i square mile, make i section of 
land. 

A rood equals 40 square rods or perches, 
but this denomination is not now much used. 



SOLID MEASURE. 

172S cubic inches (cu. in.) are i cubic foot, cu. ft. 
27 cubic feet, i cubic yard, cu. yd. 

128 cubic feet, i cord, C. 

A solid yard, or 27 solid feet, is equal to 
46656 solid inches. 

IX. 

TIME MEASURE. 

The Calendar Months, their names, order, 
and number of days, are as follows : 



January, 


ist mo. 


31 days. 


July, 


7th mo. 


3 1 days. 


February, 


2d " 


28 or 29. 


August, 


Sth " 


31 " 


March, 


3d " 


31 days. 
30 ' 


September 


gth " 


30 " 


April, 


4th " 


October, 


lOtll " 


31 " 


May, 


Sth " 


31 " 


November, 


nth '• 


30 " 


June, 


6th " 


30 " 


December, 


I2th " 


3' " 



A common year has 8760 hours, equal 
525600 minutes, or 31536000 seconds. 

The number of days contained in each 
month may be remembered by recollecting 
that the months are long and short alternate- 
ly, with the exception of August, which, as 
well as July, is long. 

A true year, also called a solar or tropical 
year, is the exact time in which the earth 



makes a revolution around the sun, or 365 d. 
5 h. 48 m. 49.7 sec. 

The common year of 365 days comes short 
of the true year 5 h. 48 m. 49.7 sec, or i day 
(lacking only 44 m. 41.2 sec), in 4 yeans, so 
that an approximate correction of the calendar 
can be made by having every fourth year of 
366 days. 

But, by making every fourth year a leap- 
year, there will be a gain in the calendar of 
13 h. 37 m. 10 sec. in 100 years, or a little over 
8 days in 400 years ; hence, a second approx- 
imate correction can be made by having only 
every fourth of the centennial years a leap 
year. Hence, 

Every year whose number can be divided by 
4 without a remai/tder, except ceiitennial 
years, and every centennial year whose number 
can be divided by 400 without a reinainder, is 
a leap year and the others are conunon years. 

X 

MISCELLANEOUS MEASURES. 
Counting. 
I dozen, is 12 units. 

I gross, 12 dozen. 

I score, 20 units. 

I hundred, 5 scores. 

Capaci 
56 pounds of butter, 
64 pounds of soap, 
56 pounds of rye, 
56 pounds of corn, 
60 pounds of wheat, 
60 pounds of beans, 
60 pounds of potatoes, 
60 pounds of clover seed, 
100 pounds of fish, 
100 pounds of grain, 
112 pounds of vegetables, 
196 pounds of flour, 
200 pounds of beef or pork, 
256 pounds of water, 

Meal, either of Indian corn or rye, is usu- 
ally estimated at 50 pounds to a bushel, and 
wheat bran at 20 pounds to a bushel. 

A quarter of ^^/'rt///, in England, is equal to 8 
Imperial bushels, or to 560 pounds. 

A perch of masonry, or of building stone, is 
2434' cubic feet. 

A ton of timber is commonly estimated at 
40 solid feet, but as usually measured is 50 
solid feet. 

With transportation companies a ton of 
freight is quite variable, being for many 
articles estimated by the space occupied, and 
for others by weight. 

Four inches equal i hand in measuring the 
height of horses directly over the fore feet. 

A pile of wood 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 
4 feet high, is a cord. A cord foot (c f.) is 
I foot in length of this pile, or 16 cubic feet. 

METRIC OR DECIMAL SYSTEM. 

The Metric System of weights and measures, 
authorized by Congress, in 1866, to be used in 
the United States, was devised in France, ac- 
cording to the decimal scale. 

The Higher Denominations of a weight 
or measure are expressed by prefixing to the 
name of its principal unit. 





Paper. 


quire, 


is 24 sheets. 


ream. 


20 quires. 


bundle, 


2 reams. 


bale, 


5 bundles 


rv. 


are i firkin. 




I firkin. 




I bushel. 




I bushel. 




I bushel. 




I bushel. 




I bushel. 




I bushel. 




I quintal. 




I cental. 




I barrel. 




I barrel. 




I barrel. 




I barrel. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



587 



Deka, 



Hecto, 



Kilo, 

JOOO, 



Myria, 

looooj 



and the Lower Denominations by prefixing 



Deci, 
loth. 



Centi, 
looth, 



MiLLI, 

loooth. 



METRIC MEASURES OF LENGTH. 

The Meter, the principal unit for the 
measure of length, is very nearly one ten- 
millionth of the distance on the earth's sur- 
face from the equator to the pole. 

\o miUhneiers {mm.) are i centhueicr {cm.),'=Ho .3937 inch- 

10 centimeters, i decimeter, 3-937 inches. 

10 decimeters, i meter (me.), 39-37 inches. 

10 meters, i dekameter, 393-7 inches. 

10 dekameters, i hectometer, 32S feet i in. 

10 hectometers, i kilometer (km.), 32S0 ft. 10 in. 

10 kilometers, i myriameter, 6.2137 miles. 

The meter is used as the unit of measure 
for all common lengths and distances. It is 
about 3 feet 3 inches and 3 eighths of an inch 
in length. 

The kilo7nefer is taken as the unit in 
measuring long distances, as the length of 
roads, distances between cities, etc. It is 
about 200 rods, or )^ of a mile. 

25 millimeters nearly replace the inch., 3 
decimeters the foot, 5 meters the rod, and 
1600 meters, the mile. 

II. 

METRIC MEASURES OF SURFACE. 

The Square Meter, the principal unit for 
the measure of surface, is the square whose 
side is one meter. 

100 S7. millimeters (mm. "), are 1 sq. contimeter (cm.s ),=.O0155 sq. in . 
700 sq. centimeters, 1 sq. decimeter, ^ .1076 sq. ft. 

100 sq. decimeters, 1 sQ. metek (m. -), 1.19G sq. yd. 

Since the side of a square meter is i meter, 
or lo decimeters, a square meter is equal to 
lo X TO = loo square decimeters ; since the 
side of a square decimeter is i decimeter, or 
10 centimeters, a square decimeter is equal to 
10 X ID = loo square centimeters, etc. Hence, 

The scale is loo, and two orders of figures 
must be allowed to each denomination. 

The Are, the principal unit in measuring 
land, is a square whose side is ten meters. 

loo centiares are i are (ar.), equal to 119.6 sq. yd. 

100 ares, i hectare (ha.), 2.471 acres- 

A centiare, or square meter, is about i-^ 
square yards, and a hectare about 2^ acres. 

40 ares nearly replace an acre of common 
surface measure. 

III. 

METRIC MEASURES OF VOLUME. 

The Cubic Meter, the principal unit for 
the measure of volume, is the cube whose edge 
is one meter. 

1000 ru. millimeters (mm^), are 1 cu. centimeter (cm.» )y=.rt(51 cu. in. 
lOflO cu. centimeters, 1 cu. decimeter, 60.012 cu. in. 

lOOi) cu. decimeters, 1 cu. meter (m.» ), 1.303 cu. yd. 

Since the edge of a cubic meter is i meter, 
or 10 decimeters, a cubic meter is equal to lo 
X lo X lo = I coo cubic decimeters ; since 
the edge of a cubic decimeter is one decimeter, 
or ID centimeters, a cubic decimeter is equal 
to lo X lo X lo = 1000 cubic centimeters, 
etc. Hence, — 



The scale is looo, and three orders of 
figures must be allowed to each denomination. 

The Liter, the principal unit for liquid or 
dry measure, is a cubic decimeter. 

lo milliliters are i centiliter (cl.), equal to .338 fluid oz. 

10 centiliters, i deciliter, .845 gill. 

10 deciliters, 1 liter (It.), 1.0567 quarts. 

10 liters, I dekaliter, 2.6417 gallons. 

10 dekaliters, 1 hectoliter (\\\.) 26.417 gallons. 

10 hectoliters, i kiloliter, 264.17 gallons. 

The liter is used in measuring liquids, and 
is about \^-^ liquid quart. 

The hectoliter is used in measuring grain 
and like articles, and is 2.837 bushels, or about 
2| bushels, or | of a barrel ; a liter is very nearly 
.90S of a dry quart. 

4 liters a little more than replace the liquid 
gallon, and 35 liters very nearly the common 
bushel. 

A milliter is equal to i cubic centimeter; 
a centiliter is equal to 10 cubic centimeters. 

The Stere, the principal unit for measuring 
wood, is a cubic meter, or 1000 liters. 



10 decistercs 
10 steres, 



arc 1 STEKE (St.), cqualto l.."0S cubic yards. 
1 dekastere, 13.0S cubic yards. 



36 decisteres, or 3.6 steres, very nearly re- 
place the common cord. 

IV. 



METRIC WEIGHTS. 



The Gram, the principal unit of weights, is 
the weight, in a vacuum, of a cubic centimeter 
of distilled water, at its greatest density. 



10 milligrams are i centigram, 
10 centigrams, i decigram, 

10 decigrams, i gram (gm.), 

10 grams, x dekagram, 

[o dekagrams, i hectogram. 



equal to .1543 grains. 
1-543 " 
15-432 " 
.3527 av. oz. 
3-5274 



I kilogram, (k.), 2.2046 av. lb. 

1 myriagram, 22.046 " 

I quintal, 220.46 " 

I millier, or tonneaii. (t.), 2204.6 " 



10 hectograms, 
10 kilograms, 
10 myriagrams, 
10 quintals, 

The kilogram, or, for brevity, kilo, is the 
ordinary weight of commerce. It is about 2 J lbs. 

The tonneaii (pronounced tonno), or metric 
ton, is used in weighing heavy articles, and is 
about 2200 pounds. 

The gram is used in mixing medicines, 
weighing letters, gold, jewels, etc. 28 grams 
nearly replace an avoirdupois ounce ; and j4 
kilo, a little more than a pound. 

In expressing Metric Weights and Measures, 
by figures, the decimal point, as in United 
States money, is placed between the unit and 
its subdivisions written as decimal orders. 

One, two, or three orders of figures must be 
allowed to each denomination lower than the 
unit, according as the scale is 10, 100, or 1000. 
Thus : — 

3 kiloliters, 7 hectoliters, 2 dekaliters, 5 li- 
ters, 6 centiliters, is written, as liters, 3725.06 It. 

4 cubic meters, 630 cubic centimeters, as 
cubic meters, 4.00063 m.^ 

The integer of a metrical expression may be 
read as a number of its primary unit; and the 
decimal part, if any, as a number of the lowest 
denomination denoted. Thus : — 

360.075 kilos may be read as three hundred 
and sixty kilos, and seventy-five grams. 

36.15 meters, as thirty-six meters, and fifteen 
centimeters. 



588 



WELSH RAREBIT 



WET NURSE 



V. 



COMPARATIVE METRIC AND ENGLISH TABLE 

of equivalents determined only approximately; 
but sufficiently exact for all ordinary business. 



A meter =: 39.37 inches. 
A meter rr 3. 28 feet. 
A meter =: 1.0936 yards. 
A kilometer := .62137 mile. 
A sq. meter =: 1550 sq. ins. 
A sq. meter =: 10.76 sq. feet. 
A sq. meter =: 1. 196 sq. yds. 
An are ^ 3-953 sq. rods. 

A hectare = 2.471 acres. 
A hectare = .003S6 sq. mile. 
A liter ^= 33.81 fluid oz. 

A liter =r 1.0567 quarts. 

A liter = .26417 gallon. 

A hectoliter = 2.837 bushels. 
A liter rr 61.022 cu. ins. 

A hectoliters 3.531 cu. feet. 
A stere = 1.30S cu. yds. 

A stere = -2759 cord. 
A gram ^15.432 grains. 
A kilogram rr 35.27 av. ozs. 
A kilogram = 2.68 Tr. lbs. 
A kilogram = 2.2046 av. lbs. 
A tonneau = 1.1023 tons. 



An inch =r .0254 meter. 
A foot = .3048 meter. 
A yard = .9144 meter. 
A mile ^= 1.6093 kilometers. 
A sq. in. r= .0006452 sq. meter. 



A sq. ft.=: 
A sq. yd.=: 
A sq. rd.^ 
An acre ^ 
A sq. m.r= 
A fld.oz.= 
A quart =: 
A gallons 
A bush. =r 
A cu. in.= 
A cu. ft.= 
Acu. yd.= 
A cord r= 
A grain = 
An av.oz= 
A Tr. lb.= 
An av. lb=: 
iAton = 



.0929 sq. meter. 

.S361 sq. meter. 

.2529 are. 

.4047 hectare. 
259 hectares. 
.02958 liter. 

.9465 liter. 

3.7S6 liters. 

.3524 hectoliter. 
.01639 liter. 

.2832 hectoliter. 

•7646 stere. 

3.625 steres. 

.0648 gram. 

.0283 kilogram. 
.373 kilogram. 

.4536 kilogram. 

.9071 tonneau. 



WELSH RAREBIT.— The English method 
of preparing this savory dish is as follows : Grate 
some Gloucester or Gruyere cheese and sea- 
son it with cayenne pepper. Fry some slices 
of bread with a little butter, but on one side 
only, until perfectly yellow, then spread a thick 
coat of the grated cheese on the fried side of 
the bread, place the slices in a baking-pan, put 
it in a moderate oven, take it out when the 
cheese begins to melt, and serve warm. Any 
good, dry cheese will answer for this, probablv. 

The American method is different : Cut a 
pound of cheese in slices a quarter of an inch 
thick ; put a heaping table-spoonful of butter 
in a frying-pan, and when it has melted, lay in 
the cheese, and cook about five minutes ; then 
add two eggs well beaten, a dessert-spoonful 
of mixed mustard, and a little pepper; stir it 
up ; have ready some slices of buttered toast, 
turn the cheese over it, and serve as hot as 
possible. The eggs may be omitted if the flavor 
of the cheese is liked without disguise. 

"WEN. — Wens are encysted tumors, most 
frequently met with on the scalp or eyebrows. 
The treatment of such tumors consists in their 
removal : if very small, simply pressing their 
contents out may prove sufficient ; but, if large 
and unattached, an incision through the skin 
and down upon the cyst wall, with the subse- 
quent laying bare of the entire cyst with its 
contents, is necessary. If the tumor is very 
large, and its cyst-wall thin and adherent, re- 
moval must be effected by regular dissection. 
It must be borne in mind, that unless the cyst 
or bag is removed there is every probability of 
the tumor returning. These tumors may oc- 
cur in the neck, and a somewhat favorite locale 
is just under the angle of the lower jaw. It is 
well to remark that wens should be removed 
by a surgeon as soon as they are noticed, as 
the scars increase in size, and are horribly 
unsightly if situated in any prominent place ; 
their removal is safe, and generally unattended 
with any great pain. 



"WET NURSE.— When it is impossible for a 
mother to nurse her infant herself, it remains 
either to get another woman to nurse it, that is 
a wet nurse — or to feed it in some other way. 
To the latter is applied the term "artificial 
feeding," and it is treated of in the article on 
Infants. The wet nurse is to be preferred, for 
the child's good, to feeding, though a choice is 
not always practicable. In selecting a wet 
nurse, it is always advisable to cause her to 
be examined by a physician. There are so 
many particulars which are of importance, but 
which do not attract the notice of outside 
persons, that this is the safest course. She 
should be perfectly healthy and free from the 
taint of hereditary or other constitutional 
disease, that the child's constitution may not be 
contaminated. The mother may be aided, 
however, in making her selection by bearing in 
mind the following points, the substance of 
which is taken from Dr. Edward H. Parker's 
Hand Book for MoiJicrs : — 

1. The nurse's milk should be of about the 
same age with the mother's ; that is, her child 
should have been born at about the same time 
with the one she would nurse. The milk fur- 
nished by a woman varies at different times, 
changing from the first that is drawn, to the 
last. A woman with a new breast of milk — 
that is, who has just been confined — is not 
fitted to nurse a child who is six months old ; 
neither is a woman with a six months' breast of 
milk, the best fitted to nurse one just born. 
This is, however, a consideration of less im- 
portance after the infant is six months old. 
After that time it is safer to choose a woman 
who has not nursed more than six months. 

2. If there are two women, in other respects 
of equal qualifications, one of whom has a 
child still living which she has put out to nurse, 
while the other has lost her infant, — without 
hesitation select the latter. 

3. The age of the nurse should not usually 
be under twenty years, or over twenty-eight, 
this being about the period at which they are 
most apt to yield a rich, healthy milk. 

4. A woman with brown or black hair, should 
be selected in preference to one with light or 
red hair ; and of the last two, the former should 
have the preference. The reason is simply 
this, that light haired women, although they 
often have more milk than those who are of a 
darker complexion, do not furnish in it so 
much nourishment; their milk is more watery, 
though it may be more abundant. Red haired 
women are apt to be quicker to become angry, 
and to have tempers not so well regulated as 
others. 

5. The nurse should be of good form and 
plump, with a white, hard breast, marbled with 
bluish veins, aud a nipple of good size, per- 
fectly free from cracks and eruptions, with 
gums firm and red, and with good teeth. The 
general appearance of the face should be that 
of health. 

6. It is scarcely necessary to add that it is 
desirable to select for a nurse a woman of 



WHALEBONE 



WHITE-FISH 



589 



gentle disposition and of a good degree of in- 
telligence, rather than a stupid or irascible one. 

It may be of use to some readers to say that 
wet nurses very rarely need beer, ale, or other 
malt liquor, to enable them to perform their 
duties. These drinks are often necessary to a 
feeble mother, to enable her to bear the drain 
upon her; but a woman who requires them 
ought not to become a wet nurse. The habit 
of taking stronger liquors, as brandy, gin, or 
whiskey, is a good and sufficient reason for 
rejecting a nurse. Their influence on the child 
is injurious. 

WHALEBONE. — A hard substance found 
in the mouth of the whale. This animal has 
no teeth, but instead of them, a number of long 
strips of whalebone, havi.ig fringes on their 
edges, through which it strains the sea water, 
retaining the food contained in it, consisting of 
abundance of small creatures. The number of 
strips of whalebone amounts to about 300 ; and 
they are from twelve to fifteen feet long, ten to 
twelve inches broad, and about half an inch 
thick. They consist only of parallel fibres, 
consequently are easily rent or split. From its 
elasticity, strength, and lightness, whalebone is 
employed for many purposes : for stiffening cor- 
sets and dress-waists; for ribs to umbrellas and 
parasols ; for the framework of hats, etc. 
When heated by steam, it is softened, and may 
be easily moulded, like horn. 

WHEAT. — Wheat is preferable to any of 
the other great vegetable products on which 
men chiefly live, since it is a far more agreeable 
food than maize or Indian corn, and a more 
nutritious food than rice. It contains within it- 
self nearly all the essential elements of nutrition ; 
and it is probable that the health and mental 
and bodily vigor of the inhabitants of temperate 
climes are more attributable to this food than 
to any other single cause. Wheat is of two 
principal kinds, known as white and red wheat ; 
but there are numerous varieties which do not 
affect the color of the grain. The red is the 
stronger food, and the grain is usually small 
and hard ; while the white is a large grain, 
particularly adapted to the production of fine 
white flour, and to mix with red wheat for the 
same purpose. The red variety is the most 
widely grown, and possesses greater nutritive 
properties. Wheat is commonly used in the 
form of flour. {See Flour.) Cracked wheat 
and critsJicd luheat contain the entire substance 
of the grain, which is crushed or broken so that 
the gastric juices may act upon it more easily. 
When boiled to the consistency of mush it 
makes a wholesome and nutritious food, which 
is believed to be especially serviceable in the 
treatment of dyspepsia and kindred diseases. 
It should be very thoroughly cooked, and eaten 
with milk. 

WHEY. — This pleasant, slightly acid bever- 
age is found naturally on buttermilk or clabber 
when it has stood for some little time. It may 
be produced in a few minutes at any time by 
putting into boiling milk as much alum, cider, 
lemon-juice, or vinegar, as will turn it and make 



it clear ; then pour it off, add some hot water, 
and sweeten. 

Tamarind WTiey. — Mix an ounce of tama- 
rind pulp with a pint of milk, strain it, and add 
a little white sugar to the whey. 

Wine Whey. — Set on the fire in a saucepan 
a pint of milk ; when it boils pour in as much 
white wine as will turn it and make it clear ; 
boil it up and set it aside till the curd has 
settled, then pour off the whey, add half as 
much boiling water and sweeten it. 

WHIPS. — Take a pint of rich cream, sweet- 
en it slightly, and flavor it with any extract 
that may be preferred ; put it in a deep dish, 
and set it in the ice for half an hour ; whip it 
gently with the whip-churn and as the froth 
rises place it on a reversed sieve to drain. It 
may be served plain heaped on the dish ; or, 
put jellv or jam in the bottom of jelly-glasses, 
a spoonful to each, and fi?! the glasses with the 
whip. 

Colored "Whips may be made by adding to 
the cream a few spoonfuls of jelly, or juice of 
any kind of fruit, of the color preferred. 

WHISKEY,— An ardent spirit distilled from 
barley, rye, Indian corn, wheat, etc. It is 
the cheapest and the most common form of 
intoxicating liquor made in the United States, 
where its production is very large. The whiskey 
of Pennsylvania and Kentucky, and the better 
qualities of that manufactured in New York, are 
distilled chiefly from rye ; most of that produced 
in the Western States is from Indian corn, 
which contains a large quantity of fusel-oil. 
The peach whiske3% the Monongahela of Penn- 
sylvania and the Bojiiboii from Kentucky are 
accounted the best. The peculiar and much- 
liked flavor of Scotch and Irish whiskey is said 
to be due to the peaty water which is obtained 
in the mountains for the use of the stills, or to 
the smoke of the fuel which is used. New whis- 
key is rough and fiery, quickly intoxicates, and 
produces disease of the mucous membrane of 
the stomach, ot the liver, spleen, and kidneys. 
It is desirable, therefore, that it should be kept 
some years, that it may generate volatile oils, 
and obtain mellowness. The most approved 
course is to fill a sherry cask with it and leave 
it quiet ; it will thus acquire color and flavor. 

Cocktail (Whiskey, Brandy, Gin, or Sherry). 
— Put about half a teaspoonful of Boker's bit- 
ters, or any bitters, in a tumbler, a teaspoon- 
ful of sugar, or sugar to taste, fill the glass 
with coarsely-pounded ice, and put in a wine- 
glass of the liquor. Stir well, and then drain 
into a claret glass. Put in finally a small piece 
of lemon-peel, which first twist with the fingers 
over the glass to express the oil. 

Sling (Whiskey). — Fill a tumbler with 
coarsely-pounded ice. Then fill the inter- 
stices quarter or third full of whiskey, add one 
or two teaspooniuls of sugar, or to taste, fill with 
water, and stir or shake until thoroughly cold. 

WHITE-FISH.— An excellent fish of the 
salmon family, abundant in the Northern 
lakes. Being difficult to keep fresh they 
are scarce except near where caught. The 



590 



WHITE-LEAD 



WHOOPING-COUGH 



usual size and form of this fish are about the 
same as those of the shad, but the head is 
sharper, and the color of the back is bluish 
black, while the belly is white. Another variety 
is known as the Otsego shad salmon, and is very 
abundant in Otsego Lake. This fish is of a 
dusky gray on the back, and striped like the 
striped bass. Whitefish weigh from one and a 
half to five or six pounds. Bake and boil as 
directed for Salmon; broil and fry as di- 
rected for Mackerel. The small ones, of 
course, are best for the latter purpose. 

WHITE-LEAD. — Thici pigment forms the 
basis of all oil paints, the different tints and 
shades being made by adding colored pigments 
to it. As much of the beauty and durabilit}' of 
the paint depend upon the goodness of the white 
employed as the basis, especial care should be 
taken to have this genuine. When a large 
quantity is wanted, it is safest to purchase it at 
the white-lead works where it is made ; but 
even there it is not always free from adultera- 
tion. When sold at retail, white-lead is frequent- 
ly adulterated with chalk, barytes, or other white 
mineral substances, which very much injure its 
quality, causing it to have less body, and also 
to turn yellow when made into paint. Adul- 
teration with chalk may be detected by dis- 
solving a little diluted nitric acid, filtering it, 
and adding a little oxalate of ammonia; if 
chalk be in the white-lead, a cloudy white 
precipitate of oxalate of lime will appear when 
a little of the white-lead is dropped into it. An 
easy and tolerably effective test is to lift some 
of the white-lead on a knife and let it fall back 
into the can. If perfectly pure it will be found 
" ropy ; " while adulterated lead is generally short 
and crumbling. It is cheapest in the end to 
buy the best white-lead procurable. It is im- 
proved by keeping. 

WHITES. {See Menstruation.) 

WHITEWASH.— A good whitewash for 
walls is made by adding to fresh slaked lime 
and water a solution of starch, a little salt, and 
a few drops of dissolved indigo or blueing. 
Boil the starch to a thin gruel, adding the salt 
while it is boiling, and pour the whole into the 
lime and water while the latter is warm from the 
heat engendered in slaking ; then add the blue- 
ing to remove the yellow tint of the mixture, 
and use. Colors may be added if desired, but 
the use of poisonous colors, such as Paris Green, 
should be avoided. • 

The whitewash must be laid on with a large 
flat brush, as directed for Kalsomining. When 
old ceilings are whitewashed, it is difficult some- 
times to hide the stains ; the best way is firs 
to wash and scrape off with a trowel the old 
whiting and dirt, the surface being first wetted 
with a flat brush, and to stop up all the cracks 
and defective places. In cornices, a good deal 
of care must be taken in scraping out the leaves 
and ornaments. The ceiling must dry thoroughly 
after this operation before the whitewash is 
laid on. 

WHITING.— This fish is also called King- 
Jish, It is small, the color on the back and 



sides is a dark bluish gray, and the belly is 
white and silvery. The flesh is solid and sweet. 
In the Southern fish-markets, Whiting is 
abundant, but above Chesapeake Bay it is by 
no means regular in its appearance, several 
seasons sometimes elapsing without any being 
seen. It is in season from May to September. 
The usual weight is about three quarters of a 
pound, and few are found weighing as much as 
two pounds. 

Broiled Whiting. — Clean, wash, and dry the 
fish ; sprinkle them with salt and spread butter 
over them, and broil them on both sides over a 
clear fire. 

Fried Whiting. — Clean, wash, and dry the 
fish ; lay them in a flat dish, salt, and dredge 
them with flour ; have ready a frying-pan with 
plenty of hot lard, butter, or ('ripping ; put in 
as many fish as the pan will hold without crowd- 
ing, and fry to a light brown on both sides. 
WHITING. {See Chalk.) 
WHITLOW. (See Bone-felon.) 
WHOOPING-COUGH.— The popular idea 
that whooping-cough is a disease of slight im- 
portance, to be ranked among the Iightl3--re- 
garded " children's affections," such as rash 
or thrush, is an utterly mistaken one, and has 
doubtless cost many an infant its life. The 
fact is that whooping-cough is dangerous in the 
highest degree, especially in children under 
three years of age. Even in tolerably mild 
cases the brain may be affected and the bowels 
deranged ; and in cases of great severity a 
strain is put upon the entire system which 
taxes its powers to the utmost. The earliest 
symptom of whooping-cough is a common cold, 
accompanied by a cough which at first has 
nothing distinctive about it ; there is also a 
slight amount of fever, restlessness, and some- 
times running at the eyes and nose. In a 
few days the cough becomes more troublesome, 
and some glairy fluid may be brought up from 
the chest ; in a week or ten days, but oftener 
later, the child will begin to have the character- 
istic " whoop." The cough comes on in parox- 
ysms, and is more frequent by night than 
by day ; each paroxysm begins with a deep 
and loud inspiration, followed by a, succession 
of short and sharp expirations, again followed 
by a deep and loud inspiration, and the re- 
peated expiration ; this may go on several times, 
and last one or two minutes according to the 
severity of the case. Just before eacl\ attack 
comes on. the child cHngs to its nurse or 
mother ; it sits in an erect position ; during the 
paroxysm the face is flushed, the veins in the 
head and face are prominent, the eyes suffused 
and waterv, and generally there is some glairy 
fluid expelled from the mouth or vomiting may 
come on. After a paroxysm the child will rest 
for a time, and appear pretty well until the next 
attack comes on. In bad cases there may be 
twenty or thirty paroxysms a day, and several 
fits of coughing besides in which the whoop is 
not heard; in ordinary cases there are from 
four to ten spasmodic attacks in the twenty- 
four hours. These symptoms last for three or 



WHORTLEBERRY 



WINDOW GARDENING 



591 



four up to ten weeks, and then the cough 
abates in severity and frequency, and finally 
ceases altogether ; but after the whooping has 
ceased the child may continue to have a 
troublesome cough for some time. In most 
cases there is some bronchitis attending this 
complaint, and this is shown by the hurried 
breathing, rise of temperature, and rattling 
noises over the chest. Convulsions are a bad 
sign, and this is generally the way in which 
such cases die. Whooping-cough cannot be 
made out until the characteristic whoop ap- 
pears. As it is highly contagious, however, 
its onset may be expected if a common cough 
follows exposure to it. 

Treatment. — In all cases it is best for the 
child to be kept in the house in bad or 
doubtful weather, as soon as the malady has 
declared itself, as the danger is greatly in- 
creased if it takes cold. In a mild case it 
need not be put to bed, but it should be in a 
warm and even temperature, and protected 
from draughts. If there is any lung affection, 
the child must be put to bed. If the breathing 
be very bad, put a hot mustard and oatmeal 
poultice on the chest, and if the chest is a good 
deal stuffed and the child does not offer to vomit 
after the coughing paroxysm, a teaspoonful of 
syrup of ipecac may be given with advantage. 
The child must be fed in the usual way, but 
solid food should be given sparingly. When 
the infant has some other disease, as rickets, 
etc., the treatment proper for that disease may 
be continued. Steel wine is very valuable in 
cases of whooping-cough, more especially 
when there is no fever, and during convales- 
cence : it may also stop the diarrhoea which 
is often present. If there is any protrusion of 
the bowel, the part should be sponged lightly 
with a solution of sulphate of iron, and at once 
returned. This is often due to the excessive 
diarrhoea, and steel wine must be given in- 
ternally. Numberless remedies have been 
tried for the cure of whooping-cough, but none 
have succeeded. Iron, alum, zinc, sulphuric 
acid, etc., have all failed to do much. The 
most hopeful remedy is belladonna, if given in 
large doses, and the symptoms watched ; child- 
ren can bear proportionably more of this drug 
the younger they are, but it is a dangerous 
remedy, and must never be ventured upon 
except under the direction of a physician. In 
cities a daily visit to the gas-works has been 
said often to abate the violence of the disease. 
When the cough has gone on for some weeks, 
complete change of air is desirable. During 
convalescence, warm clothing should be worn, 
and the diet should be light and nourishing. 
WHORTLEBERRY. {See HUCKLEBERRY.) 
WINDOW GARDENING.— This term is 
commonly so used as to include all in-door cul- 
ture of plants, and as there is scarcely a shrub, 
flower, or vine that cannot be so cultivated, it 
will be seen that the subject is too comprehen- 
sive to be treated satisfactorily in a single ar- 
ticle. All such general directions as apply to 
the culture of plants, in either house or garden, 



are given in the article on Floriculture, 
while the special directions for each particular 
plant are given under the name of the plant it- 
self As a supplement to these, we add here a 
few comprehensive rules, applicable to all in- 
door floriculture, the substance of which is 
taken chiefly from Mr. E. S. Rand's excellent 
little book entitled, "Flowers for Parlor and 
Garden." 

Pots. The common baked-clay flower-pots 
are the best, and of these the light-colored 
are better than the brick-red. Plants seldom 
thrive in fancy pots. If something ornamental 
is desired, have the fancy pots large enough to 
set the common pots inside, or ornamental 
frames over the common ones. 

Potting. Always fill the lower end of the 
pot with broken potsherds, to secure drainage. 
In filling the soil around the plants, press it in 
firmly ; there is no advantage in loose potting. 
In re-potting cut away as much of the old soil as 
possible (being careful not to injure the roots ot 
the plant), and place the ball of the plant in the 
centre of the new pot, filling in all around with 
fresh soil. As a general rule, plants require re- 
potting whenever the roots begin to curl around 
the inside of the pot. This can be ascertained 
by placing the palm of the hand over the top of 
the pot, turning the latter upside down, and 
tapping its rim sharply against some hard ob- 
ject ; the plant and soil will generally come out 
into the hand, and can then be examined and 
returned. Stirring the surface of the soil is 
generally beneficial ; or the top soil, as far 
down as the upper roots, may be removed, and 
the pot refilled with fresh soil. 

Soil. The different kinds of soil used in flow- 
er-culture are : peat, which is the black earth 
usually taken from meadows or damp woods ; 
loam, or common garden soil ; sand, common 
or " silver," such as is used by glass-makers ; 
leaf-mould, consisting of decomposed leaves 
found in the top-soil of old woods ; and manure, 
taken from the barn -yard, and well rotted. 
These are used in varying proportions with dif- 
ferent plants, but a good general soil for potting 
plants may be made as follows : four parts 
leaf-mould, two parts sand, two parts manure, 
one part loam, and one part peat. 

Manuring is seldom needed with pot plants, 
and should be done- very sparingly. A tea- 
spoonful of guano dissolved in a quart of water 
and applied once a week will probably do no 
harm ; or liquid stable manure may be used in 
the same proportion, and as seldom. 

Exposure. Very few plants will flourish 
without sunlight, and consequently they must 
be placed near a window. Select the window 
which has most sun and has it longest. 

Temperature. The temperature of a room 
in which flowers are cultivated should never be 
allowed to fall (even at night) below 40° or 45° 
Fahrenheit. This heat should be maintained 
by an open fire, or, if by an air-tight stove, a 
large pan of water should be constantly evapo- 
rating on it. Furnace heat is injurious. {See 
Heat Governor, under Warming.) 



592 



WINDOW GARDENING 



WINE 



Ventilation is not less important than tem- 
perature. The best way is to open the top of 
the window, when the sun's rays are hottest on 
the plants. The quantity of air admitted must 
be proportioned to the outside temperature ; 
in cold, cloudy days, but little, and often none, 
should be given. Never allow a direct stream 
of cold air to blow upon any plant. 

Watering. The only positive rules that can 
be laid down are these : (i) Water regularly, 
once a day — the morning is the best time ; (2) 
always use a watering-pot with a fine rose ; 
(3) have the water neither cold nor warm, but 
just the temperature of the atmosphere of the 
room. A good rule, as far as it goes, is never 
to allow the soil to become either perfectly dry 
or sodden with moisture. Never allow water 
to stand in the saucers of the pots unless the 
plants are semi-aquatic. 

Washing. The leaves of plants are filled 
with " stomata," or breathing pores, which al- 
low exhalation when the leaves are clean. This 
process is very essential to the health of plants, 
and as the pores are easily stopped up by an 
accumulation of dust, the leaves, both upper 
and under sides, should be washed at least 
once a week. Use water moderately warm, 
and if the plants are very dirty, add a little 
soap-suds. This washing should be carefully 
done with a soft sponge in the case of plants 
with thick polished leaves, such as camellias or 
oranges ; where the leaves are hairy or the 
substance is soft, use a small syringe fitted 
with a very fine " rose." Never wet flowers, 
nor allow drops of water to stand on any leaves, 
in the sunshine ; the rays of the sun are 
brought to a focus in the drop of water, and 
scorch the leaf. Once a month the stem and 
branches of all hard-wood plants should be 
wiped off with a sponge dipped in lukewarm 
water. 

Pruning. Not much of this is necessary. 
Should a branch grow out of place or die, cut 
it off neatly with a sharp knife ; and, of course, 
remove all dead leaves and old blossoms. 

Insects. The only insects that trouble house 
plants are the green fly, the mealy bug, the 
scale, and the red spider. The green fly may 
be killed by smoking with tobacco ; put the plant 
under a barrel with smoking tobacco, let it re- 
main fifteen minutes, and then give it a syring- 
ing. Mealy bug and scale must be searched 
for and destroyed ; frequent spongings do 
much to keep down these pests. Frequent 
syringing of the foliage will keep away the red 
spider. 

Window Boxes. An economical substi- 
tute for the elaborate Wardian and Wal- 
tonian cases may be secured by fitting a box 
into the window, and plantmg in it small vines, 
creepers, bulbs, etc., in such a manner as to 
produce a variety of green foliage. Of course 
the field of choice for this purpose is practi- 
cally unlimited, but the following list includes, 
perhaps, the most desirable and popular plants: 

Climbing Vines. Maurandya, Cobea, Cal- 
empelis, Pilogyne suavis, Physianthus albeus. 



Trailing Plants. Var. Sweet Alyssum, Con- 
volvulus Mauritanicus,Vinca Major Variegata, 
Moneywort, Ground Ivy, Geranium I'elegante, 
Thunbergia. 

Foliage Plants. Begonia Weltoniensis, Dra- 
cena, Farfugium grande ; Geraniums — Bronze, 
Tricolor, and Silver-leaf; Abutilon, variegated ; 
Veronica variegata. 

WINDOWS. {See Cleaning, Putty, and 
Ventilation.) 

WILL. {Sec Law.) 

WINE. — This term is usually applied only 
to the fermented juice of the grape ; when 
other fruits, as currants, blackberries, goose- 
berries, elderberries, etc., are used instead of 
grapes in making it, the product is generally 
distinguished as domestic or home-made wine. 
Directions for making all the different kinds of 
home-made wines are given under the special 
fruit from which each is made ; and informar 
tion as to the choice and serving of the various 
wines commonly used in this country is given 
under the name of each. We shall confine 
ourselves here, therefore, to a few general 
observations which will apply equally to all 
wines. 

The quantity of alcohol is the first element 
which determines their price. A duty is levied 
on all wines coming into this country, and 
those containing less than a certain percentage 
of alcohol pay less than those containing more. 
The proportion of alcohol in the stronger wines 
has been determined by Brande as follows : 



Wine. 



Alcohol, 
per cent. 

Tokay 9.15 

Hermitage, Red . . . 1 1 . 40 

Champagne 11.65 

Vin de Grave 11.84 

Burgundy 12.20 

Hock 13-31 

Bordeaux Claret ...13-53 
Marsala 1 5 • I4 



W Alcohol, 

ine. 
per cent. 

Rous.sillon 15-96 

Hermitage, White. 16. 14 

Lisbon 17-45 

Sherry 17-63 

Constantia 18.29 

Madeira 20.31 

Port 21.75 



Wines, however, are not consumed for their 
alcohol alone ; they contain other ingredients 
which they derive from the grape-juice, which 
give them taste and flavor. Thus, when fer- 
mentation of the grape-juice is not complete, a 
certain quantity of sugar is left, and according 
to the quantity of sugar left wines are said to 
be "sweet" or "dry." While hocks, clarets, 
and other light wines contain little or no sugar, 
port, sherry, and champagne always contain a 
large amount. In the case of port and sherry 
this sugar is added during the manufacture, in 
order to enable them to bear exportation. 

There are three other qualities in wines 
which demand some consideration. The first 
is what is called the bouquet and \\\e flavor. 
These things are sometimes confounded, but 
they are really different. The vinous flavor is 
common to all wines, but the bouquet is pecu- 
liar to certain wines. The substance which 
gives flavor to all wines is oenanthic ether, and 
is formed during the fermentation of the grape- 
juice. The bouquet of wines is formed in the 



WINE 



593 



same way by some of the acids found in the 
grape-juice after fermentation combining with 
the ethyl of the alcohol, and forming ethers. 
These are the things which make one wine 
more pleasant to drink than another, and which 
give their high prices to the best wines. They 
are not detectable by any chemical agency; 
but it is the taste of these bouqjiets, and noth- 
ing else, which gives to one wine the value of 
five dollars a bottle, and to another fifty cents, 
when all other qualities are precisely the 
same. 

The second point in the nature of wines is 
their color. Some wines are what is called 
"red" and others are "white." Ports, clarets, 
burgundies are all red ; also many other wines. 
The red colors of these wines have been an- 
alysed with some care, but they do not seem to 
exert any influence upon the system. The 
most important agent in them is tannic acid, or 
tannin, which exists in some wines to a very 
large extent, and which is produced by the 
skins of the grapes used in making the wine. 
It gives an astringency to red wines which is 
not found in white. The other coloring matters 
described by chemists are blue and a brozuti. 
These also come from the skins of the grapes, 
and the latter is found in dark white wines as 
well as in red. 

The other matters which give a character to 
wines are the salme compounds. These sub- 
stances, which constitute the ashes of all vege- 
table tissues, exist in a varying quantity in all 
fruits, and are found dissolved in the juices of 
fruit ; hence we find them remaining in wine 
after fermentation of the juice. The most 
abundant of these salts is bitartrate of potash 
(cream of tartar). Besides this, wines contain 
tartrate of lime, tartrate of alumina, tartrate of 
iron, chloride of sodium, chloride of potassium, 
sulphate of potash, and phosphate of alumina. 
These salts occur in the proportion of from 
one to four parts in the one thousand of wine. 
They do not make much difference in the 
flavor or action of wines ; but their presence 
or absence is one of the surest indications of 
the genuineness of a wine. Those who manu- 
facture wines with alcohol and water, and add 
a certain quantity of good wine to give a flavor, 
do not usually add these mineral constituents, 
which are always the best test of a pure 
wine. 

Selection of Wines. — The various wines 
of Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, &c., are 
imported into this country chiefly in wood ; but 
some of them, as the best qualities of the Ger- 
man and French wines, in bottle only, being 
packed in cases containing generally three 
dozen bottles each. The bottled wines are in 
most cases fit for consumption after two or 
three months' rest to recover the agitation 
caused by travelling, in which state they are 
said to be " sick." Wines in wood must fre- 
quently be kept for a considerable time, in 
order to deposit all the woody and mucilagin- 
ous matter, which is never afterwards com- 
petely thrown down if the wine is bottled too 
38 



soon. The pipe or butt is therefore removed 
to a good cellar, which should be free from the 
jar of heavy traffic, and also of an even tem- 
perature, as near as possible to 50 degrees 
Fahrenheit. Here it may rest for three or four 
months, when a spile is to be inserted, and a 
sample tasted, by the state of which the pur- 
chaser is guided as to the propriety of bottling 
it at once, or of waiting for a further deposit of 
the objectionable matters. Wine should al- 
ways be bottled before it has lost all the sweet- 
ness which it possesses, and the owner should 
not wait for it to acquire the exact amount of dry- 
ness which he expects it to have when bottled 
and fit for use. If he waits thus long he will 
find that instead of having a wine dry enough 
for his palate, it will be too thin, and perhaps 
acid, and will, in fact, be ruined forever. The 
exact degree of richness and fruitiness there- 
fore required are only to be judged of by those 
who have had some little experience, and con- 
sequently the young housekeeper will do well 
to consult some friend upon this very important 
point. The particular vintage influences a 
good judge very materially in deciding, as he 
is aware that wine of a vintage known to pro- 
duce a rich quality will always require a longer 
time to mature than that of an inferior year. 
Many other circumstances must always be 
taken into the account, as the kind of wine, 
and the taste of the party for or by whom it is 
chiefly to be used. Thus, many people like a 
thin and pale port, and for them it should be 
kept long in the wood, so as to discharge its 
color and fruitiness as quickly as possible ; 
others, again, like quite the reverse, and for 
them the opposite plan must be adopted. 
Moreover many tricks are played with port 
wine, in order to hasten its arrival at maturity, 
such as destroying the color by charcoal, mix- 
ing with perry or cider, &c., &c. ; but as these 
are never worthy the attention of those who 
intend to drink the contents of their cellars, 
the less said on the subject the better. The 
only sound advice to be given to a young 
housekeeper is, either to purchase his wine of 
a respectable retail wine merchant, or, if he 
choose to economise, and can trust to his own 
judgment or that of a friend, to buy it in the 
docks as imported. {See also the different 
wines.) 

Adulteration of Wines. — To detect adul- 
terations requires chemical analysis of so deli- 
cate an order that they cannot be applied by 
non-professional persons. M. de Cherville, 
the French chemist, however, gives the follow- 
ing simple test for deciding whether red wines 
are, or are not, artificially colored. Pour into 
a glass a small quantity of the liquid which 
you wish to test, and dissolve a bit of potash 
in it. If no sediment forms, and if the wine 
assumes a greenish hue, it has not been artifi- 
cially colored ; if a violet sediment forms, the 
wine has been colored with elder or mulberries ; 
if the sediment is red, it has been colored 
with beet-root or Pernambuco wood; if violet- 
red, with logwood; if yellow, with poke ber- 



594 



WINE 



ries ; if violet-blue, with privet berries ; and if 
pale violet, with sun-flower. 

Bottling Wine.— Cold weather is the best 
for bottling wine. At all times of the year it 
is desirable to avoid stormy weather, and winds 
blowing from the south or west. The bottles 
should have been most carefully cleaned, for 
the slightest negligence in this particular may 
cause vexatious consequences. Shot or small 
nails are usually employed for this purpose, 
but are far from suitable. A shot or nail often 
remains fixed between the side of the bottle 
and the interior sweUing; and the lead which 
thus remains in contact with the wine may, in 
certain cases, become a source of real poisoning. 
The iron is not injurious to health, but it spoils 
the color of red wines and blackens white ones. 
It is therefore much better to employ coarse 
gravel, which cleans the bottles perfectly, and 
a few grains of which, if left in the bottle, 
cause no inconvenience. The choice of corks 
is highly important. Some corks are very 
porous, and, although they stop the bottle well 
in appearance, they allow the wine to evapor- 
ate. Hard and dry corks have this effect. 
The best corks are those which are fine-grained, 
soft, yielding to the fingers, and showing few 
pores. 

To insert the cock, you tap the cask about 
an inch and a half above the rim. As soon as 
a few drops of the liquid begin to issue, you 
withdraw the augur, and drive in the cock by 
hand, avoiding any shock which might disturb 
the lees. As you cannot always manage that, 
it is a good plan to put the tap in its place the 
day before bottling the wine. Beneath it, you 
set a salad-bowl or basin, to catch the wine 
which escapes when the cock is not turned 
back in time, and which runs over when a 
bottle is filled too full. The bottle applied to 
the tap to be filled ought to be held in a slant- 
ing position, to prevent the wine from forming 
a froth, which would hinder its being properly 
filled. The bottles should be perfectly corked 
as fast as they are filled. The cork is driven 
in with the bat till it projects only a quarter of 
an inch, or less. When the wine nearly ceases 
to flow by the tap, the cask is tilted behind, 
and kept in a position sloping forwards by 
means of a wooden wedge. The operation 
must be done steadily, and without shaking, to 
avoid disturbing the lees. But after the cask 
is once tilted, the wine left in it must be drawn 
immediately, whether it be clear or thick. The 
bottles of thick wine should be set on one side, 
upright, to settle, when they may be decanted 
into other bottles, and definitely corked. The 
corks should be covered with rosin, to prevent 
them from moulding and from being eaten by 
the insects with which many cellars abound. 
An excellent preparation for sealing bottles is, 
two pounds of rosin mixed with a quarter of a 
pound of yellow bees'-wax, or a couple of 
ounces of tallow, to prevent its being too brittle. 
It may be colored with red lead, red ochre, 
ivory black, or any other ingredient. Melt 
and mix it well in an earthen vessel over a 



gentle fire ; then let it cool so as to be only 
just liquid, when you may dip necks of the 
bottles in it up to the rim round the neck. If 
the wax is too hot it may cause the necks of 
the bottles to split or burst. When the wine 
is all bottled it should be stored in a cool 
cellar, and on no account on the bottles' bot- 
toms, or in damp straw, but on their sides, in 
sand. 

Fining Wine. — White wines are usually 
fined by isinglass, in the proportion of about 
one ounce and a half (dissolved in a pint and 
a half of water, and thinned with some of the 
wine) to the hogshead. Red wines are gener- 
ally fined with the whites of eggs, in the pro- 
portion of twelve or eighteen to the pipe ; they 
must be well beaten to a froth with about a 
pint of water, and afterwards with a little of 
the wine, before adding them to the liquor. 
Gypsum is frequently used to clear muddy 
white wines. Finings are made by wine- 
coopers, of whom it is better to buy them than 
to make them yourself. A quart of finings 
should be allowed for a hogshead, and a pint 
for a quarter cask. After being fined, in about 
a month, wine will have settled so as to be fit 
to bottle. When wine does not clear the first 
time, rack it into a clean cask, to separate it 
from the lees, and fine again : or add to the 
second lot of finings a handful of silver sand. 
New red wines may have a handful of salt 
added to the finings for a pipe. When wine is 
chilled with frost, it should be covered with 
sacks, and the cellar warmed to about 60". 

Keeping Wine. — Wine is generally spoiled 
bv contact with the air — the weaker kinds in- 
variably. This fact answers the question fre- 
quently put by tyros : " What weak wine is 
there that I can keep uncorked several days ? " 
There is none. It needs alcohol to keep it. 

Air in the cask or bottle, taking the place 
of alcohol and water lost by evaporation, is 
fatal. Hence casks must be filled from other 
casks as rapidly as evaporation or leakage 
leaves any unfilled space. The leakage of a 
voyage is often fatal. 

The temperature of the place where wine is 
stored should be as even and as near an aver- 
age of 50 degrees Fahrenheit as possible. The 
upper rooms of average dwelling houses are 
safer than ordinary cellars. Frost is fatal, ex- 
cept to strong wines, so is excessive heat, even 
that of exposed positions in summer. Bottles 
should always be laid flat with their labels up, 
so that in handling them one may know where 
the deposit is and disturb it as little as possible. 

The length of time which wines may be ad- 
vantageously kept, depends mainly upon their 
strength. Considering this in each instance, 
it may be roughly stated for clarets and the 
light white wines, from three to ten years ; for 
Burgundies and the heavier wines, from five to 
thirty years ; for port, Madeira, and sherry, an 
almost indefinite period. 

Serving Wine. — No wine should ever be 
iced by putting ice in it, but always by ice out- 
side of it in another vessel. Wines to be 



WINE-CELLAR 



WOODCOCK 



595 



drunk of the temperature of the room may be 
gently warmed if necessary, but the better way 
is to let them stand in the room long enough to 
acquire the temperature naturally. (See Cra- 
dle, Cobbler, Decanting, Dinner, Punch, 
Sangaree, American Wines, Hungarian 
Wines, and others under their specific names.) 
WINE-CELLAR. — The wine-cellar in cities 
should be at the back of the house, so that the 
wine may not be jarred by passing vehicles. 
The temperature should be uniform, as near 50 
degrees Fahrenheit as possible, and the cellar 
should be well ventilated. Sherry, port, and 
especially Madeira, ripen best in a room at the 
top of the house. No sink or sewer should be 
in the vicinity of the wine-cellar. Champagne 
should be carefully laid on the side or imbed- 
ded in sand, the bottles never being placed on 
end. Bottles of sherry, port, or Madeira, may 
be placed on end. 

WINE-WHEY. (See Whey.) 
WINKLES. (See Periwinkles.) 
WINTERGREEN.— An aromatic creeping 
wild plant, bearing bright red berries, which 
grows in dry woods. The fresh leaves have a 
hot, tart taste, and are often used in flavoring 
soups, stews, and other dishes. As they are 
only good when fresh, they are not usually 
procurable in market. The plant has medici- 
nal qualities as a tonic and diuretic. 

WISTARIA. — There are several varieties 
of this beautiful vine. The Wistaria Sinensis, 
if trained properly, will cover the entire front 
of a house in two or three years. It bears long, 
pendulous clusters of pale blue flowers both in 



the Spring and Autumn. W. Sinensis Alba is 
a white variety, not so robust as the blue. The 
W.Frutescens (or American Glycine), is more 
of a dwarf habit than either of the above-men- 
tioned. Simply put the seed into the ground 
or set out a cutting, and provide the vine with 
supports as it grows . It will thrive in any soil, 
and is perfectly hardy. 

WOOD makes a more cheerful and healthy 
fire than any other fuel, but it consumes quickly, 
is expensive, and bulky to store, and must be 
kept very dry, as otherwise much heat is lost 
in converting its water into steam. The utihty 
is in proportion to the weight, hence heavy 
woods are best. The lighter woods burn away 
very rapidly. Roughly speaking, coal will give 
out as much heat and last as long as twice its 
weight of wood. (See Warming. For des- 
cription of ornamental woods, see Furniture.) 

WOODBINE. — A vigorous, hardy vine, of 
large, dark, glossy leaves, climbing fifty feet. 
The flowers are inconspicuous and greenish. 
It bears small, dark blue berries. It is culti- 
vated like the Honeysuckle, thrives in any 
goo'd garden soil, requires plenty of water, and 
to look well should be carefully trained. 

WOODCHUCK — Also called groiind-hog. 
— A small, stout, brown animal, weight from 
eight to twelve pounds. In the Fall it is very 
fat, when the flesh of the young is said to be 
quite palatable, tasting like pig. The old ones 
are tolerably good, but are much better after 
having been frozen for some time. Cook the 
young as directed for Pig, and the old ones 
like Opossum. 







*^? r\^ 



WOODCOCK. — A fine bird will weigh half 
a pound. The English bird is larger. Is in 
season from the ist of July to the ist of No- 
vember, and is considered best in the month 
of October. 

Broiled Woodcock. — Clean carefully, split 
down the back, and broil over a clear fire. 
Butter, pepper and salt when done, and let 
them lie for five minutes between two hot 
dishes before sending to table. 



Roast Woodcock. — Do not draw them, 
but after having wiped them with clean soft 
cloths, truss them with the head under the 
wing and the bill laid close along the breast ; 
pass a small skewer through the thighs, catch 
the ends with a bit of twine, and tie it across 
to keep the legs straight. Suspend the birds, 
with feet downwards, to a bird-spit, flour them 
well, and baste them with butter, which should 
be ready melted in the pan or ladle. Before 



596 



WOOL 



WRITING-INK 



the trail begins to drop, which it will do as 
soon as the birds are well heated, lay a piece 
of buttered toast into the pan under them to 
catch it, as this is considered finer eating than 
even the flesh of the birds ; continue the 
basting, letting the butter fall from them into 
the spoon or ladle, as it cannot be collected 
again from the dripping-pan should it drop 
there, in consequence of the toast being in it. 
There should be a piece of toast for each 
woodcock, and the .trail should be spread 
equally over it. When the birds are done, 
which they will be, at a brisk fire, in from 
fifteen to twenty minutes, lay the toasts into a 
very hot dish, place the birds upon them, pour 
a little gravy round the head, and send more to 
table in a tureen. 

I'he above is the orthodox English way of 
roasting woodcock. If it is not liked, fill the 
birds with a rich forcemeat or stuffing, sew 
them up, and roast from twenty minutes to 
half an hour, basting with butter and water. 
When half done, put slices of buttered toast 
beneath, and serve the birds upon these. 

WOOL. — Though less costly than silk, wool 
has far more value as a textile material. Gen- 
erally the fabrics made of it are thick and 
coarse ; but even in respect of textile beauty 
really good wool stands very high, while as 
regards the power of imperfect heat conduction 
or warmth, wool is far superior to any other 
material used as clothing. {See Clothing.) 

"WORMS. — The following are some of the 
chief syinptoms of the presence of worms in 
children : irregular appetite, which is sometimes 
voracious and at others languid ; there is often 
a craving for food after a full meal ; the bowels 
are sometimes costive, but more generally 
loose ; the motions are slimy and pale ; often 
there is a bitter colic, and sometimes feverish- 
ness ; the breath becomes fetid ; and there is 
often a livid circle around and under the eyes. 
After a time the child becomes emaciated, while 
the abdomen is enlarged ; the upper lip often 
becomes thickened, and sometimes the nose 
also ; the child often picks its nose, and during 
the night grinds its teeth. It is seldom that 
all these symptoms occur at the same time, and 
no one of them is peculiar to and distinctive of 
worms. The most unequivocal are the irregular 
appetite, the craving for food after a full meal, 
the bowels at one time costive at another re- 
laxed, and the slimy character of the motions. 
When these symptoms are present, worms may 
be suspected, but the only proof of their exist- 
ence is seeing them in the stools. 

Treatment — The most necessary thing to 
do is to regulate the child's digestion ; but in 
the meantime, to obtain immediate relief, dis- 
solve a lump of bitter aloes of the size of a 



large hazel-nut in half a pint of hot milk, and 
give it as an injection ; occasionally, allow the 
child to inhale spirits of turpentine, by holding 
a cloth having a very little upon it to the nose, 
for an instant only. Or, make a tea as follows : 
Get half an ounce of pinkroot and a quarter of 
an ounce each of senna and of fennel ; put a 
pint of boiling water on them, and give a table- 
spoonful three times a day. Nothing more in 
the way of medicine should be given except 
under medical advice, the common worm-cakes, 
vermifuge, and similar remedies, nearly all 
contain calomel. 

Thread-worms. — The above symptoms and 
treatment apply to the common round worms 
which infest the bowels. The thread-worm is 
a slender worm, from a quarter to half an inch 
long, which makes its abode in the lowest por- 
tion of the intestinal canal, where it causes an 
almost intolerable itching. At night, the worms 
frequently wander outside, and then the itching 
sensation becomes more acute. These worms 
are easily removed for a time by injections of 
warm water, and their reproduction may gen- 
erally be checked by injections of an infusion 
of the seeds of the satiionica, or a solution of 
salt and water ; a solution of aloes in water is 
also a good and popular remedy. The best 
way to remove them permanently is to strength- 
en the system by tonics and a generous diet, 
with plenty of exercise. {See Tape-worm.) 

WORSTED. — Yarn spun from combed wool, 
which, in the spinning, is twisted harder than 
ordinary ; it is used for carpets, hosiery, gloves, 
etc. The term is often used erroneously as if 
it were synonymous with ivoollen. 

WOUNDS. {See Bruises and Cuts.) 

WRINGERS. — The success of Washing 
Machines for clothes is as yet doubtful, none 
having as yet been found to furnish a perfectly 
satisfactory substitute for washing by hand ; 
but clothes-wringers perform their work far 
more perfectly than it can be done even by the 
strongest laundress. There are several differ- 
ent kinds of Wringers, varying from each other 
sufficiently to secure separate patents ; but all 
of them consist essentially of two India-rubber 
rollers, kept at a tight pressure by means of 
screws ; on turning a handle, the clothes, when 
washed, are drawn between the rollers, and 
pressed dry without injury to the fabric. In 
the best wringers, so equal is the pressure that 
the same machine will press dry a thick woollen 
carpet lifted directly from a tub of water, or a 
thin sheet of writing-paper that has been im- 
mersed for hours. Most of the wringers are 
so made that they can be fastened to any kind 
of tub, and their use may be confidently rec- 
ommended. 

WRITING-INK. {See Ink.) 



YAM 



YELLOW-FEVER 



597 



Y 



YAM. — The common Yam is an excellent 
vegetable, closely resembling the sweet potato. 
It is extensively grown in the Southern States, 
whence it is sent to the Northern markets, where 
in favorable seasons it is both plentiful and 
cheap. The yam is much larger than the 
sweet potato, is more irregularly formed, and is 
quite darkly colored. By some it is preferred 
to the potato, and any one who likes the potato 
will like it. Yams weigh usually from one to 
three pounds each, but occasionally they weigh 
as much as twenty pounds. They are in season 
from September to January. Cook and serve 
them as directed for sweet potatoes. {See 
Potato.) 

YEAST. — Yeast consists of a number of 
fungi, called the yeast-plant, floating in the 
liquor in which they are developed. These 
fungi are in the shape of minute oval or circu- 
lar bodies, or sporules, which, under circum- 
stances adapted to their development, grow 
and multiply to an incredible extent in a very 
short time. They are easily destroyed by heat, 
cold, or mechanical injury, or by chemical 
agents. In dried yeast, great care is required 
in handling it for the purpose of making it into 
parcels, or it will be rendered useless by the 
destruction of its vital principle. 

Brewer's or Distillery Yeast. — This is the 
frothy substance that rises to the surface dur- 
ing the fermenting of malt liquors. It is sup- 
erior to any other yeast, and may generally be 
procured from the brewer. One eighth as niuch 
of brewer's yeast as of ordinary yeast is re- 
quired in making bread, etc. 

Compressed Yeast. — Sold in small squares, 
wrapped in tinfoil, and has but recently come 
into use. It acts very quickly and is much 
liked. It must be bought fresh every week. 

Hard Yeast, or Yeast Cakes. — L Take 
some of the best yeast you can make, and 
thicken it with Indian meal till it becomes a 
very stiff batter ; add a little rye, if any is at 
hand, to make it adhere better. Make the 
mixture into cakes an inch thick, and three 
inches by two in size, and dry them_ in the 
wind but not in the sun. Keep them tied in a 
bag in a dry cool place, where they will not 
freeze. One of these cakes is enough for 
four quarts of flour ; when it is to be used, soak 
it in milk or water for several hours, and then 
use it like other yeast. 

n. — Stir into a pint of good livelv yeast a 
tablespoonful of salt and enough wheat flour to 
make a thick batter ; when it has risen, stir in 
Indian meal till ot the right consistency to 
roll ; when risen again, roll them out thin, cut 



them into cakes with a tumbler, and dry them 
in the shade in clear windy weather. When 
perfectly dry, tie them up in a bag, and keep 
them in a cool dry place. Use one of these 
cakes to four quarts of flour, dissolving it in a 
little lukewarm water or milk. These cakes 
will keep good tor five or six months. 

Hop Yeast. — Take :-Wo'^s, }( oz. (one 
handful); pared potatoes, 4 lbs ; salt, % pt', 
sugar, % pt ; ginger, i tablespoonful ; water, 4 
qts ; yeast (home-brewed), }4. pt. 

Boil the potatoes in three quarts of water, 
and pass them (with the water) through the 
colander ; boil the hops ten minutes in one 
quart of water ; strain the water on the potatoes; . 
, add the sugar, salt and ginger. The whole 
should measure five quarts : if it lacks, add tep- 
id water. When lukewarm, add the yeast, mix 
well and leave in a warm place till light ; this 
will be indicated by bubbles on the surface ; it 
does not increase in bulk like thicker yeasts. 
Keep it in a covered crock, and in using stir it 
up from the bottom. A gill is sufficient for one 
quart of milk or water, and the bread will re- 
quire little, if any, additional salt. In a dry, 
cool place this yeast will keep for months. This 
receipt, has been in use for a long time, both in 
the country and city and is very highly prized. 

Patent Yeast. — Boil two ounces of the 
best hops in four quarts of water for half an 
hour ; strain and cool till lukewarm, then add a 
small handful of salt, and half a pound of sugar ; 
beat up a pound of flour with some of the 
liquor, and mix all well together. Let it stand 
48 hours, and then add three pounds of pota- 
toes, boiled and mashed ; let it stand again 24 
hours, stirring it very often ; then strain and 
bottle, and it is fit for use. It will keep in a 
cool place two months. 

Potato Yeast. — Pare and boil six potatoes, 
and mash them through a cullender ; mix with 
them six tablespoonfuls of flour ; pour on this 
a quart of boiling water (the water the potatoes 
were boiled in isbest), and add half a teacupful 
of sugar, and a tablespoonful of salt ; when 
cool mix in a teacupful of home-made yeast or 
half as much brewer's yeast. 

YELLOW FEVER. — This is an infectious, 
continued fever beginning with languor, chilli- 
ness, headache and pain in the back; the counten- 
ance is flushed and the eye moist and suffused; 
the skin gradually acquires a lemon or greenish- 
yellow color ; there is generally wandering of 
the mind, and often delirium; the patient is 
restless and watchful, or he may pass into a 
state of drowsiness and then coma ; there is 
an uneasy feeling at the pit of the stomach, and 



598 



YELLOW-GUM 



ZINNIA 



vomiting, at first of a clear, glairy fluid, which 
afterwards becomes of a coffee-ground appea- 
rance ; there may also be irrepressible hic- 
cough, and shrieking or melancholy wailing. 
Sometimes the disease progresses with fear- 
ful rapidity, passing through all the stages, 
and putting an end to the patient's life within 
twenty-four hours. The vomiting of the dark- 
colored fluid is indication of a fatal termination. 
The cajise of yellow fever is obscure. It 
seems to be endemic in certain "localities, and is 
always highly contagious. It appears to affect 
those who live in the low country more than 
those on the hills ; it does not extend, as a rule, 
to parts more than 2500 feet above the sea. 
A certain amount of heat is also essential to 
its development ; few cases are observed where 
the temperature is less than 72** Fahr., and 
the first frost puts an end to its spread. Second 
attacks of yellow fever are very rare. 

Treatment. — The patient should have a hot 
bath as soon as the symptoms appear, and 
then, going to bed, he should have warms drinks 
so as to encourage sweating ; this may be 
followed by a purgative so as to keep the 
bowels well open. Mercury need not be 



given ; nor is quinine of any use. The sick- 
ness is very distressing, but may be relieved 
by lime-water, or a few drops of chlorodyne or 
chloroform; creasote and hydrocyanic acid, 
though sometimes recommended, do not seem 
to be of any use for this purpose. Stimulants 
must be given according to the needs of each 
case. The great objects in treatment are to 
sustain the vital powers, to moderate the febrile 
excitement, and to check any distressing symp- 
toms that may arise. Competent medical 
advice should be obtained at the earliest possi- 
ble moment. 

YELLO"W GUM.— This is the jaundice of 
new-born infants. It comes on two or three 
days after birth, and the child's skin is of a 
yellow color, the urine very dark and staining 
the cloths a deep yellow, while the motions are 
light. It is a simple disorder which will soon 
pass away. It is due to the liver not acting 
properly at first. Thfe child should be put to 
the breast, and the mother's milk is generally 
sufficiently aperient at first to open the bowels ; 
if not, a little grey powder may be given at bed- 
time. It may be some days before the yellow 
tinge is quite gone from the skin. 



ZINC. — This metal has lately been introduced 
into domestic economy for vessels of various 
kinds, and for other purposes. The salts of 
zinc are not so poisonous as those of lead ; 
but they are so to a great degree, and therefore 
this metal should not be used in the construc- 
tion of vessels in which food is cooked or kept. 
Zinc is very little liable to rust on exposure to 
air, and therefore is a useful material for many 
utensils formerly made of iron or copper. Coal 
scuttles are now made of zinc alone, or of sheet 
iron coated with zinc, which are more durable 
than those of iron, and cheaper than those of 
copper. Zinc is also employed instead of lead 
for baths, as being cheaper, and for pails, and 
rain-water and other pipes. 

Several of the salts of zinc are used in medi- 
cine. The oxide of zinc is made by heating the 
carbonate; it is a white powder, without taste 
or smell, and turns yellow by heating. Its only 
preparation is an ointment, which is very useful 
as an application to raw and weeping surfaces. 
If given internally in large doses it causes 
vomiting, but it is never used with that inten- 
tion. Given as a nervine tonic and stimulant; 
used in chorea, epilepsy, hysteria, and neural- 
gia. Dose 3 to 5 grains, best in pill form, 3 
times a day. Chloride of zinc is made by dis- 
solving zinc in hydrochloric acid. Chloride of 
zinc paste has powerful caustic properties, and 
is used to destroy cancerous masses and malig- 
nant ulcers, so as to obtain a healthy fresh 



surface. In weaker solutions it is useful as an 
astringent. Sulphate of zinc is the most impor- 
tant salt of the metal; it is got by dissolving 
zinc in sulphuric acid. The salt occurs in 
crystals, very similar to those of Epsom salts, 
but gives off water instead of absorbing it from 
the atmosphere. Given internally, sulphate of 
zinc causes vomiting speedily and surely; it is 
thus one of the best emetics in suitable cases, 
but must not be administered where there is 
already irritation. It is given in smaller doses 
like the oxide, as a tonic in nervous complaints. 
Applied externally, in various forms of dis- 
charge, sulphate of zinc is a most valuable 
astringent. The dose as an emetic is from fif- 
teen to twenty grains; as a tonic from three to 
five, three times a day; as a lotion three grains 
may be dissolved in an ounce of water. 

ZINO-WHITE — This is similar to white- 
lead in appearance, but has less body or cover- 
ing qualities. It is frequently used ^T/^r white- 
lead paint, when an extra finish is desired. It 
is of a beautiful white color, and when mixed 
with white varnish, it forms the " china gloss " 
of commerce. 

ZINNIA. — The Zinnias are hardy annuals, 
and among the most desirable of this popular 
family of plants. The single Zinnia was an old 
favorite in the garden, but is now completely 
eclipsed by the fine double varieties. The 
latter grow to a large size, and produce a pro- 
fusion of red, yellow, and purple flowers, as 



ZINNIA 



599 



large as a rose, all summer. They are among 
the most ornamental plants in the garden. The 
seeds should be started in a frame in April 
and transplanted to the garden in May, or the 
young plants may be procured of the florist 
already started. They will thrive in any good 



garden soil, but this should be well pulverized 
and raked smooth. Water must be given fre- 
quently in the hot days of summer. In the 
autumn, when the frost has killed down the 
plants, pull up the old stalks, and in the spring 
sow new seed. 



appendix 
Additional Recipes 



WRITTEN IN BY THE OWNER. 



1^^ Whenever a new recipe is written in, a reference to it should be 
entered on the margin opposite the proper title in the book, and in the Index. 



Il 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 603 



604 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 605 



606 ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 607 



608 ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 609 



39 



610 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 611 



612 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 613 



614 ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



4 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. . 615 



616 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 617 



618 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 619 



620 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



i 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 621 



622 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 628 



624 ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 625 



626 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 627 



628 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES. 



INDEX. 



Abrasion, i. 
Abscess, I. 

in the Ear, i86. 

after Scarlet Fever, 469. 
Absinthe, i. 
Acacia, i. 
Accidents, i. 
Account {See Bill). 
Acetic Acid, i. 
Acids, I. 

Stain, 509. 
Aerated Bread, i. 
Agave, 2. 
Ague, 2. 
Air, 2. 

A la mode Beef, 23. 
A la Reine Artichoke, 10. 
Alabaster, 3. 

Cement, 90. 
Albumen, 3. 
Alcohol, 3. 
Ale, 4- 

Caudle, 89. 

Mulled, 356. 

Posset,, 413. 

Sangaree, 461. 
Alkalies, 4. 
Allopathy, 4. 
Allsopp's Ale, 4. 
Allspice, 4. 

Essence of, 195. 
Almond, 4. 

Blanc-mange, 36. 

Cake, 60. 

Custard, 136. 

Essence of, 195. 

Icing, 303. 

Jumbles, 317. 

Macaroons, 341. 

Pudding, 429. 

Sauce, 5. 

Syrup, 5. 
Aloes, 173. 

in piles, 402. 
Alpaca, 5. 
Alum, 173. 
Amaranth, 5. 
Ambergris, 5. 
Ambushed Asparagus, 11. 
American Ales, 4. 
American Cheese, 95. 
American Wines, 5. 
Ammonia, 6, 179. 

Liniment of, 177. 

Liquor of, 173. 
Anaesthetics, 6. 
Anchovy, 7. 

Butter, 7. 

Essence of, 7. 



Anchovy (continued). Paste, 7. 

Sauce, 7. 

Toast, 7. 
Anemone, 7. 
Angelica Wine, 6. 
Angularity in Decoration, 143. 
Aniline Colors, 1S5. 
Animal Food {See Food). 
Anise Seed, 7. 

Cordial, 124. 
Anisette, 335. 
Ankle, Broken, 214. 
Ankle, Dislocation of, 162, 
Anthracite Coal, 7. 
Antidotes {See Poisons). 
Antimony, 173. 
Ants, 7. 

Apiary {See Bee-keeping). 
Apoplexy, 7, i. 
Apple, 7. 

Baked, 8. 

Beurre, 8. 

Butter, 8. 

Compote, 117. 

Custard, 136. 

Dried, 8. 

Dumpling, 181. 

Fried, 8. 

Fritters, 217. 

Ice, 8. 

Jelly, 315. 

Marmalade, 346. 

Omelette, 369. 

Pancakes, 377. 

Preserves, 420. 

Pudding, 429. 

Soup, 499. 

Steamed, 8. 

Stewed, 8. 

Syrup, 521. 

Tarts, 524. 

Tea, 8. 

Trifle, 537. 

Water, 8. 
Apricot, 8. 

Compote, 117. 

Ice, 8. 

Jam, 9. 

Jelly, 9. 

Marmalade, 346. 

Preserves, 420. 

Tarts, 524. 
Arbutus, Trailing, 9. 
Argand Lamp, g. 

Burner, 9. 
Arm, Broken, 213. 
Arnica, 9. 

Lotion, 338. 
Amott's Valve, 561. 
Arrack, 9. 
Arrowroot, 10. 



Arrowroot (con.), Blanc-mange, 36. 
Custard, 10, 136. 
Gruel, 10. 
Infants (for), 10. 

Jelly, 315- 

Pudding, 429. 
Arsenic, 10. 

Artery-bleeding, to stop, i. 
Artichoke, 10. 

A la Reine, 10. 

Soup, 499. 
Artificial Breathing, 169. 
Ash, 231. 
Ashes, II. 
Asparagus, 11. 

Ambushed, il. 

Eggs and, II. 

Fried, 11. 

Soup, 499. 

Stewed, 11. 
Asphaltum, 11. 
Asphodel, 11. 
Aspic Jelly, 315. 
Assafoetida, 174. 
Aster, 12. 
Asthma, 12, 514. 
Astral Oil, 12. 
Astringents, 12. 
Atmosphere {See Air). 
Attorney, Power of, 419. 
Autumn Bill of Fare, 32. 
Aviary {See Bird Cage). 
Awnings, 294. 
Axminster Carpets, 81. 
Azalea, 12. 

B 

Baby {See Infant). 
Bacon, 13. 
Bain-marie, 13. 
Baize, 13. 

Baking, Rationale of, 13. 
Baking Powders, 14. 
Balm, 14. 
Balsam, 14. 
Balsams, 14. 
Baltazeker Wine, 297. 
Banana, 14. 
Bandages, 14. 

for Axilla or Shoulder, 16. 

" Finger, 15. 

" Foot, 15. 

" Forearm, 15. 

" Groin, 16. 

" Hand, 15. 

" Head, 16. 

" Knee, 16. 

" Leg, 16. 
Bank, 17. 
Bannock Cake, 60. 



630 



INDEX. 



Banting's Cure, 17. 
Barberry, 17. 

Jelly, 315- 

Marmalade, 346. 

Pickle, 391. 

Preserves, 421. 
Bar-fish [See Bass). 
Barley, 17. 

Bread, 43. 

Broth, 50. 

Gruel, 255. 

Infants (for), 17. 

Negus, 363. 

Patent, 17. 

Pearl, 17. 

Sugar, 17. 

Water, 17. 
Basil, 17. 
Basque, 569. 
Bass, 18. 
Bass's Ale, 4. 
Basting, 18. 
Bath, 18. 

Cold, 1 3. 

Hot, 18. 

Russian, 453. 

Sea-bathing, 20. 

Shower, ig. 

Sitz, 487. 

Sponge, 19. 

Turkish, 542. 

Vapor, 553. 

Warm, 19. 
Bath Brick, 20. 
Bath Buns, 54. 
Batter Pudding, 429. 
Bay Windows, 283, 285. 
Beans, 20. 

to Dry, 20. 

Kidney, 20. 

Lima, or Butter, 20. 

Pickles, 391. 

Pork and, 20. 

Salad of, 20. 

Soup, 499. 

String, 20. 
Bear- meat, 20. 

Hams, 21. 

Skin, 21. 
Beaune Wine, 55. 
Bechamel Sauce, 462. 
Bed-bugs {See Bugs). 
Bedrooms, 21, 148. 

Furniture of, 228. 
Beds and Bedding, 21. 

Blankets, 22, 37. 

Pillows, 21. 

Pillow-cases, 22. 

Sheets, 21. 

Sickroom, 485. 

Springs, 21. 
Bedstead, 22. 

Bureau, 22. 

Iron, 22. 

Sofa, 22. 
Beech, 231. 
Beef, 22. 

to Corn, 23. 

" Smoke, 23. 

A la Mode, 23. 

Bouilli, 24. 
Cakes, 192. 



Beef (continued), Corned, 24. 

Dried, 24. 

Hash, 24. 

Heart, 24. 

Kidneys, 24. 

Liver, 24. 

Olives, 193. 

Patties, 384. 

Pie, 24. 
" with Oysters, 25. 

" Potato Crust, 25. 

Soup, 499. 

Steak, 25. 

" with Eggs, 25. 

" " Onions, 25. 

'' " Oyster Sauce, 26. 

Shin of, 26. 

Tea, 26, 333. 

Tongue, 26. 

Tripe, 26. 
Bee-keeping, 27. 
Beer, 28. 

Dandelion, 28. 

Ginger, 29. 

Lager, 321. 

Quick, 29. 

Sassafras, 29. 

Spruce, 29. 

Sugar, 29. 
Beets, 29. 

Pickled or Canned, 30. 

Pickles, 391. 

Salad of, 30. 

Stewed, 30. 
Begonia, 30. 
Belladonna, 30. 
Benedictine Liqueur, 335. 
Benzine, 30. 
Benzoic Acid, 172. 
Berncastle Wine, 355. 
Berwick Cake, 60. 
Beverages, 30. 

Cream of Tartar, 131. 

Eau Sucre, 30. 

Lait Sucre, 30. 

Summer, 30. 
. Whey (Acidulous), 30. 

for the Sick, 30. 
Big Shrimps {See Prawns). 
Billberries, 31. 
Bilious Fever, 31. 
Bill, 31. 

Bill of Exchange, 31. 
Bills of Fare, 32. 

for Autumn, 32. 
" Breakfast, 45. 
" Dinner, 158. 
" Lunch, 339. 
" Spring, 32. 
" Summer, 32. 
" Supper and Tea, 518. 
" Winter, 32. 
Birch-wood, 231. 
Bird-cage, 32. 
Birds as Food, 32. 
Bird's-nest Pudding, 430. 
Biscuits, 33. 

Flavored, 33. 

French, 33. 

Graham, 33. 

Hard or Plain, 34. 

Potato, 34. 



Biscuits (continued), Risen, 34. 

Short, 34. 

Soda, 34. 

Sour-milk, 34. 

Yorkshire Risen, 34. 
Bismuth, 174. 
Bison {See Buffalo). 
Bitters, 34. 
Bituminous Coal, 34. 
Blackberry, 34. 

Compote, 117. 

Cordial, 35, 124. 

Jam, 35, 313. 

Jelly, 35,315- 

Pie, 397. 

Pudding, 430. 

Stew, 35. 

Syrup, 35. 

Tarts, 524. 

Vinegar, 35. 
Black Cake, 60. 
Black-fish, 35. 
Blacking, 36. 

for Harness, 36. 

" Shoes, 36. 
" Stoves, 36. 
Black Lead, 36. 
Black Pudding, 36. 
Blanching, 36. 
Blanc-mange, 36. 

Almond, 36. 

Arrowroot, 36. 

Chocolate, 36. 

Cornstarch, 36. 

Moss, 37. 

Rice-flour, 37. 

Wheat-flour, 37. 
Blankets, 37. 
Bleaching, 37. 
Bleeding, 37. 

Artery, i. 

in Consumption, 121. 

Lungs, 38. 

Nose, 38, 545. 

Stomach, 38, 545. 

Veins, I. 
Blind Staggers, 268. 
Blinds and Shutters, 294. 
Blisters, 38. 

to Dress, 38. 

in Chicken-pox, 97. 
Blood as food, 38. 
Bloodroot, 38. 
Blouse {See Sacque). 
Blouse Waist, 570. 
Blue-bass {See Bass). 
Bluefish, 39. 
Blue Glass {See Glass). 
Blueing, 579. 
Bohea Tea, 525. 
Boiling, Rationale of, 39. 
Boils (See Abscess). 
Bologna Sausage, 40, 467. 
Bombazet, 40. 
Bombazine, 40. 
Bone, 40, 211. 
Boned Fowl, 40. 

Shoulder of Veal, 556. 
Bone-felon, 40. 

Bonny Clabber {See Clabber). 
Book-case {See Furniture). 
Books {See Library). 



INDEX. 



631 



Boots and Shoes, 40. 

to make Waterproof, 41. 
Borax, 174. 

Bordeaux Wines {See Claret). 
Borecole {See Kale). 
Boston Brown Bread, 44. 
Bots, 268. 
Bottle Cement, 90. 
Bottle Jack {See Roasting). 
Bouillabaisse, 500. 
Bouilli of Beef, 24. 
Bouillon, 500. 
Bounce, Cherry, 95. 
Bourbon Roses, 451. 
Box, 41. 
Brain Fever, 41. 
Brain-workers, Diet for, 153. 
Braising, 42. 
Brandied Peaches, 385. 

Pears, 386. 
Brandy, 42. 

Cherry, 96. 

Pudding, 430. 

Raspberry, 443. 

Sauce, 428. 

Trifle, 537. 
Brant, 42. 

Brasier {See Warming-pan). 
Brass-ware, 42. 

to Clean, 42. 
Brawn, 42. 
Brazil-nut, 43. 
Bread, 43. 

Aerated, i. 

Barley, 43. 

Boston Brown, 43. 

Brown, 44. 

Corn, 44. 

Fritters, 217. 

Graham, 44. 

Indian Pone, 44. 

Oatmeal, 44. 

Plain, 43. 

Potato, 44. 

Pumpkin, 44. 

Rice, 44. 

Rye, 44. 

Sauce, 463. 

Stale (to improve), 44. 

Unleavened, 44. 
Bread-crumbing, 45. 
Breakfast, 45. 

Family, 45. 

Parties, 46. 
Bream, 46. 
Brewer's Yeast, 597. 
Brewing, 46. 
Brick, 47. 

Bath, 20. 

Bristol, 48. 
Brie Cheese, 95. 
Bright's Disease, 47. 

after Scarlet Fever, 469. 
Brine, 48. 
Brisket. 48. 
Bristol-board, 48. 
Bristol-brick, 48. 
Britannia-ware, 48. 
Broadcloth, 48. 
Brocade, 48. 
Brocatel, 48. 
Broccoli, 48. 



Broccoli, with Eggs, 48. 
Broche Shawls {See Sliawls). 
Broiling, Rationale of, 49. 
Broken Bones {See Fractures). 
Broma {See Chocolate). 
Bronchitis, 49. 

in Typhoid Fever, 545. 
Bronze, 49. 
Broom, 50. 
Broth, 50. 

Barley, 50. 

Beef, 500. 

Chicken, 96. 

Clam, 107. 

Mutton or Veal, 50. 
Brotherhood Wines, 6. 
Brown Bread, 44. 
Brown Stout, 413. 
Bruises, 50. 
Brushes, 50. 

to Clean, 109. 
Brussels Carpet, 81. 
Brussels Sprouts, 51. 
Buccaned Meat, 51. 
Buckram, 51. 
Buckskin, 51. 
Buckwheat, 51. 

Cakes, 51. 
Budai Wine, 297. 
Budding, Method of, 52. 
Buffalo, 53. 
Buffalo-robe, 53. 
Bugs, to Destroy, 53. 
Bulbs, 53. 
Bullock {See Beef). 
Bull-trout, 54. 
Bunions, 54. 
Buns, 54. 

Bath, 54. 
Bureau (See Furniture). 
Bureau-bedstead, 22. 
Burgundy, 54. 
Burning Fluid, 55. 
Burnous, 56. 
Burns, 55, i. 

in the Eye, 198. 
Burton Ale, 4. 
Bush-bean, 56. 
Butcher-meat, 58. 
Butter, 56. 

to Make, 57. 
" Restore, 57. 

Anchovy, 7. 

Apple, 8. 

Drawn, 463. 

Sauce, 463. 
Buttermilk, 57. 

Fleetings, 57. 

Thickened, 57. 

Whey, 57. 
Butter-nuts, 58. 

Pickles, 394. 
Button-holes, 58. 



Cabbage, 58. 

Fried, 59. 

Pickled, 59, 391. 

Salad, 59. 
Cabbage Rose, 59. 
Cabinet Pudding, 430. 



Cactus, 59. 

Cafe i la Militaire, 115. 
Cafe au Lait, 59. 
Cafe Noir, 115. 
Cake, 59. 

Almond, 60. 

Almond Cheese, 60. 

Bannock or Indian-meal, 60. 

Berwick Sponge, 60. 

Black, 60. 

Caraway, 60. 

Children's, 61. 

Chocolate, 61. 

Cider, 61. 

Cocoanut, 61. 

" Sponge, 61. 

Coffee, 61. 

Composition, 62. 

Confederate, 62. 

Cornstarch, 62. 

Cream, 62. 

" without Eggs, 62. 

Cream-tartar, 62. 

Cup, 62. 

Currant, 63. 

Delicate, 63. 

Diet, 63. 

Dover, 63. 

Fancy, 63. 

French, 63. 

Fruit, 63. 

Gingerbread, 63. 

" Fleming, 63. 

Hard, 64. 
Soft, 64. 
" Spiced, 64. 

" Sponge, 64. 

" Sugar, 64. 

Ginger-snaps, 64. 

Golden, 64. 

Honey, 64. 

Huckleberry, 64. 

Jelly, 64. 

Lady, 65. 

Lemon, 65. 

Loaf, 65. 

" Raised, 65. 

Marbled, 65. 

Measure, 65. 

Molasses, 65. 

Mountain, 66. 

Nut, 66. 

Orange Jelly, 66. 

Plum, 66. 

Portugal, 66. 

Pound, 66. 

Queen's, 66. 

Quick, 66. 

Raised (without Eggs), 66 

Republican, 67. 

Rice, 67. 

Royal, 67. 

Savory, 67. 

Scotch, 67. 

Shrewsbury, 67. 

Silver, 67. 

Spice, 67. 

Sponge, 67. 

" white, 67. 

Strawberry Short, 68. 

Sugar, 68. 

Sugar Drops, 68. 



632 



INDEX. 



Cake (continued), Tea Cakes, 68. 

Washington, 68, 

Webster, 68. 

Wedding, 68. 

White, 68. 

White Mountain, 6g. 

Wine, 69. 

Yardley, 69. 
Caked Bag, in Cows, 128. 
Calcellaria, 69. 
Calf (5f^ Veal). 
Call's Head and Feet, 69. 

to Carve, 83. 

Calf's-foot Jelly, 69, 315. 

Calf's-head Soup, 501. 
Calico, 69. 
California Wines, 6. 
Calla Lily, 69. 
Callipash, 70. 
Callipee, 70. 
Calomel, 70. 
Cambric, 70. 
Camellia, 70. 
Camomile, 70. 

Camomile Tea, 70. 
Camphor, 70, 174. 

Liniment of, 177. 

Tincture of, 180. 
Camphorated Chalk, 536. 
Canary Bird, 71. 
Cancer, 71. 
Candles, 72. 

Dipped, 72. 

Mould, 72. 

Rush Lights, 72, 

W^ax, 72. 
Candy, 72. 

directions for Making, 73. 

Cheap, 75. 

Chocolate Caramels, 78. 

Cough Candy, 73. 

Fig Paste, 201. 

Ginger Candy, 73. 

Gum Drops, 73. 

Hoarhound Candy, 74. 

Jujube Paste, 74. 

Lemon Candy, 74. 

Molasses, 74. 

Nut, 74. 

Taffy, 74. 

Walnut, 75. 
Candying Fruits, 75. 
Candy-tuft, 75. 
Canker, 268. 
Cannel Coal, 75. 
Cannelons, 75. 
Canning Fruits, 75. 
Cantaloupe {See Musk-melon). 
Cantharides Plaster, 174. 
Canvas, 76. 

Canvas-back Duck, 76. 
Caoutchouc {See India-rubber). 
Cape Bulbs {See Bulbs). 
Caper, 76. 

Sauce, 463. 
Capes, 76. 
Capillaire, 77. 
Capon, 77. 
Caps, 77. 
Capsicum, 174. 

Pickles, 392. 
Caramels, 78. 



Caramels (con.). Chocolate, 78. 
Caraway, 78. 

Cake, 60. 

Cordial, 124. 

Essence of, 195. 
Carbolic Acid, 78, 172. 
Carbuncle, 78. 
Carcel Lamp, 79. 
Cardoon, 79. 
Carmine, 79. 
Carnations, 79. 
Carp, 80. 
Carpets, 80, 146. 

Axminster, 81. 

Brussels, 81. 

Cleaning, 80. 

Cutting, So. 

Dutch, 81. 

Ligrain, 8r. 

Kidderminster, 81. 

Moquette, 81. 

Persian, 8r. 

Printed Felt, 81. 

Rag, 81. 

Sewing, 80. 

Tapestry, 81. 

Three-ply, 82. 

Turkish, 81. 

Velvet, 82. 

Wilton, 82. 

Wood, 82. 
Carriage, to Clean, 109. 
Carrots, 82. 

Jam, 313. 

Soup, 501. 

Stewed with Sugar, 82. 
Carving, 82. 

Beef tongue, 83. 

Breast of Veal, 83. 

Brisket of Beef, 83 

Calf's head, 83. 

Chicken, 83. 

Cod's head and shoulders, 84. 

Duck, 84. 

Eels, 84. 

Fillet of Veal, 84. 

Goose, 84. 

Ham, 84. 

Haunch of Mutton, 84. 

Knuckle of Veal, 84. 

Leg of Mutton, 84. 

Loin of Veal, 85. 

Mackerel, 85. 

Partridge, 85. 

Pigeons, Quails, Woodcock, 
etc., 85. 

Ribs of Beef, 85. 

Round of Beef. 85. 

Saddle of Mutton, 85. 

Salmon, 85. 

Shad, 85. 

Shoulder of Mutton or 
Lamb, 85. 

Shoulder of Veal, 86. 

Sirloin of Beef, 86. 

Sucking-pig, 86. 

Turbot, 86. 

Turkey, 86. 
Casein, 86. 
Cashew Nut, 86. 
Cashmere {See Shawl). 
Cassava {See Tapioca). 



Cassimere, 86. 

Cast {See Plaster). 

Castile Soap. 494. 

Castor Oil, 86. 

Cat, 87. 

Catalepsy, 87. 

Catamenia {See Menstruation). 

Catarrh {See Colds). 

Cataplasm. 87. 

Catarrhal Ophthalmia, 371. 

Catawba Wine, 87, 5. 

Catawissa Wine, 6. 

Caterpillar, 88. 

Catfish, 88. 

Cathartics, 88. 

Catnip or Catmint, 88. 

Tea, 88. 
Catsup, 88. 

Mushroom, 89. 

Oyster, 374. 

Tomato, 89. 

Walnut, 89. 
Caudle, 89. 

Ale, 89. 

Flour, 89. 

Rice, 89. 
Cauliflower, 89. 

Pickled, 89, 392. 

Scalloped, 90. 

Stewed, 90. 
Caustic {See Lunar Caustic). 
Caveat Emptor, 325. 
Caviare, 90. 
Cayenne Pepper, 90. 

Vinegar, 563. 
Cedar Birds, 449. 
Cedar- wood, 231. 
Ceilings, 147, 293. 
Celery, 90. 

Essence of, 195. 

Pickle, 392. 

Salad, 90. 

Sauce, 90, 463. 

Vinegar, 563. 
Cements, go. 

Alabaster, 90. 

Bottle, 90. 

Cheese, gi. 

China, gr. 

Diamond, 91. 

Ironware, gi. 

Japanese, 91. 

Wax, gi. 
Century Plant {See Agave). 
Cerate, 174. 

of Acetate of Lead, 174. 

of Resin, 174. 

of Spermaceti, 174. 
Cesspool {See Drainage). 
Chablis Wine, 55, gi. 
Chalk, gi. 

Camphorated, 536. 

Mixture, I7g. 
Chambertin Wine, 55. 
Chamois-skin, gi. 
Chamomile {See Camomile). 
Champagne, gi. 

at Dinner, 157, 158. 

Cup, 437. 

Frappee, g2. 
Chantilly Basket, 514. 
Chapped Hands, 92. 



INDEX. 



633 



Chapped Heels, 268. 
Charcoal, 92. 
Charlotte de Russe, 92. 

Chocolate, 92. 

Gelatine, 92. 
Chartreuse, 336. 
Chateau Margaux Wine, 108. 
Check, Bank, 93. 
Checkerberry, 93. 
Cheddar Cheese, 95. 
Cheese, 93. 

to make, 93. 

American, 95. 

Cottage, 94. 

Cream, 94. 

Damson, 142. 

Eutch, 95. 

English, 95. 

French, 95. 

German, 95. 

Italian, 95. 

Sandwiches, 461. 

Scotch, 95. 

Swiss, 95. 
Chemise, 548. 
Cherry, 95. 

Bounce, 95. 

Brandy, 96. 

Compote, 118. 

Jelly, 316. 

Pickles, 392. 

Pies, 397. 

Preserves, 421. 

Pudding, 431. 

Water-ice, 302. 
Chestnuts, 96. 

Sauce, 464. 

boup, 501. 

Stuffing of, 515. 
Chestnut wood, 231. 
Chest-protector, 96. 
Chicken, 96. 

Broth, 96. 

Carving, 83. 

Croquettes, 132. 

Curry, 192. 

Fricassee, 97. 

Keeping, 416. 

Panada, 377. 

Pot-pie, 97. 

Salad, 97. 

Soup, 501. 

Stewed, 97. 

" with Celery, 97. 
Chicken Pox, 97. 
Chicoiy, 98. 
Chilblains, 98. 
Children, 98 

Diet, 98. 

Disease, Signs of, 100. 

Dress, 99. 
Children's Cake, 61. 
Children's Clothing, loi. 
Chili Sauce, 464. 
Chills and Fever {See Ague). 
Chimneys, loi. 

Smoking, to cure, loi. 
China {See Earthenware). 
China Cement, 91. 
China Roses, 451. 
Chinese Primrose {See Primrose). 
Chinese Sugar-cane {See Sorghum). 



Chintz, 102. 

to Clean, 102. 
Chitterlings, 102. 
Chloral, 102. 

Chloride of Lime {See Disinfect- 
ants). 
Chlorodyne, I02. 
Chloroform, 102. 
Chocolate, 103. 

Blanc-mange, 36. 

Cake, 61. 

Caramels, 78. 

Charlotte de Russe, 92. 

Custard, 136. 

Ice-cream, 302. 

Iced, 103. 
Choca, 103. 
Choking, 103, i. 

in Cows, 128. 
Cholera, 103. 
Cholera Infantum, 104. 
Cholera-morbus, 104. 
Chops {See Mutton). 
Chow Chow, 104. 
Chowder, 104. 

Clam, 104. 

Codfish, 113. 

Fish, 105. 
Christopher North's Sauce, 464. 
Chromos, 105. 
Chrysanthemum, 105. 
Chub, 105. 

Churning {See Butter). 
Chyme {See Digestion). 
Cider, 105. 

Cake, 6r. 

Jelly, 316. 

Mulberry, 356. 

Mulled, 356. 

Toast, 534. 
Cinchona Bark, 175. 

Decoction of, 175. 
Cinchonism {See Quinine). 
Cinnamon, 106, 175. 

Cordial, 124. 
Circulars, 106. 
Cistei^n, 107. 

Citrate of Magnesia, 343. 
Citric Acid, i. 
Citron, 107. 

Cordial, 124. 

Essence of, 195. 
Civet, 107. 
Clabber, 107. 
Clams, 107. 

Boiled, 107. 

Broiled, 107. 

Broth, 107. 

Chowder, 104. 

Fritters, 108. 

Pickled, 108. 

Roast, 108. 
Claret, 108. 

Claret Cup, 108. 

Cooling Cup, 108. 

Mulled, 356. 

Punch, 108. 
Clay {See Bricks). 
Cleaning, 108. 

Alabaster, 108. 

Bottles, 108. 

Brassware, 42. 



Cleaning (con.), Bronze, 50. 

Brushes, 109. 

Carpets, 80. 

Carriages, log. 

Chintz, 102. 

Combs, log. 

Crape, 130. 

Earthenware, lOg, 

Ermine, 195. 

Feathers, igg. 

Floors, 205. 

Gilding, log. 

Glassware, 246. 

Gloves (Kid), log, 246. 

Gold lace, 248. 

Harness, log. 

Hearths, log. 

House, log. 

Knives, loi, 320. 

Lace, 320. 

Marble, 345. 

" Steps, log. 

Mirrors, 109. 

Oil-cloth, 367. 

Paint, no. 

Paper-hangings, no. 

Papier-mache, no. 

Pots and Kettles, no. 

Shawls, no. 

Silk, 486. 

Silverware, 487. 

Tinware, 533. 

Veils, 557. 

Windows, no. 
Clock, no.- 

Clos Vougeot Wine, 55. 
Clothing, no. 

Children's, loi. 

to render Non-inflammabje, 
112. 

to render Waterproof, 113. 
Clothes-wringer {See Wringer). 
Cloves, 112. 

Essence of, 195. 

Infusion of, 176. 
Coagulation, 112. 
Coal, 112. 

Anthracite, 7. 

Bituminous, 34. 

Cannel, 75. 

Charcoal, g2. 
Cobbler, Fruit, 112. 

Sherry, 112. 
Cochineal, 112. 

Tincture of, ig5. 
Cockatoo, 381. 
Cockle, 112. 
Cockroaches, 112, 
Cocktails, see under Whiskey, 589. 
Cocoa, 112. 
Cocoanut, 112. 

Cake, 61. 

Jumbles, 317. 

Macaroons, 341. 

Pie, 397. 

Pudding, 431. 

Soup, 501. 
Codeia, 114.. 
Codfish, 113. 

Balls, 113. 

Chowder, 113. 

Picked up, 113. 



634 



INDEX. 



Codfish (con.), with Eggs, 113. 
Tongues and Sounds, 113. 
Codling, 114. 
Cod-liver Oil, 114, 175. 

in Consumption, 120. 
Coffee, 114. 

a la Militaire, 115. 
Boiled, 115. 
Cake, 61. 
Custard, 136. 
Filtered, 1 15. 
Grinding, 115. 
Ice-cream, 302. 
Iced, 115. 
Noir, 115. 
Roasting, 115. 
Coffeepots, 115. 
Coke, 116. 
Colander, 116. 
Cold Cream, 116. 
Colds, 116. 

in Horses, 268. 
Cold Slaw {See Slaw). 
Colic, 116. 

in Horses, 26S. 
Collar-bone, fractured, 213. 
Colocynth, 175. 
Colors, to Restore, 117. 
Cologne, 117. 

to Make, 1 17. 
Combs, 117. 

to Clean, 117. 
Commode, 117. 
Composition Cake, 62. 
Compost, 117. 
Compotes, 117. 
Apple, 117. 
Apricot, 117. 
• Berry, 117. 
Cherry, 118. 
Currant, 118. 
Fig, 118. 
Orange, 118. 
Peach, 118. 
Plum, 118. 
Compound Colors, 401. 
Concord Wine, 5. 
Condensed Milk, 353. 
Confederate Cake, 62. 
Conger-eel, liS. 
Congou Tea, 525. 
Consomme, 118. 
Constipation, 118. 
Construction in Furniture, 144. 

in Houses, 288. 
Consumption, lig. 
Contusion {See Bruises). 
Convalescence, 121. 
Conventionalism in Decoration, 

145. 
Convolvulus, 121. 
Cooker, Warren's Patent, 121. 
Cookery, Principles of, 122. 
Cookies, 123. 

Sugar, 123. 
Coolers, 123. 
Copaiba Balsam, 14, 175. 
Copal Varnish, 554. 
Copper-ware, 123. 
Cordials, 124. 

Anise-seed, 114. 
Blackberry, 35, 124. 



Cordials (con.), Caraway, 124. 
Cinnamon, 124. 
Citron, 124. 
Gin, 124. 
Ginger, 124. 
Quince, 124. 
Peach, 124. 
Corduroy, 125. 
Coriander, 125. 
Corn, 125. 

Bread, 44. 
Dried, 125. 
Fritters, 125. 
Muffins, 125. 
Roasted, 125. 
Stewed, 125. 

" with Tomatoes, 125. 
Corned Beef, 24. 
Cornices, 294. 
Corns, 126. 

in Horses, 268. 
Corn-starch Blanc-mange, 36. 
Cake, 62. 
Pudding, 431. 
Corpulence {See Banting's Cure 

and Diet). 
Corrosive Sublimate, 126. 
Corsets, 126. 
Cosmetics, 126. 

Costiveness {See Constipation). 
Cottage Cheese, 94. 
Cotton {See Clothing). 
Cough, 126. 

Candy for, 73. 
Counterpane, to Clean, 127. 
Cow, 127. 

Diseases of: 

Caked Bag, 12B. 
Choking, 128. 
Garget, 128. 
Hoof-ail, 128. 
Hoven, 128. 
Mange or Scab, 128. 
Milk Fever, 128. 
Scour, 128. 
Sore Teats, 128. 
Warts, 128. 
W^ounds, 128. 
Food, 128. 
Milking, 129. 
Cow-pox, 129. 
Cowslip {See Marigold), 
Crab, 129. 

Boiled, 129. 
Deviled, 129. 
Salad, 129. 
Sauce, 464. 
Soft-shell, 129. 
Crab-apple Preserves, 421. 
Crackers, 129. 
Panada, 377. 
Pudding, 431. . 
Cracknels, 129. 
Cradles, 130. 
Cradle, Wine, 130. 
Cramp, 130. 
Crane, 130. 
Cranberry, 130. 
Pie, '397. 
Sauce, 130. 
Tart, 524, 
Tea, 130. 



Crape, 130. 

to Clean, 130. 
Crash, 131. 

Craziness {See Insanity). 
Cream, 131. 

Artificial, 131. 

Cake, 62. 

Coffee, 131. 

Cheese, 94. 

Cold, 116. 

Ice, 301. 

Lemon, 131. 

Orange, 131. 

Sauce, 428, 464. 

Sherbet, 481. 

Tarts, 522. 

Tea, 131. 

Toast, 534. 

Whipped, 131. 
Cream Cheese, 94. 
Cream of Tartar, 131. 

Beverage, 131. 

Cake, 62. 
Creasote, 175. 

Ointment of, 178. 
Creme de Girojle, 336. 
Creine de The, 336. 
Creme de Vanille, 336. 
Cress, 131. 

Garden, 131. 

Indian, 132. 

Salad, 457. 

Water, 131, 583. 

Winter, 131. 
Crewel, 132. 
Crimping, 132. 
Crockery, 132. 
Crocus, 132. 
Croquettes, 132. 

Chicken, 132. 

Lobster, 337. 

Rice, 132. 

Sweetbread, 132. 
Croup, 132. 
Crumpets, 133. 
Cucumbers, 133. 

Fried, 133. 

Pickles, 392. 

Preserves, 421. 

Sauce, 464. 

Soup, 501. 

Stewed, 133. 

Stuffed, 133. 

Vinegar, 563. 
Cullender {See Colander). 
Cummin Seed, 134. 
Cup Cake, C2. 
Cuphea, 134. 
Cupola, 286. 
Curacoa, 134. 
Curd {See Cheese). 
Currant, 134. 

Cake, 63. 

Compote, 118. 

Custard, 136. 

Dried, 134. 

Dumpling, 182. 

Jam, 313. 

Jelly. 316. 

Pie, 397. 

Syrup, 521. 

Tart, 524. 



INDEX. 



635 



Currant (con.), Water-ice, 302. 

Wine, 134. 
Curry, 135. 

Dry, 135- 

Egg, 135- 

Lobster, 337. 

Oyster, 374. 
Curry Powder, 135. 
Curtains, 135. 

Bed, 136. 

Window, 135, 147, 230, 
Custards, 136. 

Almond, 136. 

Apple, 136. 

Arrowroot, 1 36. 

Baked, 136. 

Chocolate, 136. 

Coffee, 136. 

Cold, 136. 

Currant, 136. 

French, 137. 

Fruit, 137. 

Moulded, 137. 

Pudding, 431. 

Quince, 137. 

Rice, 137. 

Tapioca, 137. 

Wine Cream, 137. 
Custard Apple (See Paw-paw). 
Cuts, treatment of, 137. 
Cutlery {See Knives, P'orks, Ra- 
zors, and Scissors). 
Cutlet (.S-^^ Veal). 
Cutting and Fitting, Rules for, 138. 
Cyclamen, 139. 
Cypress Vine, 139. 

D 

Dace, 140. 
Dado, 147. 

Daffodil (See Narcissus). 
Dahlia, 14. 
Dairy, 140. 
Dandelion Beer, 29. 
Damask, 142. 
Damson, 142. 

Cheese, 142. ^ 

Preserves, 419. 

Tarts, 524. 

Wine, 142. 
Dandelion Beer, 28. 
Dandruff, 142. 
Daphne, 142. 
Date, 143. 

Deafness, after Scarlet Fever, 469. 
Deal {See Pine). 
Decanting, 143. 
Decay {See Decomposition). 
Decoction, 143. 
Decomposition, 143. 
Decoration, Principles of, with 
special reference to Walls, 
Floors, and Furniture, 143. 
Deed of Sale, 325. 
Deer {See Venison). 
Delaware Wine, 5. 
Delicate Cake, 63. 
Delmonico Pudding, 431 
Dentifrice {See Teeth). 
Deodorizers, 149. 
Depilatories, 149. 



Devereaux Wine, 6. 
Devilled Crab, 129. 

Lobster, 338. 
Dewberry, 150. 
Diabetes, 150. 
Diamond Cement, 91. 
Diaper {See Damask). 
Diaphoretics, 150. 
Diarrhoea, 151. 

in Children, 151. 
" Consumption, 121. 

" Horses, 268. 

" Typhoid Fever, 545. 
Diet, General Rules for, 152. 

of Infants, 305. 
Diet Cake, 63. 
Digestion, 154. 
Dili Water, 176. 
Dimity, 155. 
Dinner, 155. 

Bills of Fare, 158. 

Decoration, 156. 

General Hints, 157. 

Order of Dishes, 156. 

Setting the Table, 156. 

Wines, 156, 157. 
Dining-room, 148. 

Furniture for, 236. 
Diphtheria, 159. 
Dipped Candles, 72. 
Dishes {See Earthenware). 
Disinfectants, 160. 
Dislocations, 161. 

of Elbow, 161, 

" Hip, t6i. 
" Jaw, 161. 
" Neck, 161. 
" Shoulder, 161. 

" Thumb or Finger, 162. 
" Wrist, Knee, or Ankle, 
162. 
Distillery Yeast, 597. 
Diuretics, 162. 
Dizziness {See Vertigo). 
Doeskin, 162. 
Dogs, 162. 

Distemper in, 162. 

Hydrophobia in, 163, 299. 
Doily, 163. 

Domestic Animals {See Cat, Cow, 
Dog, Horse, Pigs, and Poul- 
try). 
Domestic Servants {See Servants). 
Doors, 293. 

Dormer-windows, 286. 
Dory, 163. 
Doses {See Drugs). 
Douche Bath (^d-Bath). 
Doughnuts, 163. 

Isle of Wight, 163. 

Raised, 163. 
Dove, 163. 
Dover Cake, 63. 
Dover's Powder, 163. 
Dower, 326. 
Down, 164. 

Draft {See Bill of Exchange). 
Drainage, 164. 

Drain Traps, 168. 
Drawers, 549. 
Drawing-room, 148. 
Drawn Butter, 463. 



Dredging, in Cookery, 168. 
Dresden China, 187. 
Dress {See Clothing, Cutting and 
Fitting, Princesse Dress, 
Shirt, Skirt, Undergar- 
ments, Waist, etc.). 
Dressing for Salad, 457. 
English, 457. 
French, 457. 
Mayonnaise 457, 465. 
Dressing-gown {See Circular). 
Dried Beef, 24. 
Drilling, 169. 
Drinks ( See Beverages). 
Drops, Lemon, i6g. 
Peppermint, 388. 
Ratafia, 169. 
Dropsy, 169. 

after Scarlet Fever, 469. 
Drowned, to Restore the Appa- 
rently, 169. 
Drowning, to Save a Person from, 

171. 
Drugget, 171. 
Drugs for Family Use, 172. 
Acetate of Lead, 177. 
Acetic Acid, 172. 
Aloes, 173. 
Alum, 173. 

Ammonia, Liniment of, 177. 
Liquor of, 173. 
Spirit of, 179, 6. 
Antimony (Tartar Emetic), 

173- 

Wine of, 180. 
Assafoetida, 174. « 
Benzoic Acid, 172. 
Bismuth, 174. 
Borax, 174. 
Calomel, 174, 70. 
Camomile Flowers, 175. 

Infusion of, 176. 
Camphor, 70, 174. 

Liniment of, 177. 

Tincture of, 180. 
Cantharides Plaster, 174. 
Capsicum, 174. 
Carbolic Acid, 78, 172. 
Castor Oil, 86, 174. 
Cerate, 174. 

of Acetate 5f Lead, 174. 

" Resin, 174. 

" Spermaceti, 174. 
Chalk Mixture, 179. 
Chloride of Zinc, 175. 
Cinchona Bark, 175. 

Decoction of, 175. 
Cinnamon, 175. 
Citric Acid, 172. 
Cloves, Infusion of, 176. 
Cod-liver Oil, 114, 175. 
Colocynth, 175. 
Conium (Hemlock), 175. 
Copaiba Balsam, 175. 
Creasote, 175. 

Ointment of, 178. 
Dandelion, Decoction of, 176. 
Dill Water, 176. 
Ether, Sulphuric, 173. 
Gallic Acid, 172. 
Gamboge, 176. 
Gentian, Extract of, 176. 



636 



INDEX. 



Gentian, Infusion of, 176. 
Henbane, 176. 
Hop, Extract of, 176. 
Horseradish, 176. 
Hydrochloric Acid, 173. 
Ipecacuanha, 179. 
Iron, Mixture of, 17S. 

Syrup of, i8o. 
Jalap, 177. 
Laudanum, 177. 
Liniment, 177. 

of Ammonia, 177. 

" Camphor, 177 

" Turpentine, 177' 
Linseed, Infusion of, 177. 

Poultice of, 179. 
Magnesia, 177. 
Marsh-mallows, 178. 
Mercury, 178. 

Ointment of, 178. 

Pill of, 178. 
Mint-water, 178. 
Ointment, 178. 

of Creasote, 178, 

" Galls, 178. 

" Mercury, 178. 

" Zinc, 178. 
Olive Oil, 178. 
Opium, 180. 
Peruvian Balsam, 178. 
Pitch, Burgundy, 179. 
Poultices, 179. 

of Cliarcoal, 179. 

" Hemlock, 179. 

" Linseed, 179. 

'4 Mustard, 179. 

" Yeast, 179. 
Quassia, 177. 
Quinine, 119, 180. 
Rhubarb, 179. 

Infusion of, 177. 

Pill of, 179. 
Senna, 179. 
Soda, 179. 
Squill, 180. 
Sulphuric Acid, 173. 
Tartaric Acid, 173. 
Turpentine, 180. 
Tincture of Ginger, 180. 
" " Iodine, 180. 

" " Myrrh, 180. 

" " Opium, 180. 

" " Quinine, 180. 

" " Rhubarb, 180. 

" " Valerian, 180. 

Tolu, Balsam of, iSo. 
Valerian, 180. 
Zinc, Chloride of, 180. 

Sulphate of, 180. 
Duck, 181. 

Keeping, 418. 
Pie, 181. 
Stewed, 181. 

" wit.h Green Peas, 181. 
Dun Wine, 355. 
Dumplings, 181. 
Apple, i8r. 
Currant, 182. 
Indian, 182. 
Lemon, 182. 
Norfolk, 182. 
Rice, 182. 



Dumplings (con.). Suet, 1S2. 

Yacht, 182. 
Duplex Lamp, 323. 
Dust in the Eye, i. 
Dutch Bulbs (&^ Bulbs). 
Dutch Carpet, 81. 
Dutch Cheeses, 95. 
Dutch Custard, 432. 
Dutch Sauce, 464. 
Dutchman's Pipe, 1S2. 
Dyes, 182. 

Black, 184. 

Blue (Aniline), 184. 
" Prussian, 184. 
" Saxony, 184. 

Brown, 184. 

Coal Tar Colors, 183. 

for Feathers, 199. 

Green, 184. 

Orange, 184. 

Red, 184. 

Scarlet, 184, 185. 

Violet. 184. 

Yellow, 184. 

" Nankeen, 185. 
Dysentery, 185. 

in Horses, 269. 
Dysmenorrhcea ( See Menstrua- 
tion). 
Dyspepsia, 185. 



Ear, 186. 

Insects in, i. 
Ear-ache, 186. 
Earth-closet, 186. 
Earthenware, 187. 

Cleaning, 109. 

Dresden Cljina, 187. 

English China, 187. 

French China, 187. 

Ironstone China, 187. 

Oriental China, 187. 

Red Earthenware, 187. 

Sevres China, 187. 

Stone China, 187. 
Earth-nuts {See Pea-nuts). 
Earwigs in the Ear, 186. 
Eau de Cologne, 117. 
Eau de Vie de Dantzic, 336. 
Eau Sucre, 30. 
Ebony, 231. 
Eel, 187. 

Boiled, 188. 

Broiled, 188. 

Fried, 18S. 

Soup, 501. 

Stewed, 188. 

Tartar, 188. 
Eggs, 188. 

Baked, 189. 

Balls for Soups, i8g, 515. 

Cooked without Boiling, 189. 

Fricasseed, 189. 

Fried, 189. 

Fried in batter, 189 y 

Ilam and Eggs, 189. 

Mashed, 189. 

Matelote of, 347. 

Omelette, 369. 

Poached, 189. 



Eggs (con.), Sandwiches, 461. 

Sauce, 190, 464. 

Scrambled, 190. 

Stuffed, I go. 

Toast, 534. 
Egg Flip, 190. 
Egg Nogg, 190. 
Egg Plant, 190. 

Fried, 190. 

Stewed, 190. 

Stuffed, I go. 
Eglantine, igi. 
Egri Wine, 297. 
Eider Down {See Down). 
Elbow, dislocation of, 161. 
Elbow-joint, fractured, 214. 
Elderberry, igo. 

Wine, igi. 
Elderflower Wine, igi. 
Elder Pickles, 392. 
Embrocations, igi. 
Emery, igi. 
Emetics, igi. 
Emollients, ig2. 
Emulsions, 152. 
Encaustic Tiles, 533. 
Endive, ig2. 

Salad, ig2. 

Stewed, ig2. 
English Cheeses, 95. 
English China, 187. 
Entre'es, ig2. 

Beef Cakes, ig2. 
" Olives, ig2. 

Bird's-nest, ig2. 

Bubble and Squeak, ig2. 

Calf's Head, hashed, ig2. 

Chicken or Rabbit Curry, 
192. 

Macaroni, 341. 

Meat Balls, 193. 

Pillaw, 193. 

" Turkish, ig3. 

Salmagundy, 193. 

Sausage Side Dish, ig3. 

Sweetbreads, 193. 

Veal Balls, ig3. 
" Cakes, ig3. 
" Olives, 193. 

Vol-au-vent, ig3. 
Entremets, ig4. 
Epilepsy, ig4. 
Epsom Salts, ig4. 
Ermine, ig4. 

to Clean, ig5. 
Eruptions. {See Rash.) 
Erysipelas, igs. 
Eschalot {See Shallot). 
Escrow, 326. 
Essences, igs. 

Allspice, 195. 

Almonds, Bitter, 195. 

Caraway, 195. 

Celery, igs. 

Cinnamon, ig5. 

Citron, 195. 

Cloves, 195. 

Cochineal, 195. 

Ginger, 195. 

Lemon-peel, 196. 

Mace, 195. 

Marjoram, ig6. 



4 



INDEX. 



637 



Essences (con.), Nutmeg, iq6. 

Orange-peel, 196. 

Savory Spices, ig6. 

Sweet Marjoram, 196. 
Ether, 196, 173. 
Everton Taffy, 74. 
Exercise, 196. 
Expectorants, 197. 
Extract, 197. 

Extract of Meat, Liebig's {See 
Liebig's Extract of Meat). 
Eye, 197. 

Burns, 198. 

Cuts, 198. 

Dust or Cinders in, i. 

Injuries to, 197. 

Scalds, igS. 

Sore. {Sec Ophthalmia.) 

Stye on, 516. 

F 

Face-ache, 198. 

Fainting-fit, 198. 

Fancy Cake, 63. 

Farced Meat {See Forced Meat). 

Fare, Bills of {See Bills of Fare). 

Farina, 198. 

Pudding, 432. 
Fat, as Food, 198. 
Fatness — to cure. {See Banting. ) 
Feathers, igg. 

Cleaning, igg. 

Curling, 199. 

Dyeing, igg. 
Febrifuges {See Refrigerants). 
Feet, 200. 

Felon {See Bone Felon). 
Fennel, 200. 
Fever, treatment of, 201. 

Ague, 2. 

Bilious, 31. 

Brain, 41. 

Scarlet, 468. 

Typhoid, 544. 

Typhus, 546. 

Yellow, 5g7. 
Fichu {See Capes), 
Fig, 201. 

Compote, 118. 

Paste, 201. 

Preserves, 421. 

to Freshen, 202. 
Filbert Macaroons, 341. 
Filters, 581. 

Finger, bandage for, 15. 
Finger-bowls at Dinner, 157. 
Finger, dislocation of, 162. 
Finger-nails, 202. 
Finials, 2S6. 
Fining Wine, 5g4. 
Fire-place, 202, 283. 
Fires, 202. 
Fish, as food, 202. 

Anchovy, 7. 

Bass, 18. 

Blackfish, 35. 

Bluefish, 3g. 

Bream, 46. 

Bull-trout, 54. 

Carp, So. 

Catfish, 88. 

Chub, 105. 

Clams, 107. 



Cockles, 112. 
Cod, 113. 
Codling, 114. 
Conger Eel, llS. 
Crab, I2g. 
Dace, 140. 
Dinner, 158. 
Dory, 163. 
Eel, 187. 
Flounder, 2og. 
Goldfish, 247. 
Haddock, 256. 
Halibut, 258. 
Herring, 262. 
Lamprey, 322. 

Ling, 335- 

Lobster, 337. 

Mackerel, 341. 

Mussels, 35g. 

Oyster, 374. 

Perch, 388. 

Pickerel, 390. 

Pike, 402. 

Porgee, 409. 

Prawn, 420. 

Quahaug, 438. 

Rockbass, 450. 

Rockfish, 450. 

Salmon, 45g. 

Salmon-trout, 460. 

Sardines, 461. 

Sea-bass, 471. 

Shad, 478. 

Shrimp, 484. 

Skate, 488. 

Smelt, 4g3. 

Sole, 496. 

Sprat, 510. 

Sturgeon, 516. 

Sucker, 5i6.« 

Tautog, 525. 

Tom-cod, 535. 

Trout, 537. 

Turbot, 541. 

Turtle, 546. 

Weakfish, 584. 

Whitefish, 589. 

"Whiting, 590. 
Fistula; in Consumption, 120. 
Fits, 203. 

Apoplexy, 7. 

Catalepsy, 87. 

Epilepsy, 194. 

Fainting-fits, igS. 

Hysterics, 300. 

in Infants, 307. 
Flag Onion {See Leek). 
Flannel, 203. 

to Shrink, 203. 

" Wash, 203, 579. 
Flap-jacks {See Slap-jacks). 
Flat Decoration, 145. 
Flatulence, 204. 
Flavored Biscuits, 33. 
Flax, 204. 
Flax-seed, 204. 

Tea, 204. 
Fleas, to Destroy, 204. 
Fleetings of Buttermilk, 57. 
Fleming Gingerbread, 63. 
Flesh {See Food). 
Flies, to Destroy, 204. 



Floating Island, 205. 
Floors, 146, 205, 293. 

Polishing, 205. 

Scouring, 205. 
Floriculture, 205, 591. 

Insects, 207, 592. 

Planting, 206, 591. 

Preserving Plants in Winter, 
207. 

Soil, 206, 591. 

Transplanting, 206. 

Weeding, 206. 
Floss, 209. 
Flounder, 209. 
Flour, 209. 

Caudle, 8g. 
Flowers, to Cut and Keep, 20g. 
Flue, 20g. 
Fluids, 209. 
Flummery, 210. 
Fluting {See Crimping). 
Flux {See Dysentery). 
Fomentations, 2io. 
Fondu, 210. 
Food, 210. 

Foot, bandage for, 15. 
Foot, Fractured, 214. 
Force-meat {See Stuffing). 
Forearm, bandage for, 15. 
Forks, 212. 
Founder, 269. 
Fountain Syringe, 521. 
Fowl {See Chicken and Poultry). 
Foxglove, 212. 
Fractures, 212. 

Arm, above elbow, 213. 
" below " 213. 

Collar-bone, 213. 

Elbow-joint, 214. 

Hand, P'oot, or Ankle, 214. 

Head, 21,:]. 

Hipjoint, 214. 

Jaw, 214. 

Knee-cap, 215. 

Leg, 215. 

Ribs, 215. 

Thigh, 215. 
Frames, Gilt, to preserve, 216. 
P'rancatelli's Punch, 437. 
Frangipane, 216. 

de Pommes-de-terre, 216. 
Franklin Stove, 573. 
Frappee, Champagne, 92. 
Freckles, 216. 
French Biscuits, 33. 
French Cake, 63. 
French Chalk, 91. 
French Cheeses, 95. 
French China, 187. 
French Cookery, Terms Used in, 

216. 
French Custard, 137. 
French Pickles, 3g2. 
French Puff-paste, 395. 
French Rolls, 450. 
French Salad-dressing, 457. 
Friar's Omelette, 36g. 
Fricassee, 217. 
Frieze, 217. 
Fringe, 217. 
Fritters, 217. 

Apple, 217. 



638 

Fritters (continued), Bread, 217. 
Clam, 108. 
Corn, 125. 
Fruit, 217. 
Indian Meal, 218. 
Lobster, 218. 
Mincemeat, 218. 
Orange, 372. 
Pear and Peach, 218. 
Potato, 218, 415. 
Rice, 218. 
Spanish, 218. 
Venetian, 218. 
Frog, 218. 

Fricasseed, 218. 
Fried, 218. 
Stewed, 218. 
Frost-bites, 219 
Frost-fish {See Tom-cod). 
Frozen Limbs, 219. 
Fruit Cake, 63. 
Fruit Cobbler, 112. 
Fruit Custard, 137. 
Fruits, 219. 

Candying, 75. 
Canning, 75. 
Fruit, Wax, to Make, 220. 
Frumety, 220. 
Frying, rationale of, 220. 
Fuchsias, 221. 
Double, 221. 
Golden-leaved, 221. 
Single, 221. 
Winter-flowering, 221. 
Fuel {See Coal, Coke, and Wood). 
Fuller's Earth, 221. 
Fumigation, 222. 
Funnel, 222. 
Furnaces, 575. 
Furnishing, 222. 
Bedrooms, 22S. 
Curtains, 230. 
DiiUng-room, 226. 
Gas Fixtures, 230. 
Hall, 223. 
Kitchen, 230, 319. 
Library, 226. 
Nursery, 229. 
Parlor, 223. 
Price Lists, 232. 
Second-hand Furniture, 232. 
Selection of Furniture, 231. 
Servants' Rooms, 230. 
Sickroom, 485. 
Woods, 231. 
Furniture Oil, 236. 

Polish, 236. 
Furs, 236. 
Fustian, 236. 



Gamboge, 237, 176. 
Gallic Acid, 172. 
Game, 237. 

Gravy. 253. 
Garden-cress {See Cress). 
Gardening, 237. 
Garget, 128. 
Garlic, 238. 

Vinegar, 338. 
Gas, 238. 



INDEX. 

Gas (continued). Fixtures, 230. 

Meters, 350. 
Gastric Fever, 545. 
Gauff"ering, 241. 
Gauze, 241. 
Gelatine, 241. 

Charlotte de Russe, 92. 
Geneva (See Gin). 
Geneva Rolls, 450. 
Gentian, 241. 

Extract of, 176. 
Infusion of, 176. 
Geraniums, 242. 
Double, 242. 
Sweet-scented, 242. 
Zonale, 242. 
German Cheeses, 95. 
German Pancakes, 377. 
German Puffs, 436. 
German Sauce, 428. 
German Silver, 242. 
German .Student Lamp, 243. 
Gherkin, 244. 

Pickle, 396. 
Giblets, 244. 

Fricasseed, 244. 
Soup, 502. 
Stewed, 244. 
Giddiness {See Vertigo). 
Gilding, to Clean, log. 
Gilliflower, 244. 
Gilt Frames {See Frames). 
Gimp, 244. 
Gin, 244. 

Cordial, 124. 
Julep, 244. 
Punch, 437. 
Ginger, 244. 
Beer, 29. 
Candy, 73. 
Cordial, 124. 
Essence of, 195, 245. 
Ginger-pop, 245. 
Mock-ginger, 245. 
Preserves, 421. 
Wine, 245. 
Gingerbread, 63. 
Fleming, 63. 
Hard, 64. 
Soft, ^64. 
Spiced, 64. 
Sponge, 64. 
Sugar, 64. 
Ginger-snaps, 64. 
Gingham, 245. 
Gladiolus, 245. 
Glanders {See Horse). 
Glass, 246. 
Blue, 246. 
to Clean Cut, 246. 
Glaze, 246. 
Glazing, 246. 
Gloves, 246. 

to Clean, 109. 
Glue, 246. 
Glycerine, 247. 
Soap, 494. 
Goat-flesh, 247. 
Goitre, 247. 
Golden Cake, 64. 
Goldfish, 247. 
Gold-lacc, to Clean, 248. 



Goose, 248. 

Carving, 84. 
Keeping, 418. 
Roast, 248. 
Stewed, 248. 
Gooseberry, 248. 

Champagne, 249. 
Compote, 117. 
Dried, 249. 
Jam, 313. 
Jelly, 316. 
Pie, 397. 
Preserves, 421. 
Pudding, 432. 
Tart, 524. 
Trifle, 537. 
Water-ice, 302. 
Wine, 249. 
Gossamer {See Gauze). 
Gourd, 249. 
Gout, 249. 

Graachen Wine, 355. 
Grace, Law of, 326. 
Graefenberg Wine, 446. 
Grafting, 250. 
Graham Bread, 44. 
Biscuit, 33. 
Muffins, 356. 
Grandison Punch, 437. 
Grapes, 251. 
Jelly, 316. 
Pie, 397. 

Preserved fresh, 252. 
Wine, 252. 
Grates, 252, 574. 
Gravy, 252. 

Brown, 253. 
Clear, 253. 
Fish, 253. 

Game or Poultiy, 253. 
Hasty, 253. 
Kidney, 253. 
Poultry, 253. 
Soup, 502. 
Veal, 253. 
Grease for the Hair, 257. 
Grease-spots, to Remove from 
Cloth, 253. 
from Marble, 254. 
" Paper, 254. 
" Silk, 486. 
Green Gage {See Plum). 
Green Geese {See Goose). 
Gregory's Powder {See Rhubarb). 
Grey Powder, 254. 
Gridiron, 254. 
Grilling {See Broiling). 
Groats {See Oatmeal). 
Groceries, 254. 
Grog, 254. 

Groin, bandage for, 16. 
Grooming Horses, 268. 
Groseilles Preserves, 422. 
Ground-hog {See W^oodchuck). 
Ground-peas {See Pea-nuts). 
Grouse, 254. 
Gruel, 255. 

Barley, 255. 
Common, 255. 
Oatmeal, 255. 
Rice, 255. 
Water, 255. 



I 



INDEX. 



639 



Grunhausen Wine, 355. 
Gruyere Cheese, 95. 
Guava, 255. 

Jelly, 255. 
Guinea-fowl, 255. 

Keeping, 418. 
Gumbo, 256. 

Soup, 502. 
Gum boil, 256. 
Gum Drops, 73. 
Gunpowder Tea, 525. 
Gutta Percha, 256. 
Gutters, 256. 

H 

Haddock, 256. 
Haggis, 256. 
Hair, 257. 

Castor-oil Pomatum, 257. 

Hair Grease, 257. 

Hair Tonic, 257. 

Hair Wash, 257. 
Hair-cloth, 257. 
Hake, 257. 
Halibut, 258. 

Steak, 258. 
Hall, Decoration of, 148, 281. 

Furniture of, 223. 
Ham, 258. 

Carving, 84. 

Eggs with, 258, 1S9. 

Glazed, 259. 

Grated, 259. 

Omelette, 369. 

Potted, 259. 

Roast, 259. 

Steamed, 259. 
Hand, bandage for, 15. 
Hands, 259. 

Chapped, 192. 

Fractured, 214. 
Hare, 259. 

Fricasseed, 259. 

Roast, 259. 

Soup, 502. 

Stewed, 260. 
Harness, to Clean, 109. 
Harness-blacking, 36. 
Hartshorn {See Ammonia). 
Hash of Beef, 24. 

of Mutton, 361. 
" Veal, 556. 

" Venison, 558. 
Hasty Pudding, 432. 
Hasty Soup, 502. 
Hazlenut, 260. 
Head, bandage for, 16. 
Headache, 260. 
Head-cheese, 260. 
Head, fractured, 214. 
Health, Conditions of, 260. 
Heartburn {See Dyspepsia). 
Hearth, to Clean, 109. 
Heart of Beef, 24. 
Heartsease {See Pansy). 
Heat-governor, 576. 
Heating {See Warming). 
Heliotrope, 261. 

Scent-bag, 454. 
Hemiplegia {See Paralysis). 
Hemlock, 175. 
Hemorrhage {See Bleeding). 



Hemp, 261. 
Henbane, 261, 176. 
Hepatica, 261. 
Herbemont Wine, 5. 
Herbs, Sweet, 262. 
Balm, 14. 
Basil, 17. 
Drinks, 262. 
Fennel, 200. 
Lavender, 324. 
Marjoram, 345. 
Mint, 354. 
Mixture, 262. 
Parsley, 382. 
Powder, 262. 
Rosemary, 452. 
Sage, 456. 
Tansy, 522. 
Tarragon, 524. 
Thyme, 533. 
Hernia, 262. 
Herring, 262. 
Hiccough, 263. 
Hickory-nuts, 263. 
Higdom Pickles, 392. 
1 Hip, dislocation of, 161. 
i Hip-joint, fractured, 214. 
I Hoarhound, 263. 
Candy, 74. 
Hoarseness, 263. 
Hock, 263. 

California, 6. 
Hodge-podge, 263. 
Hoe-cake, 264. 
Hog {See Pork). 
Hollands {See Gin). 
Hollyhock, 264. 
Homeopathy, 264. 
Homeria, 264. 
Hominy, 264. 

Muffins, 356. 
Honey, 265. 
Cake, 64. 
Clarified, 265. 
Water, 265. 
Honeysuckle, 265. 

Tartarian, 265. 
Hoof-ail (in Cows), 128. 
Hooping-cough {See Whooping. 

cough). 
Hops, 265. 

Extract of, 176. 
Yeast, 597. 
Horse, 265. 

Diseases and Accidents, 268 
Bots, 268. 

Blind Staggers, 268. 
Broken Knees, 269. 
Canker, 268. 
Catarrh, 268. 
Chapped Heels, 26S. 
Colds, 268. 
Colic, 268. 
Corns, 268. 
Diarrhoea, 268. 
Dysentery, 269. 
Founder, 269. 
Glanders, 269. 
Grease, 269. 
Inflammation, 269. 
Lameness, 269. 
Lice, 269. 



Horse (con.), Liver Diseases, 269. 
Lung Fever, 269. 
Pleurisy 269. 
Pneumonia, 269. 
Quittor, 269. 
Ring Bones, 269. 
Sand Crack, 269. 
Scratches, 269. 
Shoulder Slip, 269. 
Spavin. 269. 
Splints, 269. 
Sprains, 270. 
Staggers, 270. 
Thrush, 270. 
Worms, 270. 
Food and Management, 267. 
Exercise, 268. 
Grooming, 268. 
Hoof, the, 267. 
Regulating Bowels, 267. 
Salt, 267. 
Water, 267. 
General Remedies, 270. 
Horse-mackerel. {See Tunny- 
fish.) 
Horse-radish, 271, 176. 
Sauce, 465. 
Vinegar, 564. 
Hosiery, 271. 
Hot-bed, 271. 
Hot-water Bag, 271. 
Hour-glass, 271. 
House, 271. 

Advice to Persons about tak- 
ing a, 296. 
Construction, 288. 

Stone and Brick, 288. 
Wooden Houses, 291. 
Exposure, 272. 
Exterior Arrangement, 284. 
Interior Arrangement, 273. 

" Finish, 293. 
Plans, 273 to 281. 
Situation and Surroundings, 

272. 
Style, 284. 
Trees, 272. 

Unhealthiness of a new, 296. 
House-cleaning, 109. 
Hoven, 128. 
Huckaback, 296. 
Huckleberry, 296. 
Cake, 64. 
Pie, 398. 
Pudding, 432. 
Hungarian Wines, 296. 
Baltazeker, 297. 
Budai, 297. 
Egri, 297. 
Karlovai, 297. 
Maggarati, 297. 
Matrai. 297. 
Menesi, 297. 
Nezmelyi, 297. 
Ruszti, 297. 
St. Gyorgy, 297. 
Somlai, 297. 
Sopronyi, 297. 
Szamarodner, 297. 
Szegszardi, 297. 
Tetenyi, 297. 
Tokay, 297. 



G40 



INDEX. 



Hungarian Wine (con.). Villanyi, 
Visontai, 297. [297. 

Hungary Water, 297. 

Hyacinthe, 297. 

Hydrangea, 298. 

Hybrid Perpetual Roses, 451. 

Hydrate of Chloral {See Chloral). 

Hydrochloric Acid, 173. 

Hydrometer {See Dairy). 

Hydropathy, 298. 

Hydrophobia, 299. 

in the Dog, 299, 163. 

Hygiene (Sec- Health). 

Hypochondria, 300. 

Hyson Tea, 525. 

Hysteria, 300, 380, 389, 469. 

Hysterical Fits, 300. 



I 

Ice, 301. 

Apple, 8. 

Apricot, 8. 
Ice-bag, 301. 
Ice-cream, 301. 

Almond, 301. 

Chocolate, 302. 

Coffee, 302. 

Fruit, 302. 

Lemon, 302. 

Orange, 303. 

Orgeat, 302. 

Peach, 302. 

Philadelphia, 302. 

Pineapple, 303. 

Raspberry, 302. 

Strawberry, 302. 

Vanilla, 302. 
Ice-houses, 30I. 
Iceland Moss {See Lichens). 
Ices, Water {See Water-ices). 
Icing (for Cake), 303. 

Almond, 303. 
Imperial, 303. 

Indian Cress {See Nasturtium). 
Indian Dumpling, 182. 
India Pale Ale, 4. 
Indian Pone Bread, 44. 
Indian Pudding, 432. 
India Rubber, 303. 
India Shawl {See Shawls). 
Indigestion {See Dyspepsia). 
Infants, 303. 

Arrowroot for, lO. 

Barley for, 17. 

Birth, 303. 

Clothing, 304. 

Diet, 305. 

Diseases of, 306. 

Sleep of, 306. 

Teething, 307; 

Weaning, 308. 
Inflammation, 309. 
Influenza, 309. 
Infusion, 309. 

of Camomile, 176. 

" Cloves, 176. 

" Gentian, 176. 

" Linseed, 177. 

" Orange-peel, 177. 

" Quassia, 177. 

" Rhubarb, 177. 



Infusion of Roses, 177. 

of Senna, 177. 
Ingrafting {See Grafting). 
Ingrain Carpet, 81. 
Ingrowing Nail {See Toe-nail). 
Injections, 309. 
Ink, Black, 309. 

Marking, 309. 
Ink Stains, 309. 

Indelible, 309. 
Insanity, 309. 

Insects {See Ants, Bugs, Cock- 
roaches, Fleas, Flies, Mos- 
quitoes, and Moth). 
Insects in the Ear, i. 
Insects, to Remove from Plants 

and Flowers, 207, 592. 
Insomnia {See Sleeplessness). 
Inspissation, 310. 
Interest for Money, 326. 
Intermittent Fever {See Ague), 
lona Wine, 5. 
Ipecacuanha, 179. 
Iris, 310. 

Irish Poplin {See Poplin). 
Irish Stew {See Mutton). 
Iron, Mixture of, 178. 

Syrup of, 180. 
Iron Bedstead, 22. 
Ironing, 579. 
Iron-mould, 355. 
Iron, Polishing, 310. 
Ironstone China, 187. 
Ironware, 310. 

Cement for, 91. 

Cleaning, no. 

to preserve from Rust, 311. 
Isabella Wine, 5. 
Isinglass, 311. 

Isle of Wight Doughnuts, 163. 
Italian Cheeses, 95. 
Italian Meringues, 350. 
Itch, 311. 
Ivory, 311. 

to Silver, 311. 
Ivy, 312. 

Poison, 408. 
Ixia, 312. 

J 

Jacket {See Sacque). 
Jaconet, 312. 
Jalap, 177. 
Jam, 312. 

Apricot, 9. 

Blackberry, 313, 35. 

Carrot, 313. 

Currant, 813. 

Gooseberry, 313. 

Greengage, 313. 

Raspberry, 313. 

Rhubaib, 313. 

Strawberry, 313. 
Japanese Cement, gi. 
Japanese Paper-ware, 377. 
Japan Lilies {See Lily). 
Japonica, 313. 
Jasmine, 313. 
Jaundice, 313. 
Jaune Mange, 314. 
Jaw, dislocation of, 161. 



Jaw, fractured, 214. 
Jeans, 314. 
Jelly, 314. 

Apple, 315. 

Apricot, 9. 

Arrowroot, 315. 

Aspic or Savory, 315. 

Barberry, 315. 

Blackberry, 315. 

Calf's-feet, 69, 315. 

Cake, 64. 

Cherry and Currant, 316. 

Cider, 316. 

Currant, 316. 

Four-fruit, 316. 

Gooseberry, 316. 

Grape, 316. 

Guava, 255. 

Lemon, 316. 

Marbled, 316. 

Orange, 316. 

Peach, 316. 
* Quince, 316. 

Raspberry, 316. 

" and Currant, 316. 

Rhubarb, 316. 

Rice, 316. 

Sago, 317. 

Sassafras, 462. 

Strawberry, 317. 

Tapioca, 317. 

Wine, 317. 
Jenny Lind's Soup, 503. 
Jerusalem Artichoke, 10. 
Jessamine {See Jasmine). 
Johannisberger, 446. 
John Dory {See Dory). 
Johnny Cakes, 317. 
Jonquil, 317. 
Josephshoff, 355. 
Jujube Paste, 74. 
Julep, Gin, 244. 

Mint, 317. 
Julienne Soup, 503. 
Jumbles, 317. 

Almond, 317. 
Cocoanut, 317. 

K 

Kalamazoo Pickles, 392. 
Kale, 317. 
Kalsomining, 318. 
Karlovai Wine, 297. 
Kerosene, 318. 
Kerseymere {See Cassimere). 
Ketchup (^'i?^ Catsup). 
Kettle, 318. 
Kid, 318. 

Kidderminster Carpet, 81. 
Kidney Beans, 20. 
Kidneys, 318. 

Beef, 24. 

Broiled, 318. 

Fried, 319. 

Stewed, 319. 
Kingfish {See Whiting). 
Kirschwasser, 336. 
Kitchen, 319, 283, 477. 
Knee, Bandage for, 16. 

Dislocation of, 162. 
Knee-cap, fractured, 215. 



INDEX. 



641 



Knife, 319. 

Cleaning, 109, 320. 
Kol-cannon, 320. 
Konisbach Wine, 446. 
Kuemmel, 336. 



Laburnum, 320. 
Lace, to Clean, 320. 

to Wash, 579. 
Lachenalia, 320. 
Lacquering, 321. 
Lactometer {See Daii-y). 
Lady Cake, 65. 
Lady Slipper {See Balsam). 
Lafitte Wine, 108. 
Lager Beer, 321. 
Lait Sucre, 30. 
Lamb, 321. 

Chops, 321. 

Sauce for, 322. 
Lambrequin, 135. 
Lamprey, 322. 
Lamps, 322. 

Argand, 9, 322. 

Astral, 322. 

Carcel, 79. 

Chimneys, 323. 

Duplex, 323. 

German Student, 243. 

Globes, 240. 

Moderateur, 323. 

Shades, 240. 

Spirit, 323. 
Lard, 323. 

to Make, 323, 
Larding, 324. 
Lark, 324. 
Larkspur, 324. 
Lasting, 324. 
Latour Wine, 108. 
Laudanum, 324, 177. 
Laurel Leaves, 324. 
Laughing Gas ( See Nitrous Ox- 
ide). 
Laurestinus, 324. 
Lavender-water, 324. 
Law, 324. 

Bill of Exchange, 31. 

Caveat Emptor, 325. 

Change, 325. 

Check, Bank, 93. 

Deed, 325. 

Delivery of Personal Prop- 
erty, 325. 

Dower, 326. 

Escrow, 326. 

Grace, 326. 

Interest for Money, 326. 

Legal Tender, 326. 

Limitations, Statute of, 326. 

Payments, Appropriations of, 
326. 

Mortgage, 327. 

Outlawry of Claims, 327. 

Power of Attorney, 419. 

Promissory Note, 425. 

Receipt, 443. 

Release, 327. 

Sale of Property, 327. 

Servant and Master, 477. 

41 



Law (continued). Tender, 327. 

Warranty, 328. 

Will, 328. 
Lawn, 329. 
Laxatives, 329. 
Lead, 329. 

Leak in Lead Pipes, 329. 
Leather, to Dye, 185. 
Leaven {See Yeast). 
Leeches, how to Use, 329. 
Leek, 329. 
Legal Tender, 326. 
Leg, Bandage for, 16. 

Broken, 215. 
Lemonade, 330. 

Concentrated, 330. 

Milk, 330. 

Portable, 330. 
Lemon, 330. 

Cake, 65. 

Candy, 74. 

Cream, 131. 

Drops, 169. 

Dumpling, 182. 

Essence of, 196. 

Icecream, 302. 

Jelly, 316. 

Marmalade, 346. 

Pie, 398. 

Pudding, 432. 

Sauce, 428, 464. 

Sherbet, 481. 

Syrup, 521. 

Tarts, 525. 

Water-ices, 302. 
Lemons, Salt of, 330. 
Lemon Verbena, 330. 
Lettuce, 330. 

Salad, 330. 

Stewed, 331. 
Leucorrhoea, 349. 
Leveret {See Rabbit). 
Library, 148, 331. 

Furniture, 226. 
Lice, 269. 
Lichens, 333. 
Liebig's Extract of Meat, 333. 

to Make, 333. 
Ligature, 333. 
Lightning, Stroke of, 333. 
Lightning-rod, 334. 
Lilac, 334. 

Lily. 334- 

Calla, 69. 

Japan, 334. 

of the Valley, 334. 
Lima Beans, 20. 
Limburger Cheese, 95. 
Lime. 334. 

Water, 334. 
Limes, 334. 

Juice, 334, 471- 
Limitations, Statute of, 326. 
Linen, 335. 
Ling, 335. 
Liniment, 335. 

Ammonia, 177. 

Camphor, 177. 

Camphorated Oil, 335. 

Turpentine, 177. 

Volatile, 335. 

White, 335. 



Linseed, 335. 

Infusion, 177. 

Poultice, 179. 

Tea, 335. 
Linsey-woolsey, 335. 
Lips, Chapped ( See Chapped 

Hands). 
Liqueurs, 335. 

Anisette, 335. 

Benedictine, 335. 

Chartreuse, 336. 

Creme de Girofle, 336. 
" " Noyeau, 336. 
" " The, 336. 
" Vanille, 336. 

Currant, 336. 

Curacoa, 134, 336. 

Eau de Vie, 336. 

Kirschwasser, 336. 

Kuemmel, 336. 

Maraschino, 336. 

Noyeau, 336. 

Orange, 336. 

Raspberry, 336. 

Ratafia, 336. 
Liver, 336. 

Baked, 336. 

Beef, 24. 

Fried with Bacon, 337. 

Roast, 337. 

Stewed, 337. 
Liverwort {See Ilepatica). 
Loaf Cake, 65. 
Lobster, 337. 

Croquettes, 117. 

Curry, 117. 

Devilled, 338. 

Farcie, 338. 

Forcemeat, 515- 

Fried, 338. 

Patties, 338. 

Potted, 338, 

Sauce, 338, 465. 

Soup, 503. 
Lockjaw {See Tetanus). 
Lories, 381. 
Lotion, 338. 

Arnica, 338. 

Astringent, 338. 

Evaporating, 338. 

Raspail's Sedative, 338. 

Stimulating, 339. 
Louisiana Wine, 5. 
Lumbago, 339. 
Lunacy {See Insanity). 
Lunar Caustic, 339. 
Lunch, 339. 

Lung Fever, an Horses, 269. 
Lungs, Bleeding of the, 38. 
Lungs, to Test the State of the, 

339- 
Lupin, 340. 
Lustring, 340. 
Lutestring {See Lustring). 
Lye, 340. 
Lyonnaise Potatoes, 415. 

M 

Macaroni, 340. 

A la Creme, 340. 
Baked, 340. 



042 



INDEX. 



Macaroni (con.), Boiled, 340. 

Pudding, 432. 

Richelieu, 340. 

Side Dish, 341. 

Timbale, 341. 
Macaroons, 341. 

Almond, 341. 

Cocoanut, 341. 

Filbert, 341. 

Flour, 341. 

Orange-flower, 341. 
Macaws, 381. 
Mace, 341. 

Essence of, 195. 
Maceration, 341. 
Mackerel, 341. . 

Potted, 342. 
Madeira, 343. 

Magendie's Solution {See Mor- 
phine). 
Maggarati Wine, 297. 
Maggots, 343. 
Magnesia, 343, 177. 

Citrate of, 343. 
Magnolia, 343. 
Mahogany, 231. 
Maitre d'Hotel Sauce, 465. 
Maitrank, 437. 
Maize {See Indian Corn). 
Majolica, 344. 
Malaria, 344. 
Malic Acid, i. 
Malt {See Brewing). 
Malt Liquors, 345. 

Ale, 4. 

Beer, 28. 

Lager Beer, 321. 

Porter, 413. 
Malt Wine, 345. 
Mange, 345. 

in Cows, 128. 
Mangel-wurzel, 29. 
Mangoes, Pickled, 401. 
Maple-wood, 231. 
Marasmus, use of Cod-liver oil 

in, 114. 
Maraschino, 336. 
Marble, to Clean, 345. 

Steps, to Clean, 109. 
Marbled Cake, 65. 
Marcobrunner, 446. 
Marigold, 345. 
Marjoram, 345. 

Essence of, 196. 

Sweet, 345. 
Marking Clothes, 346. 
Marmalade, 346. 

Apple, 34G. 

Apricot, 346. 

Barberry, 346. 

Lemon, 346. 

Orange, 346. 

Peach, 346. 

Pineapple, 346. 

Quince, 346. 

Quince and Apple, 346. 
Marrow Pudding, 433. 
Marsli-mallows, 178. 
Marsh Marigold, 345, 
Massasoit Wine, 5. 
Matelote, 346. 

Egg, 347- 



Matrai Wine, 297. 
Mattress {See Beds and Bedding). 
Maxatawney Wine, 5. 
Mayonnaise Dressing, 457. 

Sauce, 465. 
Mead, 347. 

Sparkling, 347. 
Measles, 347. 
Measure Cake, 65. 
Measures {See Weights and Meas- 
ures). . 
Medicines {See Drugs). 
Medoc Wines {See Claret). 
Melons, 347. 

Musk-melon, 359. 

Watermelon, 583. 
Melt, 347. 
Menesi Wine, 297. 
Menstruation, 348. 

Dysmenorrhoea, 349. 

Leucorrhcea, 349. 

" Turn of Life," 349. 
Mercury, 178. 

Ointment of, 178. 

Pill of, 178. 
Meringues, 349. 

Fruit, 350. 

Italian, 350. 
Merino, 350. 
Meters, for Gas, 350. 

Diy Meters, 351. 

Water Meters, 350. 
Metric System, 586. 
Miasm {See Malaria). 
Mice, to Destroy, 352. 
Mignonette, 352. 
Mildew, 352. 

on Cotton, 511. 
Milk, 352. 

Adulteration of, 353. 

Condensed, 353. 

Punch, 437. 

Stains, 511. 

Tests for, 141. 
Milk Fever (in Cows), 128. 
Milking, 129. 
Milk-weed, 353. 
Milled Drugget, 172. 
Millet, 353. 
Mincemeat, 353. 

Fritters, 218. 

Mock, 353. 

Pies, 398. 
Mint, 354. 

Julep, 317. 

Vinegar, 564. 

Water, 178. 
Mirrors, to Clean, 109, 354. 
Mocking Bird, 354. 
Mock-turtle Soup, 503. 
Moderateur Lamp, 323. 
Mohair, 354. 
Molasses, 354. 

Cake, 65. 

Candy, 74. 

Posset, 413. 
Monroel Pickles, 393. 
Moose, 354. 
Moquette Carpet, 81. 
Moreen, 354. 
Morphine, 355. 
Mortar {See Wedgewood Mortar). 



Mortgage, 327. 

Moselle Wines, 355. 

Mosquitoes, 355. 

Moss, Iceland {See Lichens). 

Moss Roses, 451. 

Moths, 355. 

Mould, 355. 

Iron-mould, 355. 
Mould Candles, 72. 
Moulded Custard, 137. 
Mountain Cake, 66. 
Mucilage, 356. 
Muffins, 356. 

Bread, 356. 

Corn, 356. 

Graham, 356. 

Green Corn, 125. 

Hominy, 356. 

Rice, 356. 
Mulberry, 356. 

Cider, 356. 
Mulled Drinks, 356. 

Cider, 356. 

Claret, 356. 

Port, 356. 
Mullet, 356. 
Mulligatawney, 357. 

Soup, 504. 
Mumps, 357. 
Muscadine, 357. 
Mush, 357. 
Mushroom, 357. 

Baked, 358. 

Broiled, 358. 

Catsup, 89. 

Dried, 358. 

Pickled, 358, 393. 

Powder, 358. 

Sauce, 465. 

Stewed, 358. 

Sweetbreads and, 350. 
Musk, 358. 
Musk-melon, 359. 
Musk-rat, 359. 
Muslin, 359. 
Mussels, 359. 

Boiled, 359. 

Pickled, 359. 
Mustard, 359. 

Tartar, 360. 
Mutton, 360. 

Broth, 50, 361. 

Ham of, 361. 

Haricot, 361. 

Hash, 361. 

Irish Stew, 361. 

Minced, 361. 

Pie, 362. 

Roast, 362. 

Soup, 504. 
Myrrh, 362. 

Tincture of, 180. 
Myrtle, 362. 

Soup, 495. 

N 

Nails {See Finger-nails and Toe- 
nails). 
Nainsook, 362. 
Nankeen, 362. 
Napkins, 157. 



J 



INDEX. 



643 



Narcissus, 363. 
Narcotics, 363. 
Nasturtium, 363. 

Pickled, 363. 
Neck, Dislocation of, 161. 
Neck, Stiff, 363. 
Nectar, 363. 
Nectarine, 363. 
Negus, 363. 

Barley, 363. 

Port, 363. 
Nerine, 363. 
Nettle-rash, 364. 
Neufchatel Cheese, 95. 
Neuralgia, 364. 
Nezmelyi Wine, 297. 
Niersteiner Wine, 446. 
Nigella, 364. 
Night-dress, 364. 
Nightmare, 490. 
Nipped, with Cold, 219. 
Nitrate of Silver Stain, to Re- 
move, 511. 
Nitre Whey, 31. 
Nitrous Oxide, 365. 
Noisette Roses, 452. 
Norfolk Dumpling, 182. 
Norfolk Punch, 437. 
Nosebleed, 38. 

in Brain Fever, 41. 
Note {See Promissory Note). 
Noyeau, 336. 
Nuits Wine, 55. 
Nursery, 229. 
Nurses and Nursing, 365. 

Qualifications of a Nurse, 365. 
Nut Cake, 66. 
Nut Candy, 74. 
Nutmeg, 366. 

Essence of, 366. 
Nuts, 366. 

Almonds, 4. 

Brazil-nuts, 43. 

Butternuts, 58. 

Cashew-nuts, 86. 

Chestnuts, 96. 

Cocoanuts, 112. 

Hazlenuts, 260. 

Hickory-nuts, 263. 

Oil-nuts, 367. 

Pea-nuts, 386. 

Pecan-nuts, 387. 

Pistachio-nuts, 404. 
Nux Vomica, 366. 



o 

Oak, 231. 

Oak, Poison, 408. 

Oatmeal, 366. 

Bread, 44. 

Groats (or Grits), 367. 

Gruel, 255. 

Mush, 367. 

Porridge, 367. 

Pudding, 367. 
Oil-nuts {See Butternuts) 
Oil-cloth, 367. 

to Clean, 367. 

" Make, 367. 



Ointments, 178. 

of Creasote, 178. 
" Galls, 178. 
" Mercury, 178, 
" Zinc, 178. 
Okra, 368. 

Boiled, 368. 

Soup, 502. 
Oleander, 368. 
Olives, 368. 

Sauce, 465. 
Olive-oil, 368, 178. 
Omelette, 369. 

Apple, 369. 

Aux Fins Herbs, 369. 

Cheese, 369. 

Friar's, 369. 

Ham, 369. 

Oyster, 374. 

Sandwiches, 461. 

Savory, 369. 

Souffle, 369. 

Strawberry, 369. 

Sweet, 369. 
Onion, 369. 

Baked, 370. 

Pickled, 370, 393. 

Roast, 370. 

Sauce, 466. 

Stewed, 370. 

Stuffed, 370. 

Stuffing, 515. 

Vinegar, 564. 
Ophthalmia, 371. 

Catarrhal, 371. 

Common, 371. 

Purulent, 371. 
Opium, 370, 180. 
Opossum, 370. 
Orange, 372. 

Cake, 66. 

Compote, 118. 

Cream, 131. 

Essence of Peel, 196. 

Filled with Jelly, 372. 

Fool, 372. 

Fritters, 372. 

Ice-cream, 302. 

Jelly, 316. 

Liqueur, 336. 

Macaroons, 341. 

Marmalade, 346. 

Pie, 398. 

Preserves, 422. 

Pudding, 433. 

Salad, 372. 

Syrup, 372, 521. 

Tarts, 525. 

Water-ice, 302. 

Wine, 372. 
Orangeade, 373. 
Organdie, 373. 
Orgeat, 373. 

Ice-cream, 302. 
Oriental China, 187. 
Ormolu, 373. 
Ortolan, 373. 

Broiled, 373. 

Roast, 373. 
Otter, 373. 

Outlawry of Claims, 327. 
Overshoes, 373. 



Oxalic Acid, 373. 
Oxalis, 373. 
Ox-cheek Soup, 504. 
Ox-tail Soup, 504. 
Oyster, 374. 

Broiled, 374. 

Catsup, 374. 

Curry, 374. 

Omelette, 374. 

Patties, 374. 

Pickled, 374. 

Pie, 374. 

Poulette, 375. 

Roast, 375. 

Sauce, 466. 

Scalloped, 375. 

Soup, 505. 

Steamed, 375. 

Stewed, 375. 

Stuffing, 516. 
Oyster-plant, 375. 

Boiled, 375. 

Stewed, 375. 



Pseony, 376. 

Herbaceous, 376. 

Tree, 376. 
Paint, to Clean, 376, no. 

to Remove, 376. 
Painting, 376, 293. 

Measurement of Painter's 
Work, 377. 
Palestine Soup, 505. 
Palsy {See Paralysis). 
Panada, 377. 

Chicken, 377. 

Cracker, 377. 
Pancakes, 377. 

Apple, 377. 

Dessert, 377. 

German, 377. 
Pansy, 377. 
Paper-hangings, 378. 

Cleaning, no. 

Hanging, 378. 

Measuring, 378. 

Paste for, 378. 

Price of, 378. 
Papier Mache, 378. 

Cleaning, no. 
Paper-ware, 377. 
Paraffine, 378. 

Oil, 379- 
Paralysis, 379. 
Paraplegia {See Paralysis). 
Paregoric Elixir, 380. 
Parlor Furniture, 223. 
Parmesan Cheese, 95. 
Paroquets, 381. 
Parquetry, 380. 
Parrots, 380. 

Cockatoos, 381. 

Lories, 381. 

Macaws, 381. 

Paroquets, 381. 

Toucans, 381. 

True Parrots, 381. 
Parsley, 390. 

Fried, 390. 

Sauce, 466. 



G44 



INDEX. 



Parsnip, 382. 

Buttered, 382. 

Fried, 382. 

Soup, 505. 

Wine, 382. 
Partridge, 383. 

Carving, 85. 

Roast, 387. 

" with Bacon, 3S7. 
Passion Flower, 3S3. 
Paste for Labels, 383. 

for Paper-hangings, 378. 
Pastiles, 383. 
Pastry, 384. 

Sandwiches, 461. 
Pate, 384. 
Patties, 384. 

Beef, 3S4. 

Lobster, 33S, 3S4. 

Oyster, 374, 384. 

Turkey, 384. 

Veal, 384. 
Paw-paw, 384. 

Payments, Appropriation of, 326. 
Peach, 385. 

Brandied, 385. 

Candied, 385. 

Compote, iiS. 

Cordial, 124. 

Dried, 385. 

Fritters, 218. 

Ice-cream, 302. 

Jelly, 316. 

Leather, 38 5. 

Marmalade, 346. 

Pickle, 401. 

Preserves, 422. 

Salad, 385. 

Stewed, 385. 

Suedoise, 3S6. 
Pea-fowl, 386. 

Keeping, 418. 
Pea-nuts, 386. 
Pear, 386. 

Baked, 386. 

Brandied, 386. 

Candied, 386. 

Fritters, 218. 

Preserves 422. 

Salad, 386. 

Stewed, 387. 

Syrup, 521. 
Pearlash {See Potash). 
Pearl Barley, 17. 
Pearl-white {See Cosmetics). 
Pear-wood, 231. 
Peas, 384. 

Soup, 505. 
Pecan-nut, 3S7. 
Pekoe Tea, 525. 
Pelargonium, 387. 
Pelisse, 387. 
Pennyroyal, 3S7. 
Peony {See PiKony). 
Pepsine, 387. 
Pepper, 388. 

Cayenne, 90, 388. 
Peppercorns {See Pepper). 
Peppermint, 388. 
Drops, 388. 
Perch, 383. 
Perfumes, 388. 



Peritonitis, 388. 

Periwinkles, 389. 

Perry, 389. 

Persian Carpets, 81. 

Peru, Balsam of, 14, 17S. 

Petits Pois (Asparagus with), li. 

Petroleum, 389. 

Pewter-ware, 389. 

Pheasant, 389. 

Phlox, 389. 

Piano-forte, Care of the, 390. 

Piccalilli, 390. 

Pickerel, 390. 

Pickles, 390. 

Barberries, 391. 

Beans, 391. 

Beetroots, 30, 391. 

Butternuts, 394. 

Cabbage, 391. 

Capsicums, 392. 

Cauliflower, 392. 

Celery, 392. 

Cherries, 392. 

Chow-chow, 104. 

Cucumber, 392. 

Elder, 392. 

Eschalots, 392. 

French. 392. 

Gherkins, 392. 

Higdom, 392. 

Kalamazoo, 392. 

Mangoes, 393. 

Mixed, 393. 

Monroel, 393. 

Mushrooms, 393. 

Nasturtiums, 363. 

Onions, 393. 

" and Cucumbers, 393. 

Peaches, 393. 

Piccalilli, 390. 

Sweet, 393. 

Tomatoes, 393. 

Walnuts, 394. 
Pickling Meat, 394. 
Pictures, Cleaning, 147, 394. 

Framing, 394. 

Hanging, 394. 

Protecting from Insects, 394. 
Pies, 394. 

Apple, 396. 

Beef, 24, 25. 

Beefsteak, 396. 

Blackberry, 397 

Carrot, 397. 

Cherry, 397. 

Chicken, 97. 

Cocoanut, 397. 

Cranberry, 397. 

Crust, 395. 

" Cream, 395. 
" Economical, 396. 
" Puff-paste, 395. 
" Short, 396. 
" Suet, 396. 

Currant, 397. 

Custard, Apple, 397. 

" Cornstarch, 397. 
*' Peach, 397. 

Gooseberry, 397. 

Grape, 397. 

Huckleberry, 398. 

Lemon, 398. 



Pies (con.). Lemon Cream, 398. 

Marlborough, 398. 
Mince, 398. 
Orange, 398. 
Oyster, 374. 
Peach, 398. 

Pigeon, 401. 

Plum, 398. 

Pork, 411. 

Potato, 398. 

" Sweet, -399- 

Pumpkin, 399. 

Quail, 439. 

Rabbit, 441. 

Raspberry, 399. 

Rhubarb, 399. 

Rice, 399. 

Scallop, 468. 

Strawberry, 399. 

Tomato, 399. 

Veal, 556. 

Venison, 558. 
Pig, 400. 

Baked, 400. 

Carving, 86. 

Ears, 412. 

Feet, 412. 

Head, 412. 

Liver, 412. 

Roast, 400. 

Souse, 412. 
Pigeon, 400. 

Baked, 400. 

Carving, 85. 

Keeping, 418. 

Pie, 401. 

Stewed, 401. 
Pigments, 401. 

Blacks, 401. 

Blues, 401. 

Browns, 401 

Compound Colors, 401. 

Greens, 401. 

Orange-color, 401. 

Reds, 401. 

Whites, 401. 

Yellows, 401. 
Pike, 402. 
Piles, 402. 
Pillaw, 193. 
Pillow-cases, 22. 
Pillows. 21. 
Pills {See Drugs). 
Pimento {See Allspice). 
Pimpernel, 403. 
Pimples, 403. 
Pine, 231. 
Pine-apple, 403. 

Ice-cream, 302. 

Marmalade, 346. 

Preserves, 422. 

Pudding, 433. 

Punch, 43S. 

Sauce, 428. 

Syrup, 521. 

Water, 403. 

Water-ice, 303. 
Pinks, 403. 
Pipes, Gas and Water, 403. 

Leaky, 329. 
Piquante Sauce, 466. 
Pistachio Nuts, 404. 



INDEX. 



645 



Pitch, 404. 


Potatoes, 413. 


Burgundy, 179. 


A la Creme, 414. 


Plaice, 404. 


A la Maitre d'Hotel, 414. 


Plaid, 404. 


Baked, 414. 


Plantain, 404. 


" Sweet, 414. 


Plaster Figures, to Give the ap- 


Balls, 415. 


pearance of Marble, or to 


Biscuit, 34. 


Varnish, 404. 


Bread, 44. 


Plastering, 404, 293. 


Broiled, 414. 


Plated Ware, 405. 


Chips, 415. 


to Clean, 487. 


Fried Sweet, 415. 


Plate Powder, 487. 


Fritters, 218, 415. 


Pleurisy, 405. 


Lyonnaise, 415. 


in Horses, 269. 


Pasty, 39S. 


Plover, 406. 


Pie, 399- 


Plumes (Sec Feathers). 


Pudding, 433. 


Plums, 406. 


Roast, 415. 


Cake, 66. 


" Sweet, 415. 


Compote, 118. 


Salad, 457. 


Pie, 398. 


Saute, 415. 


Preserves, 422, 


Scooped, 415. 


Pudding, 433. 


Stewed, 415. 


Plush, 406. 


Stuffed, 415. 


Pneumonia, 406. 


Yeast, 597. 


in Horses, 269. 


Pot-au-leu, 415. 


" Typhoid Fever, 545. 


Pots {See Ironware). 


Poisons and Antidotes, 407. 


Pots and Kettles, to Clean, no 


Poison-plants, 40S. 


Pots for Plants, 591. 


Ivy, 408. 


Pottery {See Earthenware). 


Oak, 408. 


Poultices, 415. 


Sumach, 408. 


Bran, 416. 


Polyuria {See Diabetes). 


Charcoal, 179. 


Pomades, 409. 


Hemlock, 179. 


Castor-oil, 257, 409. 


Linseed, 179, 416. 


Hard, 409. 


Mustard, 179. 


Sultana, 409. 


Yeast, 179, 416. 


Pompone Dahlia {See Dahlia). 


Poultry-keeping, 416, 


Poplin, 409. 


Chickens, 416. 


Poppy Capsules, 409. 


Ducks, 418. 


Porcelain {See Earthenware). 


Geese, 418. 


Porgee, 409. 


Guinea-fowls, 418. 


Pork, 410. 


Pea- fowls, 418. 


Beans and, 20, 410. 


Pigeons, 418. 


Brawn, 411. 


Turkeys, 419. 


Broiled Corned, 411. 


Pound Cake, 66. 


Chops and Steaks, 41 1. 


Powders, Baking, 14. 


Italian Cheese, 411. 


Power of Attorney, 419. 


Pickled, 411. 


Prairie Chicken, 420. 


Pie, 411. 


Prairie-hen, 254. 


" with Apples, 411. 


Fricasseed, 255. 


Pot-pie, 411. 


Salmi of, 255. 


Pig's Ears, 412. 


Stewed, 255. 


" Feet, 412. 


Prairie Roses, 452. 


" Head, 412. 


Prawns, 420. 


" Liver, 412. 


Prepared Chalk, 91. 


Souse, 412. 


Preserves, 420. 


Stewed, 412. 


Apples, 420. 


Porridge, Indian, 413, 


Apricots, 420. 


Oatmeal, 367. 


Barberries, 421. 


Porter, 413. 


Cherries, 421. 


Brown Stout. 413. 


Crab-apples, 421. 


Portugal Cake, 66. 


Cucumbers, 421. 


Port Wine, 413. 


Damsons, 421. 


California, 6. 


Figs, 421. 


Mulled, 356, 413. 


Ginger, 421. 


Negus, 363. 


Gooseberries, 421. 


Virginia, 5. 


Greengages, 421. 


Posset, 413. 


Groseilles, 422. 


Ale, 413. 


Melon (Citron), 422. 


Sack, 413. 


Mixed, 422. 


Molasses, 413. 


Oranges, 422. 


Potash, 413. 


Orange-peel, 422. 



Preserves (con.). Peaches, 422. 

Pears, 422. 

Pine-apples, 422. 

Plums, 422. 

Prunes, 423. 

Quinces, 423. 

" whole, 423. 

Strawberries, 423. 

Tomatoes, 423. 

Watermelon-rind, 423. 
Price Lists of Furniture, 232. 
Primrose, 423. 

Chinese, 423. 
Princesse Dress, 424. 
Printed Felt Carpets, 81. 
Privet, 425. 
Promissory Note, 425. 
Protest, of Notes, 426. 
Proud Flesh, 426. 
Prunes, 426. 

Preserved, 42. 
Prussic Acid, 426. 
Puddings, 427. 

Albert, 428. 

Almond, 429. 

Apple, 429. 

Arrowroot, 429. 

Batter, Baked, 429. 
" Boiled, 429. 

Berry, 430. 

Bird's Nest, 430. 

Black, 36. 

Brandy, 430. 

Bread, Baked, 430. 
" Boiled, 430. 
" and Butter, 430. 

Cabinet, 430. 

Cherry or Currant, 431. 

Cocoanut, 431. 

Cornstarch, 431. 

Cracker, 431. 

Custard. Baked, 431. 
" Boiled, 431. 

Delmonico, 431. 

Dutch Custard, 432. 

Farina, 432. 

Fruit, 432. 

Gooseberry, 432. 

Green Corn, 432. 

Hasty, 432. 

Huckleberry, 432. 

Indian, Baked, 432. 
" Boiled, 432. 

Lemon, 432. 

Lemon-suet, 432. 

Macaroni, 432. 

Marrow, 433. 

Oatmeal, 367. 

Orange, 433. 

Pineapple, 433. 

Plum, 433. 

Potato, 433. 

Quince, 433, 

Raisin, 433. 

" Boiled, 434, 

Rice-flour, 434. 

Rhubarb, 434. 

Sago, 424. 

Salmon, 460. 

Sauces for : 

Au quatre fruits. 
Brandy, 428. 



646 



INDEX. 



Puddings (con.), Cream, 428. 
German, 428. 
Hard, 428. 
Lemon, 428. 
Liquid, 428. 
Pineapple, 428. 
Rexford, 428. 
Spice, 428. 
Vanilla, 428. 
Wine, 42S. 
Sister Jonathine, 435. 
Snow, 435. 
Sponge-cake, 435. 
Squash, 435. 
Suet, 435. 
Sunderland, 435. 
Sweet Potato, 435. 
Tapioca, 435. 

with Apples, 435. 
Vermicelli, 436. 
Welcome Guest's, 436. 
Yorkshire, 436. 
Young Wife's, 436. 
Puff-paste, 395. 

French, 395. 
Puffs, 436. 

German, 436. 
Raspberry, 436. 
Spanish, 436. 
Pulque {See Agave.) 
Pumpkin, 436. 
Bread, 44. 
Pie, 399. 
Pumps, 436. 
Punch, 437. 

Champagne Cup, 437. 
Claret, 108. 
Francatelli's, 437. 
Gin Summer, 437. 
Grandison, 437. 
Maitrank, 437. 
Milk, 437. 
Norfolk, 437. 
Nuremberg, 438. 
Pineapple Cardinal, 438. 
Regent's, 438. 
Roman, 438. 
Purgatives {See Cathartics). 
Purslane, 438. 
Purulent Ophthalmia, 371. 
Putty, 438. 

to Remove, no. 

Q 

Quahaug {See Clams). 
Quail, 438. 

Carving, 85. 

Pie, 439- 

Roast, 439. 
Quassia, 439. 

Infusion of, 177. 
Queen's Cake, 66. 
Quick Beer, 29. 
Quick Cake, 66. 
Quicklime {See Lime). 
Quilling, 439. 
Quince, 439. 

Cordial, 439. 

Custard, 137. 

Jelly, 316. 

Marmalade, 346. 

Preserves, 423. 



Quince (con.), Pudding, 433. 
Quinine, 439, 179. 
Quinsy, 440. 
Quittor, 269, 

R 

Rabbit, 440. 

Fricasseed, 441. 

Fried, 441. 

Larded, 441. 

Pie, 441. 

Soup, 506. 

Stewed, 441. 
Raccoon, 442. 
Radish, 442. 
Rag Carpet, 81. 
Rail, 442. 
Raised Cake, 66. 
Raisins, 442. 

Pudding, 433. 

Wine, 442. 
Rape, 442. 
Rash, 442. 

Raspail's Sedative Lotion, 338. 
Raspberry, 443. 

Brandy, 443. 

Ice-cream, 302. 

Jam, 313. 

Jelly, 316. 

Liqueur, 336. 

Pie, 401. 

Pudding, 434. 

Puffs, 436. 

Tarts, 525. 

Vinegar, 443. 

Wine, 443. 
Ratafia, 336. 

Drops, 169. 
Ratan, 231. 
Rats, to Destroy, 443. 
Rattlesnake {See Snake-bites). 
Ray, 443. 

Razor {See Shaving). 
Receipt, 443. 
Red Gum, 443. 
Red Herring, 263. 
Red Mullet {See Mullet). 
Reed Birds, 443. 
Refrigerants, 444. 
Regent's Punch, 438. 
Register {See Warming). 
Release, in Law, 327. 
Rennet, 444. 
Rep, 444. 

Republican Cake, 67. 
Resin, 444. 

to Remove the Taste of from 
New Tin, 444. 
Respiration, 444. 
Respirator, 445. 
Rexford Sauce, 428. 
Rheim's Paper, 445. 
Rheumatism, 445. 

Acute, 445. 

Chronic, 445. 
Rhine Wines, 446. 
Rhododendron, 446. 
Rhubarb, 446. 

Infusion of, 177. 

Jam, 313. 

Jelly, 316. 



Rhubarb (con.), Pie, 399. 
Pill, 179. 
Pudding, 434, 
Tart, 525. 
Tincture of, 180. 
Ribs, Broken, 215. 
Rice, 447. 

Blanc-mange, 36. 
Bread, 44. 
Cake, 67. 
Caudle, 89. 
Croquettes, 132. 
Custard, 137. 
Dumpling, 182. 
Fried, 447. 
Fritters, 218. 
Gruel, 255. 
Jelly, 316. 
Muffins, 356. 
Pie, 399. 
Pudding, 434. 
Soup, 506. 
Wafers, 565. 
Waffles, 565. 
Water, 447. 
Rice-bird {See Reed Bird). 
Richelieu, 340. 
Rickets, 447. 
Ring-bones, 269. 
Ringworm, 448. 
Risen Biscuits, 34. 
Roaches, to Destroy, 448. 
Roasting, rationale of, 448. 
Robin, 449. 
Rochelle Salts, 450. 
Rock Bass, 450. 
Rock Fish, 450. 
Rock Salt {See Salt). 
Rolls, 450. 

French, 450. 
Geneva, 450. 
Romance Conti Wine, 55. 
Roman Punch, 438. 
Roofs, 286. 
Rosemary, 452. 
Roseola, 452. 
Roses, 450. 

Bourbon, 451. 
China, 451. 

Hybrid Perpetuals, 451. 
Moss, 451. 
Noisette, 452. 
Prairie, 452. 
Scent-bag of, 454. 
Tea, 452. 
Rosewood, 231. 
Roth Wine, 446. 
Rottenstone, 452. 
Rouge, 452. 
Royal Cake, 67. 
R. S. V. P., 452. 
Rudesheim Wine, 446. 
Rue, 452. 
Rum, 453. 

Punch, 437. 
Rupture {See Hernia). 
Rush Lights, 72. 
Rusk, 453, 

Sweet, 453. 
Russian Bath, 453. 
Rust, to Prevent, 453. 
to Remove, 453. 



I 



INDEX. 



647 



Ruszd Wine, 297. 
Kye, 454- 

Bread, 44. 

Drop-cakes, 454. 

Griddle-cakes, 454. 



Sable, 454. 
Sachets, 454. 

Heliotrope, 454. 

Rose, 454. 

Santal-wood, 454. 
Sacking, 454. 
Sacque, 454. 
Saffron, 456. 
Sage, 456. 
Sago, 456. 

Jelly, 317, 456. 

Milk, 456. 

Pudding, 434. 

Soup, 506. 
St. Giorgy Wine, 297. 
Salad, 456. 

Bean, 20. 

Beet, 30. 

Cabbage, 59. 

Celery, go. 

Chicken, 97. 

Crab, 129. 

Dressing for, 457. 
English, 457. 
French, 455. 
Mayonnaise, 465. 

Endive, 192. 

Orange, 372. 

Peach, 385. 

Potato, 457. 

Salmon, 460. 

Walnut, 457. 

Water-cress, 457. 
Sale of Property, 327. 
Saleratus, 457. 
Salivation, 458. 
Sally Lunn, 458. 
Salmagundy, 193. 
Salmon, 459. 

Baked, 459. 

Crimped, 459. 

Fried in Oil, 459. 

Pickled, 459. 

Potted, 459. 

Pudding, 460. 

Salad, 460. 

Smoked, 460. 

Steaks, 460. 
Salmon Trout, 460. 
Salsify {See Oyster Plant). 
Salt, 460. 

Salves {See Ointments). 
Salvia, 460. 
Samphire, 461. 
Sand Porgee, 409. 
Sandwiches, 461. 

Cheese, 461. 

Egg, 461. 

Fried Egg, 461. 

Gem and Cheese, 461. 

Omelet, 461. 

Pastry, 461. 
Sangaree, 461. 
Santal-wood Sachet, 454. 



Sapsago Cheese, 95. 
Sardine, 461. 
Sarsaparilla, 461. 
Sassafras, 462. 

Beer, 29. 

Jelly, 462. 

Tea, 462. 
Satin, 462. 
Satinet, 462. 
Satinwood, 231. 
Sauces, 462. 

Almond, 5. 

Anchovy, 7. 

An Quatre Fruits, 428. 

Bechamel, 462. 

Brandy, 428. 

Bread, 463. 

" with Onion, 463. 

Butter, Burnt, 463. 
" Melted, 463. 
" French, 463. 
" Rich, 463. 
" White, 463. 

Caper, 463. 

" for Fish, 463. 

Celery, 463, 90. 

Chestnut, 464. 

Chili, 464. 

Christopher North's, 464. 

Clarified Butter, 464. 

Crab, 464. 

Cranberry, 130. 

Cream, for Fish. 464. 

" " Puddings, 428. 

Cucumber, 464. 

Duchesse, 428. 

Dutch, 464. 

Egg, 190, 464- 

Eschalot, 464. 

Fricassee, 465. 

German, 428. 

Flard, 428. 

Horse-radish, 465. 

Lemon, 426, 465. 

Liquid, 428. 

Lobster, 465, 338. 

Maitre d'Hotel, 465. 

Mayonnaise, 465. 

Mint, 465. 

Mushroom, 465. 

Olive, 465. 

Onion, 466. 

Oyster, 466. 

Parsley, 466. 

Pineapple, 428. 

Piquante, 466. 

Port Wine, 428. 

Rexford, 428. 

Sheri7 Wine, 428. 

Shrimp, 466. 

Spice, 428. 

Soubise, 466. 

Tartar, 466. 

Tomato, 466. 

Turnip, 466. 

Vanilla, 428. 

Veloute, 467. 

White, 467. 
Sauer-kraut, 467. 
Sausages, 467. 

Bologna, 40, 467. 

Side Dish, 193. 



Sausage (con.), Stuffing, 516. 

Willow Brook, 467. 
Sauterne Wine, io8. 
Saveloys, 468. 
Savory, 468. 
Savory Cakes, 67. 
Savoy, 468. 
Scald-head, 468. 
Scalds, 468. 

in the eye, 198. 
Scallops, 468. 
Fried, 468. 
Pie, 468. 
Stewed, 468. 
Scarify, 468. 
Scarlet P'ever, 468. 
Scent-bags {See Sachets). 
Scharzberger, 355. 
Sciatica, 469. 
Scollops {See Scallops). 
Scoring, 470. 
Scorzonera, 470. 
Scotch Ale, 4. 
Scotch Cake, 67. 
Scotch Cheeses, 95. 
Scour (in Cows), 128. 
Scouring {See Cleaning, Grease, 

and Stains). 
Scrapple, 47P. 
Scratches, 470. 

" Scratches," in Horses, 269. 
Screens, 470, 294. 
Scrofula, 470. 
Scup {See Porgee). 
Scuppernong Wine, 6. 
Scurf, 471. 
Scurvy, 471. 
Scorbutus {See Scurvy). 
Sea-bass, 471. 
Sea-bathing, 20. 
Sea-fennel {See Samphire). 
Seakale, 471. 
Sea-sickness, 471. 
Seasoning {See Cookery). 
Second-hand Furniture, 232. 
Seconds {See Flour). 
Sedatives, 474. 
Seed-bed {See Hot-bed). 
Seed-cake, 60. 
Seidlitz Powders, 474. 
Seltzer-water, Home-made, 474. 
Semolina, 474. 
Senna, 472, 179. 

Infusion of, 177. 
Serge, 474. 
Serpent {See Snake). 
Servants, Management of, 474. 
Law of Master and, 477. 
Rooms of, 230. 
Setons, 477. 
Sevres China, 187. 
Sewers, 478. 
Shad, 478- 

Carving, 85. 
Roast, 478. 
Shaddock, 478. 
Shades for Lamps, 240. 
Shag-barks {See Hickory-nuts). 
Shagreen, 478. 

Shaking Palsy {See Paralysis). 
Shalloon, 479. 
Shallot, 479. 



648 



INDEX. 



Shallot (con.), Pickles, 392. 

Sauce, 464. 

Vinegar, 564. 
" Shammy " (&<? Chamois-skin). 
Shaving, 479. 

Soap, 4S0. 
Shawls, 4S0. 

Cleaning, no. 
Sheep {See Kidneys, Lamb, Mut- 
ton, Suet, and Tongues). 
Sheets, 21. 
Shellac Varnish, 554. 
Shellfish, 480. 

Clams, 107. 

Cockles, 112. 

Crabs, 129. 

Lobsters, 337. 

Mussels, 259. 

Oysters, 374. 

Periwinkles, 389. 

Prawns, 420. 

Shrimps, 484. 
Sherbet, 481. 

Cream, 481. 

Lemon, 481. 

Strawberry, 481. 
Sherry, 481. 

Cobbler, 112, 481. 
Shirts, to Cut and Make, 4S1. 
Shoe-blacking, 36. 
Shoes (See Boots). 
Shoulder, Bandage for, 16. 

Dislocation of, 161. 
Shower-bath, 19. 
Shrewsbury Cake, 67. 
Shrimps, 484. 

Potted, 485. 

Sauce, 466. 

Stewed, 485. 
Sickness {See Children, Convales- 
cence, Diet, Fever, Infants, 
Nursing, Sick-room, and 
each disease by its name). 
Sick-room, 485. 
Silk, 486. 

Cleaning, 486. 

Keeping, 486. 

Renovating, 486. 

Removing Grease-spots, 486. 
Wrinkles, 486. 
Silk Stockings, to Wash, 513. 
Sillabub (5.-^ "Syllabub). 
Silver Cake, 67. 

Silver-plating {See Plated Ware). 
Silver-ware, 486. 

Cleaning, 4S7. 

Plate Powder, 487. 
Sinks, 4S7. 
Sirup {See Syrup). 
Sitz Bath, 487. 
Skate, 488. 

Skeleton, the Human, 488. 
Skewers, 488. 
Skirts, 488. 
Skylark {See Lark). 
Slapjacks, 489. 
Slaw, Cold, 489. 

Hot, 489. 
Sleep, 489. 

of Infants, 306. 
Sleeplessness, 491. 
Sling, Whiskey, 589. 



Small-pox, 490, 553. 
Smelling-salts, 492. 
Smells {See Deodorizers). 
Smelts, 493. 
Smoked Beef, 23. 
Smoke-tree, 493. 

Smoking Chimneys {See Chim- 
ney). 
Snake-bites, 493. 
Snipe, 494. 

Snow-bunting {See Ortolan). 
Snow-drop, 494. 
Snow Pudding, 435. 
Soap, 494. 

Bar or Yellow, 494. 

Castile, 494. 

Glycerine, 494. 

Hard, 494. 

Myrtle, 495. 

Shaving, 480. 

Soft, 495. 

White or Curd, 495. 

W'indsor, 495. 
Soap-saver, 495. 
Soda, 495, 179. 

Acetate of, 495. 

Bicarbonate of, 495. 

Biscuit, 34. 

Chloride of, 496. 

Chlorinated, 496. 

Citro-tartrate of, 496. 

Hyposulphite of, 495. 

Phosphate of, 495. 

Sulphate of, 495. 

Sulphite of, 495. 
Soda-water, 496. 
Sofa Bedstead, 22. 
Soft-shell Crab, 129. 
Solanum, 496. 
Sole, 496. 
Solution, 496. 
Somlai Wine, 297. 
Sonoma Wines, 6. 
Sopronyi Wine, 297. 
Sora {See Rail). 

Sorbet {See Punch and Sherbet). 
Sore Eyes {See Ophthalmia). 
Sore Throat, 496. 

after Scarlet Fever, 469. 
Sorghum, 497. 
Sorrel, 497. 

Soup, 506. 
Soubise Sauce, 466. 
Souchong Tea, 525. 
Soufde, 495, 369. 
Soup, 497. 

Apple, 499. 

Artichoke, 499. 

Asparagus, 499. 

Bean, 499. 

Beef, 499. 
" Brown, 499. 

Bouillabaisse, 500 

Bouillon, 500. 

Calf's Head, 501. 

Carrot, 501. 

Chestnut, 501. 

Chicken, 50I. 

Cocoanut, 501. 

Digester, 498. 

Eel, 501. 

Fish, 501. 



Soup (continued), Giblet, 502. 

Gravy, 502. 

Gumbo, 502. 

Hare, 502. 

Hasty, 502. 

Jenny Lind's, 503. 

Julienne, 503. 

Lobster, 503. 

Macaroni, 503. 

Mock-turtle, 503. 

Mulligatawney, 504. 

Mutton, 504. 

Ox-cheek, 504. 

Ox-tail, 504. 

Oyster, 505. 

Palestine, 505. 

Parsnip, 505. 

Peas, 505. 

Potato, 506. 

Pot-au-feu, 415. 

Rabbit, 506. 

Rice, 506. 

Sago, 506. 

Sorrel, 506. 

Stock, 513. 

Tapioca, 506. 

Tomato, 506. 

Turkey, 507. 

Turnip, 507. 

Turtle, 507. 

Veal, 507. 

Vegetables, 507. 

Venison, 507. 

Vermicelli, 507. 

White, 508. 
Sour-krout {See Sauer-kraut). 
Souse, 410, 508. 
Soy, 508. 

Spanish Fritters, 218. 
Spanish Mackerel {See Mackerel). 
Spanish Pufts, 436. 
Sparkling Mead, 347. 
Spasm, 508. 
Spavin, 269. 
Spectacles, 508. 
Spermaceti, 509. 
Spice-bush, 509. 
Spice Cakes, 67. 
Spices, 509. 

Allspice, 44. 

Cayenne, 90. 

Cinnamon, 106. 

Cloves, 112. 

Ginger, 244. 

Mace, 341. 

Mustard, 359. 

Nutmegs, 366. 
• Pepper, 388. 
Spinach, 509. 
Spirea, 510. 
Spirit Lamp, 323. 
Spirits, 510. 
Splints, 269. 
Sponge, 510. 

Bath, 19. 

Poultice, 510. 
Sponge Cake, 67. 
Spongecake Pudding, 435. 
Sponge Gingerbread, 64. 
Sprains, 510. 

in Horses, 270. 
Sprats, 510. 



INDEX. 



649 



Spring Bill of Fare, 32. 
Springs for Beds, 21. 
Sprouts, 510. 
Spruce-beer, 29. 
Squash, 510. 

Pudding, 435. 
Squill) 511, iSo. 
Squirrel, 511. 

Squirrel Cups {See Hepatica). 
Staining, 511. 

Bone, Horn, or Ivory, 511. 

Grasses, 511. 

Metals, 511. 

Wood, 511. 
Stains, 511. 

Acid, 511. 

Alkaline, 511. 

Bleaching Powder, 511. 

Fruit, 511. 

Ink, 311. 

Mildew on Cotton, 511. 

Milk, 511. 

Nitrate of Silver, 511. 

Paint, 511. 

Spots, 511. 

Tar, 511. 

Wine, 511. 
Staircase, the, 282. 
Starch, 512. 
Starching, 579. 
Steam Cooker {See Cooker). 
Steaming, 512. 
Stearine, 512. 
Stewing, rationale of, 512. 
Steinberger Wine, 446. 
Stiff-neck, 363. 
Stilton Cheese, 95. 
Stimulants, 513. 
Stings, 513. 

Stinks {See Deodorizers). 
Stock,'5i3. 
Stockfish {See Hake). 
Stockings, Silk, to Wash, 513. 
Stomach, bleeding at the, 38. 
Stomach-pump, 513. 
Stove-blacking, 36. 
Stoves, Closed, 574. 

Franklin, 573. 

Gas, 576. 

Open, 574. 
Strainers, 514. 
Stramonium, 514. 
Strangulation {See Choking). 
Strawberry, 514. 

Chantilly Basket, 514. 

Compote, 117. 

Ice-cream, 302. 

Jam, 313. 

Jelly, 317- 

Omelette, 369. 

Pie, 399. 

Preserves, 423. 

Sherbet, 48 1. 

Short-cake, 68. 

Vinegar, 564. 

Water-ice, 303. 
String-beans, 20. 
Strychnine, 515. 
Stuartia, 515. 
Stucco, 515. 

Student Lamp {See German Stu- 
dent Lamp). 



Stuffings, 515. 

Bread-crumbs, 515. 
Chestnut, 515. 

Egg Balls, 515. 

Forcemeat Balls, 515. 

Lobster, 515. 

Onion and Sage, 515. 

Oyster, 516. 

Sausage, 516. 

Suet, 516. 
Sturgeon, 516. 

Steak, 516. 
Stye, 516. 
Styptics, 516. 
Succory (^^v Chicory). 
Succotash, 516. 
Sucker, 516. 
Sucking-pig {See Pig). 
Sudorifics, 517. 
Suedoise of Peaches, 386. 
Suet, 517. 

Dumpling, 182. 

Pudding, 435. 

Stuffing, 516. 
Sugar, 517. 

Beer, 29. 

Cake, 68. 

Candy, 74. 

Cookies, 123. 

Drops, 68. 

Gingerbread, 64. 
Sugar Berry {See Huckleberry). 
Sugar-cane, 517. 
Sulphur, 517. 
Sulphuric Acid, 518, 173. 
Sulphurous Acid, 518. 
Sultana Pomade, 409. 
Sumach, Poison, 408. 
Summer Bill of Fare, 32. 
Sunderland Pudding, 435. 
Sunstroke, 518. 
Supper and Tea, 518. 
Swan, 518. 
Swansdown, 518. 
Sweetbreads, 519. 

Broiled, 519. 

Fricasseed, 519. 

Fried, 519. 

Roast, 519. 

Stewed, 519. 
Sweet Brier {See Eglantine). 
Sweet Herbs {See Herbs). 
Sweet Marjoram {See Marjoram) 
Sweet Potato {See Potato). 
Swimming, Hints on, 519. 
Swiss Cheeses, 95. 
Syllabub, 520. 

Birthday, 520. 

Posset, 520. 

Solid, 520. 

Whipped, 520. 
Syringa {See Lilac). 
Syringes, 521. 
Syrup, 521. 

Almond, 5. 

Apple, 521. 

Blackberry, 35. 

Currant, 521. 

Lemon, 521. 

Orange, 372, 521. 

Pear, 521. 

Pineapple, 521. 



Szamarodner Wine, 299. 
Szegszardi Wine, 299. 



Table {See Dinner and Furniture). 
Table-cloth, Woolen, to Wash, 

521. 
Taffeta, 522. 
Taffy, 74. 

Tainted Meat {See Decomposi- 
tion). 
Tallow, 522. 

Candles, 72. 
Talma, 106. 
Tamarind, 522. 

Whey, 589. 
Tannin, 522. 
Tansy, 522. 
Tapestry Carpets, 81. 
Tape-worm, 522. 
Tapioca, 523. 

Custard, 137. 

Jelly, 319. 

Pudding, 435. 

Soup, 506. 
Tar, 523. 

Stains, 511. 
Tarlatan, 524. 
Tarragon, 524. 

Vinegar, 564. 
Tartan, 404. 

Tartar Emetic {See Antimony). 
Tartarian Honeysuckles, 265. 
Tai-taric Acid, 524, 173. 
Tartar Mustard, 360. 
Tartar Sauce, 466. 
Tarts, 524. 

Apple, 524. 

Apricot, 524. 

Barberry, 524. 

Blackberry, 524. 

Cranberry, 524, 

Cream, 524. 

Currant, 524. 

Damson, 524. 

Gooseberry, 524. 

Lemon, 525. 

Orange, 525. 

Raspberry, 525. 

Rhubarb, 525. 
Tartlets, 525. 
Tatting, 525. 
Tautog {See Blackfish). 
Tea. the Meal {See Supper). 
Tea, 525. 

Apple, 8. 

Beef, 26. 

Black, 525. 

Camomile, 70. 

Catnip, 88. 

Cranberry, 130. 

Flaxseed, 204. 

Green, 525. 

Linseed, 335. 

to Make, 526. 

.Sassafras, 462. 
Tea Cakes, 68. 
Teal, 526. 
Tea-pots, 526. 
Tea Roses, 452. 
Teats, Sore (in Cow), 128. 



650 



INDEX. 



Teeth, Structure and Care of the, 
526. 

Decay of the, 527. 

Toothache, 528. 

Toothbrushes, 530. 

Toothpicks, 530. 

Tooth-powders, 530, 536. 

Tooth-washes, 530, 536. 

Ulcerated Teeth, 529. 
Teething, 307. 
Tender, in Law, 329. 
Terrapin {Sec Soups and Turtle). 
Tetanus, 530. 
Tetenyi Wine, 299. 
Tetter, 532. 
Thermometer, 532. 
Thigh, fractured, 215. 
Thread-worms, 596. 
Three-ply Carpets, 82. 
Throat {See Sore Throat). 
Thrush, 532. 

in Horses, 270. 
Thumb, dislocation of, 162. 
Thyme, 533. 
Tick, 533. 
Tiffany, 533. 
Tiger-flower, 533. 
Tiles, 533. 

Timbale of Macaroni, 341. 
Tincture, 541. 
Tinware, 541. 

to Clean, 541. 
Toast, 533. 

Anchovy, 7. 

Buttered, 534. 

Cider, 534. 

Cream or Milk, 534. 

Dry, 533- 

Egg, 534- 

Water, 534. 
Toe-nails, In-growing, 534. 
Toffy (.S-^^ Taffy). 
Tokay Wine, 297. 
Tolu, Balsam of, 14. 
Tomato, 534. 

Baked, 534. 

Broiled, 535. 

Canned, 535. 

Catsup, 8g. 

Pickles, 393. 

Pie, 399. 

Preserves, 421. 

Sauce, 466. 

Scolloped, 535. 

Soup, 506. 

Stewed, 535. 

Stuffed, 535. 
Tom-cod, 535. 
Tongue, 535, 26. 

Pickled, 535. 

Smoked, 535. 

Stewed, 535. 
Tonics, 536. 

for the Hair, 257. 
Tonka Bean, 534. 
Toothache, 528. 
Tooth-brushes, 530. 
Tooth-picks, 530. 
Tooth-powders, 530, 536. 
Tooth-washes, 530, 536. 
Tortoise, 536. 
Toucan, 381. 



Toulon Capers, 76. 

Tragacanth, 536. 

Trailing Arbutus {See Arbutus). 

Train-oil, 536. 

Traps, for Drains {See Drainage). 

Treacle {See Molasses). 

Trees about the House, 272. 

Trichina Spiralis, 536. 

Trifles, 537. 

Apple, 537. 

Brandy, 537. 

Fruit, 537. 

Gooseberry, 537. 
Tripe, 26. 
Tripoli, 537. 
Trituration, 537. 
Trout, 537. 
Trufiles, 537. 
Trusses, 538. 
Trussing, 538. 

Needles, 539. 
Tubercles {See Consumption). 
Tuberose, 540. 
Tulips, 540. 

Double, 540. 

Parrot, 541. 
Tumors, 541. 
Tunny-fish, 541. 
Turbot, 541. 
Turkey, 541. 

Boned, 542. 

Carving, 86. 

Keeping, 419. 

Patties, 384. 

Ragout, 542. 

Soup, 507. 

Stewed, 542. 
Turkish Bath, 542. 
Turkish Carpets, 82. 
Turkish Pillaw, 193. 
Turnip, 543. 

Sauce, 466. 

Soup, 507. 

Stewed in Butter, 543. 
Turpentine, 543, 180. 

Liniment, 177. 
Turtle, 544. 

Dried, 544. 

Green, 544. 

Soup, 507. 

Steaks, 544. 

Stewed, 544. 
Turtle-dove {See Dove). 
Tutti-frutti, 544. 
Twankay Tea, 525. 
Tweed, 544. 
Twill, 544- 
Typhoid Fever, 544. 
Typhus Fever, 546. 

u 

Ulcers, 547. 

Chronic, 548. 

Inflammatory, 547- 

Varicose, 553. 
Unbolted Flour, 548. 
Undergarments, Women's, 548. 

Chemise, 548. 

Drawers, 549. 
Unguents {See Ointments). 
Unleavened Bread, 44. 



Upholstery, 147. 

Urinals, 551. 

Urine, Suppression of {See Diu^ 

retics). 
Usquebaugh, 551. 

V 

Vaccination, 551. 

Re- vaccination, 552. 
Valerian, 553, 180. 

Tincture of, 180. 

Valerianic Acid, 553. 

Valerianate of Soda, 553. 
Vanilla, 553. 

Ice-cream, 302. 

Sauce, 428. 
Vapor Bath, 553. 
Varicose Veins, 553. 
Variola {See Small-pox). 
Varioloid, 554. 
Varnish, 554. 

Carriage, 554. 
I Copal, 554. 

Furniture, 554. 

Mastic, 554. 

Shellac, 554. 

White, 554. 
Varnishing, 554. 
Veal, 554. 

Balls, 193. 

Blanquette of, 555. 

Breast of, Stuffed, 555. 

Broth, 50. 

Cakes, 193. 

Cutlets, 555. 

Fillet of, 556. 

Fricandeau of, 555. 

Fricasseed, 555. 

Gravy, 253. 

Hashed, 556. 

Minced, 556. 

Neck of, a la Creme, 556. 

Olives, 193. 

Patties, 382. 

Pie, 556. 

Pot-pie, 556. 

Shoulder of. Stuffed, 556. 

Soup, 507. 

Steak, 557. 

Stewed, 557. 
Vegetables, 557. 

Artichoke, 10. 

Asparagus, 11. 

Beans, 20. 

Beets, 29. 

Broccoli, 48. 

Brussels Sprouts, 51. 

Bushbean, 56. 

Cabbage, 58. 

Carrots, 82. 

Cauliflower, 89. 

Celery, 90. 

Corn, 125. 

Cucumber, 133. 

Egg-plant, 190. 

Endive, 192. 

Eschalots, 195. 

Garlic, 238. 

Gherkins, 244. 

Kale, 317. 

Lettuce, 330. 



Vegetables (con.), Nasturtium, '563 
Okra, 368. 
Onions, 369. 
Oyster-plant, 375. 
Parsley, 380. 
Parsnip, 380. 
Peas, 382. 
Potatoes, 413., 
Pumpkin, 436. 
Purslane, 438. 
Radishes, 442. 
Rhubarb, 446. 
Rice, 447. 
Salsify, 460. 
Savoy, 468. 
Sea-kale, 471. 
Shallots, 479. 
Spinach, 509. 
Sprouts, 510. 
Squash, 510. 
Tomato, 534. 
Turnip, 543. 
Water-cress, 583. 
Yams, 597. 
Veils, to Clean, 557. 
Vein-bleeding, to stop, I. 
Veloute Sauce, 467. 
Velvet, 557. 
Velvet Carpets, 82. 
Velveteen, 558. 
Venetian Fritters, 218. 
Venison, 558. 

Cutlets, 558. 
Hash, 558. 
Pasty, 558. 
Pie, 558. 
Soup, 507. 
Steaks, 559. 
Stewed, 559. 
Ventilation, Principles and Modes 

of, 559- 
Veranda, 287. 
Verbena, 562. 

Lemon, 330. 
Vermicelli, 563. 
Pudding, 436. 
Soup, 507. 
Vermin {Si'e Ants, Bugs, Cock- 
roaches, Flies, Mice, Rats, 
and Roaches). 
Veronica, 563. 
Vertigo, 563. 

Veuve Clicquot (See Champagne). 
Villanyi Wine, 297. 
Vinegar, 563. 

Blackberry, 35. 
Cayenne, 563. 
Celery, 563. 
Chili, 563. 
Cucumber, 563. 
Garlic, 238. 
Horse-radish, 564. 
Mint, 564. 
Onion, 564. 
Raspberry, 443. 
Shallot, 564. 
Strawberry, 564. 
Tarragon, 564. 
Violet Powder, 564. 
Virginia Creeper, 564. 
Virginia Port Wine, 5. 
Visontai Wine, 297. 



INDEX. 

Volatile Liniment, 335. 
Vols-au-Vent, 193, 564. 

A la Creme, 565. 

Fruit, 565. 
Vomiting, 564. 

w 

Wafers, 565. 

Rice, 565. 
Waffles. 565. 

Quick, 565. 

Rice, 565. 

" and Indian ?ileal, 566. 
Waist, Dress, to Cut and Make, 
■566. 

Blouse, 570. 
Wakefulness {See Sleeplessness). 
Walking, 196. 
Walnuts, 572. 

Candy, 75. 

Catsup, 89. 

Pickle, 393. 

Salad, 457. 
Walnut-wood, 231. . 
Wardian Case, 572. 
Warming of Houses, 572. 

Furnaces, 575. 

Grates, 574. 

Heat-governor, 576. 

Hot-water Pipes, 576. 

Open or Wood Fires, 572. 

Stoves, Closed, 574. 
" Franklin, 573. 
" Gas, 576. 
Open, 574. 
Warming-pan. 578. 
Warranty, in Law, 330. 
Warts, 578. 

on Cows, 128. 
Washing, 578. 

Blueing, 579. 

Counterpane, 127. 

Doubtful Colors, 579. 

Flannel, 579. 

Ironing, 579. 

Lace, 579. 

Soap, 579. 

Starching, 579. 

Tablecloth, 521. 

Woolen Goods, 579. 
Washington Cake, 68. 
Watch, Care of, 579. 
Water, 580. 

Cooling without Ice, 581. 

Distilled, 581. 

Filters, 581. 

Tests for Impurities, 582. 
Water Back, 5S2. 
Water-bath, 13. 
Water-closets, 583. 
Water-cress, 583. 
Water-cure {See Hydropathy). 
Water Ices, 302. 

Cherry-water, 302. 

Currant-water, 302. 

Gooseberry-water, 302. 

Lemon-water, 302. 

Orange-water, 302. 

Pineapple-water, 303. 

Raspberry-water, 303. 

Strawberry-water, 303. 



651 

Water-melon, 583. 

Preserves, 423. 
Water-meters, 350. 
Waterproof, 584. 
Wax, 584. 

Candles, 72. 

Cement, 91. 
Weak-fish, 584. 
Weaning Infants, 308. 
I Webbing, 584. 
! Webster Cake, 68. 
! Wedding Cake, 68. 
I Wedge wood Mortar, 584. 
I Weigela, 584. 
Weights and Measures, Tables 
of, 5S5. 

Metric System, 586. 
Welcome Guest's Pudding, 436. 
Welsh Rarebit, 588. 
Wen, 58S. 
Wet Nurse, 588. 
Whaleboiie, 589. 
Wheat, 589. 

Blanc-mange, 36. 
Whey, 589. 

Acidulous, 30. 

Buttermilk, 57. 

Nitre, 31. 

Tamarind, 589. 

Wine, 589. 
Whips, 589. 

Colored, 589. 
Whiskey, 5 89. 

Cocktail, 589 

Sling, 589. 
White Cake, 68. 
White-fish, 5S9. 
White-lead, 590. 
Whiting, 590. 
Whiting (Chalk), gr. 
White Klountain Cake, 69. 
Whites {See Menstruation). 
Whitewash, 590. 
Whitlow {See Bone Felon). 
Whooping-cough, 590. 
Whortleberry (See Huckleberry). 
Wild Endive {See Chicory). 
Wills, Law of, 328. 
Wilton Carpets, 82. 
Window-boxes, 592. 
Window-curtains, 135, 147. 
Window-gardening, 591. 

Exposure, 591. 

Insects, 592. 

Manuring, 591. 

Pots, 591. 

Potting, 591. 

Pruning, 592. 

Soil, 591. 

Temperature, 591. 

Ventilation, 592. 

Washing, 592. 

Watering, 592. 
Windows, 287. 

Bay, 283, 2S5. 

Cleaning, no, 438. 

Curtains, 135, 147, 230. 
Windsor Soap, 495. 
Wine, 592. 

Adulteration of, 593. 

Alcohol in, 592. 

American, 5. 



652 

Wine (continued), Bordeaux, 41 
Bottling, 594. 
Burgundy, 54. 
Cake, 69. 
California, 6. 
Catawba, 87. 
Champagne, 91. 
Claret, 108. 
Cooling, 123. 
Cradle, 130. 
Currant, 134. 
Damson, 142. 
Decanting, 143. 
Elderberry, igi. 
Elderflovver, 191. 
Fining, 594. 
Ginger, 245. 
Gooseberry, 249. 
Grape, 252. 
Hock, 263, 6. 
Hungarian, 296. 

Jelly, 317. 
Keeping, 594. 
Madeira, 343. 
Medoc, 347. 
Moselle, 355. 
Orange, 372. 
Parsnip, 382. 
Port, 413. 
Raspberry, 443. 
Rhine, 446. 



INDEX. 

Wine (continued), Sauce, 428. 

Selecting, 593. 

Serving, 594. 

Sherry, 48 1. 

Stains, 511. 

Whey, 589- 
Wine-cellar, 595. 
Wineglasses at Dinner, 157. 
Winkles {See Periwinkles). 
Winter Bill of Fare, 32. 
Winter Cress {See Cress). 
Wintergreen, 595. 
Wistaria, 595. 
Wood, 511. 

Fires, 572. 

Stains for, 511. 

Varieties of, 231. 
Woodbine, 595. 
Wood Carpets, 82. 
Woodchuck, 595. 
Wood-cock, 595. 

Carving, 85. 

Roast, 595. 
Woodwork in Houses, 147. 
Wool, 596. 
Worms, 596. 

in Horses, 270. 
Tape-worms, 522. 
Thread-worms, 596. 
Worsted, 596. 
Wounds {See Bruises and Cuts). 



Wringers, 596. 

Wrist, dislocation of, 162. 

Writing-ink {See Ink). 



Yacht Dumpling, 182. 
Yam, 597. 
Yeast, 597. 

Brewer's or Distillery, 597. 

Compressed, 597. 

Hard, 597. 

Hop, 597. 

Patent, 597. 

Potato, 597. 
Yellow Birds, 449. 
Yellow Fever, 597. . 
Yellow Gum, 598. 
Yorkshire Biscuits, 34. 

Pudding, 436. 
Young Wife's Pudding, 436. 



Zeltigner, 355. 
Zinc, 598. 

Chloride of, 180, 598. 

Sulphate of, 180, 598. 
Zinc-white, 598. 
Zinnia, 598. 
Zonale Geraniums, 242. 



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